1
|
Ewart H, Tickle P, Nudds R, Sellers W, Crossley D, Codd J. Mediterranean Spur-Thighed Tortoises (Testudo graeca) Have Optimal Speeds at Which They Can Minimise the Metabolic Cost of Transport, on a Treadmill. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11071052. [PMID: 36101430 PMCID: PMC9312080 DOI: 10.3390/biology11071052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Understanding the energy that animals use to move around is important, as it can shed light on how they make decisions about where and how to locomote. Tortoises are unique among vertebrates in having a shell, which influences almost all aspects of their biology. Here, we experimentally quantified the metabolic cost of transport in Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises walking on a treadmill while also quantifying the kinematics of their movement. We found, in line with previous studies, that tortoises move more efficiently than predicted and present the first data demonstrating a curvilinear cost of transport over their speed range. We conclude that tortoises have an optimum speed at which they move to minimise their metabolic cost of locomotion. Abstract Tortoises are famed for their slow locomotion, which is in part related to their herbivorous diet and the constraints imposed by their protective shells. For most animals, the metabolic cost of transport (CoT) is close to the value predicted for their body mass. Testudines appear to be an exception to this rule, as previous studies indicate that, for their body mass, they are economical walkers. The metabolic efficiency of their terrestrial locomotion is explainable by their walking gait biomechanics and the specialisation of their limb muscle physiology, which embodies a predominance of energy-efficient slow-twitch type I muscle fibres. However, there are only two published experimental reports of the energetics of locomotion in tortoises, and these data show high variability. Here, Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) were trained to walk on a treadmill. Open-flow respirometry and high-speed filming were simultaneously used to measure the metabolic cost of transport and to quantify limb kinematics, respectively. Our data support the low cost of transport previously reported and demonstrate a novel curvilinear relationship to speed in Testudines, suggesting tortoises have an energetically optimal speed range over which they can move in order to minimise the metabolic cost of transport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather Ewart
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (H.E.); (R.N.)
| | - Peter Tickle
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK;
| | - Robert Nudds
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (H.E.); (R.N.)
| | - William Sellers
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK;
| | - Dane Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203-5017, USA;
| | - Jonathan Codd
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (H.E.); (R.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44(0)-1612755474
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dickinson E, Hanna CS, Fischer HM, Davoli EC, Currier AA, Granatosky MC. Locomotor energetics in the Indonesian blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua gigas) with implications for the cost of belly-dragging in early tetrapods. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 337:329-336. [PMID: 34914867 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During the last decade, biomechanical and kinematic studies have suggested that a belly-dragging gait may have represented a critical locomotor stage during tetrapod evolution. This form of locomotion is hypothesized to facilitate animals to move on land with relatively weaker pectoral muscles. The Indonesian blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua gigas) is known for its belly-dragging locomotion and is thought to employ many of the same spatiotemporal gait characteristics of stem tetrapods. Conversely, the savannah monitor (Varanus exanthematicus) employs a raised quadrupedal gait. Thus, differences in the energetic efficiency of locomotion between these taxa may elucidate the role of energetic optimization in driving gait shifts in early tetrapods. Five Tiliqua and four Varanus were custom-fitted for 3D printed helmets that, combined with a Field Metabolic System, were used to collect open-flow respirometry data including O2 consumption, CO2 production, water vapor pressure, barometric pressure, room temperature, and airflow rates. Energetic data were collected for each species at rest, and when walking at three different speeds. Energetic consumption in each taxon increased at greater speeds. On a per-stride basis, energetic costs appear similar between taxa. However, significant differences were observed interspecifically in terms of net cost of transport. Overall, energy expenditure was ~20% higher in Tiliqua at equivalent speeds, suggesting that belly-dragging does impart a tangible energetic cost during quadrupedal locomotion. This cost, coupled with the other practical constraints of belly-dragging (e.g., restricting top-end speed and reducing maneuverability in complex terrains) may have contributed to the adoption of upright quadrupedal walking throughout tetrapod locomotor evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Christopher S Hanna
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Hannah M Fischer
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Davoli
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Allen A Currier
- New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| | - Michael C Granatosky
- Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA.,Center for Biomedical Innovation, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Marmol-Guijarro A, Nudds R, Folkow L, Lees J, Codd J. Does posture explain the kinematic differences in a grounded running gait between male and female Svalbard rock ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta hyperborea) moving on snow? Polar Biol 2021; 44:1141-1152. [PMID: 34720374 PMCID: PMC8550507 DOI: 10.1007/s00300-021-02872-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The majority of locomotor research is conducted on treadmills and few studies attempt to understand the differences between this and animals moving in the wild. For example, animals may adjust their gait kinematics or limb posture, to a more compliant limb, to increase stability of locomotion to prevent limb failure or falling on different substrates. Here, using video recordings, we compared locomotor parameters (speed range, stride length, stride frequency, stance duration, swing duration and duty factor) of female Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) moving in the wild over snow to previous treadmill-based research. We also compared the absolute and body size (body mass and limb length)-corrected values of kinematic parameters to published data from males to look for any sex differences across walking and grounded running gaits. Our findings indicate that the kinematics of locomotion are largely conserved between the field and laboratory in that none of the female gaits were drastically affected by moving over snow, except for a prolonged swing phase at very slow walking speeds, likely due to toe dragging. Comparisons between the sexes indicate that the differences observed during a walking gait are likely due to body size. However, sexual dimorphism in body size could not explain the disparate grounded running kinematics of the female and male ptarmigan, which might be linked to a more crouched posture in females. Our findings provide insight into how males and females moving in situ may use different strategies to alleviate the effects of a variable substrate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andres Marmol-Guijarro
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Robert Nudds
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Lars Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - John Lees
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Östergötland Sweden
| | - Jonathan Codd
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mármol-Guijarro A, Nudds R, Folkow L, Sellers W, Falkingham P, Codd J. The Influence of Snow Properties on Speed and Gait Choice in the Svalbard Rock Ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta hyperborea). Integr Org Biol 2021; 3:obab021. [PMID: 34405129 PMCID: PMC8363982 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obab021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Substrate supportiveness is linked to the metabolic cost of locomotion, as it influences the depth to which the foot of a moving animal will sink. As track depth increases, animals typically reduce their speed to minimize any potential energetic imbalance. Here, we examine how self-selected speed in the Svalbard rock ptarmigan is affected by snow supportiveness and subsequent footprint depth measured using thin-blade penetrometry and 3D photogrammetry, respectively. Our findings indicate that snow supportiveness and footprint depth are poor predictors of speed (r 2 = 0.149) and stride length (r 2 = 0.106). The ptarmigan in our study rarely sunk to depths beyond the intertarsal joint, regardless of the speed, suggesting that at this relatively shallow depth any increased cost is manageable. 3D reconstructions also indicate that the ptarmigan may exploit the compressive nature of snow to generate thrust during stance, as a trend toward greater foot rotations in deeper footprints was found. It remains unclear whether the Svalbard ptarmigan are deliberately avoiding unsupportive snowy substrates. However, if they do, these results would be consistent with the idea that animals should choose routes that minimize energy costs of locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Mármol-Guijarro
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester M139PL, UK
| | - R Nudds
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester M139PL, UK
| | - L Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromso, Hansine Hansens veg 18, Tromso, 9007, Norway
| | - W Sellers
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester M139PL, UK
| | - P Falkingham
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom St, Liverpool L33AF, UK
| | - J Codd
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Oxford Rd, Manchester M139PL, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marmol-Guijarro A, Nudds R, Folkow L, Codd J. Examining the accuracy of trackways for predicting gait selection and speed of locomotion. Front Zool 2020; 17:17. [PMID: 32514280 PMCID: PMC7254686 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-020-00363-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Using Froude numbers (Fr) and relative stride length (stride length: hip height), trackways have been widely used to determine the speed and gait of an animal. This approach, however, is limited by the ability to estimate hip height accurately and by the lack of information related to the substrate properties when the tracks were made, in particular for extinct fauna. By studying the Svalbard ptarmigan moving on snow, we assessed the accuracy of trackway predictions from a species-specific model and two additional Fr based models by ground truthing data extracted from videos as the tracks were being made. Results The species-specific model accounted for more than 60% of the variability in speed for walking and aerial running, but only accounted for 19% when grounded running, likely due to its stabilizing role while moving faster over a changing substrate. The error in speed estimated was 0–35% for all gaits when using the species-specific model, whereas Fr based estimates produced errors up to 55%. The highest errors were associated with the walking gait. The transition between pendular to bouncing gaits fell close to the estimates using relative stride length described for other extant vertebrates. Conversely, the transition from grounded to aerial running appears to be species specific and highly dependent on posture and substrate. Conclusion Altogether, this study highlights that using trackways to derive predictions on the locomotor speed and gait, using stride length as the only predictor, are problematic as accurate predictions require information from the animal in question.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Nudds
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Lars Folkow
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jonathan Codd
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Andrada E, Blickhan R, Ogihara N, Rode C. Low leg compliance permits grounded running at speeds where the inverted pendulum model gets airborne. J Theor Biol 2020; 494:110227. [PMID: 32142807 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2020.110227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Animals typically switch from grounded (no flight phases) to aerial running at dimensionless speeds u^ < 1. But some birds use grounded running far above u^ = 1, which puzzles biologists because the inverted pendulum becomes airborne at this speed. Here, we combine computer experiments using the spring-mass model with locomotion data from small birds, macaques and humans to understand the relationship between leg function (stiffness, angle of attack), locomotion speed and gait. With our model, we found three-humped ground reaction force profiles for slow grounded running speeds. The minimal single-humped grounded running speed is u^ = 0.4. This speed value roughly coincides with the transition speed from vaulting to bouncing mechanics in bipeds. Maximal grounded running speed in the model is not limited. In experiments, animals changed from grounded to aerial running at dimensionless contact time around 1. Considering these real-world contact times reduces the solution space drastically, but experimental data fit well. The model still predicts maximal grounded running speed u^ > 1 for low stiffness values used by birds but decreases below u^ = 1 for increasing stiffness. For stiffer legs used in human walking and running, periodic grounded running vanishes. At speeds at which birds and macaques change to aerial running, we found periodic aerial running to intersect grounded running. This could explain why animals can alternate between grounded and aerial running at the same speed and identical leg parameters. Compliant legs enable different gaits and speeds with similar leg parameters, stiff legs require parameter adaptations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Andrada
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Germany.
| | | | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Christian Rode
- Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Germany; Department of Sports and Motion Science, University of Stuttgart, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Granatosky MC, Bryce CM, Hanna J, Fitzsimons A, Laird MF, Stilson K, Wall CE, Ross CF. Inter-stride variability triggers gait transitions in mammals and birds. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:20181766. [PMID: 30963900 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Speed-related gait transitions occur in many animals, but it remains unclear what factors trigger gait changes. While the most widely accepted function of gait transitions is that they reduce locomotor costs, there is no obvious metabolic trigger signalling animals when to switch gaits. An alternative approach suggests that gait transitions serve to reduce locomotor instability. While there is evidence supporting this in humans, similar research has not been conducted in other species. This study explores energetics and stride variability during the walk-run transition in mammals and birds. Across nine species, energy savings do not predict the occurrence of a gait transition. Instead, our findings suggest that animals trigger gait transitions to maintain high locomotor rhythmicity and reduce unstable states. Metabolic efficiency is an important benefit of gait transitions, but the reduction in dynamic instability may be the proximate trigger determining when those transitions occur.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Granatosky
- 1 Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago , Chicago, IL , USA
| | - Caleb M Bryce
- 2 Botswana Predator Conservation Trust , Maun , Botswana
| | - Jandy Hanna
- 3 Biomedical Sciences, West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine , Lewisburg, WV , USA
| | - Aidan Fitzsimons
- 4 Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University , Durham, NC , USA
| | - Myra F Laird
- 1 Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago , Chicago, IL , USA
| | - Kelsey Stilson
- 1 Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago , Chicago, IL , USA
| | - Christine E Wall
- 4 Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University , Durham, NC , USA
| | - Callum F Ross
- 1 Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago , Chicago, IL , USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Terrestrial locomotion of the Svalbard rock ptarmigan: comparing field and laboratory treadmill studies. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11451. [PMID: 31391515 PMCID: PMC6685983 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-47989-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Research into the terrestrial locomotion of birds is often based upon laboratory treadmill experiments. However, it is unclear how transposable these results are for birds moving in the wild. Here, using video recordings, we compared the kinematics of locomotion (stride frequency, stride length, stance phase, swing phase, duty factor) and speed range of Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) under field and laboratory treadmill conditions. Our findings indicate that the kinematics of walking and aerial running are conserved when moving on the treadmill and in the field. Differences, however, were found when grounded running under the two conditions, linked to substrate. Substrate effects were confirmed by analysing trials only moving over very hard snow. In line with laboratory treadmill energetic predictions, wild ptarmigan have a preferred speed during walking and to a lesser extent when aerial running but not when moving with a grounded running gait. The birds were also capable of a higher top speed in the field than that observed during treadmill studies. Our findings demonstrate that laboratory treadmill research provides meaningful information relevant to wild birds while highlighting the importance of understanding the substrate the animals are moving over.
Collapse
|
9
|
Belnap SC, Currea JP, Lickliter R. Prenatal incubation temperature affects neonatal precocial birds' locomotor behavior. Physiol Behav 2019; 206:51-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
|
10
|
Daley MA, Birn-Jeffery A. Scaling of avian bipedal locomotion reveals independent effects of body mass and leg posture on gait. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:221/10/jeb152538. [PMID: 29789347 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.152538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Birds provide an interesting opportunity to study the relationships between body size, limb morphology and bipedal locomotor function. Birds are ecologically diverse and span a large range of body size and limb proportions, yet all use their hindlimbs for bipedal terrestrial locomotion, for at least some part of their life history. Here, we review the scaling of avian striding bipedal gaits to explore how body mass and leg morphology influence walking and running. We collate literature data from 21 species, spanning a 2500× range in body mass from painted quail to ostriches. Using dynamic similarity theory to interpret scaling trends, we find evidence for independent effects of body mass, leg length and leg posture on gait. We find no evidence for scaling of duty factor with body size, suggesting that vertical forces scale with dynamic similarity. However, at dynamically similar speeds, large birds use relatively shorter stride lengths and higher stride frequencies compared with small birds. We also find that birds with long legs for their mass, such as the white stork and red-legged seriema, use longer strides and lower swing frequencies, consistent with the influence of high limb inertia on gait. We discuss the observed scaling of avian bipedal gait in relation to mechanical demands for force, work and power relative to muscle actuator capacity, muscle activation costs related to leg cycling frequency, and considerations of stability and agility. Many opportunities remain for future work to investigate how morphology influences gait dynamics among birds specialized for different habitats and locomotor behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monica A Daley
- Structure and Motion Lab, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Campus, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Aleksandra Birn-Jeffery
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tickle PG, Hutchinson JR, Codd JR. Energy allocation and behaviour in the growing broiler chicken. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4562. [PMID: 29540782 PMCID: PMC5852157 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22604-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Broiler chickens are increasingly at the forefront of global meat production but the consequences of fast growth and selection for an increase in body mass on bird health are an ongoing concern for industry and consumers. To better understand the implications of selection we evaluated energetics and behaviour over the 6-week hatch-to-slaughter developmental period in a commercial broiler. The effect of posture on resting metabolic rate becomes increasingly significant as broilers grow, as standing became more energetically expensive than sitting. The proportion of overall metabolic rate accounted for by locomotor behaviour decreased over development, corresponding to declining activity levels, mean and peak walking speeds. These data are consistent with the inference that broilers allocate energy to activity within a constrained metabolic budget and that there is a reducing metabolic scope for exercise throughout their development. Comparison with similarly sized galliforms reveals that locomotion is relatively energetically expensive in broilers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Tickle
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Jonathan R Codd
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bishop PJ, Clemente CJ, Weems RE, Graham DF, Lamas LP, Hutchinson JR, Rubenson J, Wilson RS, Hocknull SA, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Using step width to compare locomotor biomechanics between extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs and modern obligate bipeds. J R Soc Interface 2018; 14:rsif.2017.0276. [PMID: 28724627 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
How extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs locomoted is a subject of considerable interest, as is the manner in which it evolved on the line leading to birds. Fossil footprints provide the most direct evidence for answering these questions. In this study, step width-the mediolateral (transverse) distance between successive footfalls-was investigated with respect to speed (stride length) in non-avian theropod trackways of Late Triassic age. Comparable kinematic data were also collected for humans and 11 species of ground-dwelling birds. Permutation tests of the slope on a plot of step width against stride length showed that step width decreased continuously with increasing speed in the extinct theropods (p < 0.001), as well as the five tallest bird species studied (p < 0.01). Humans, by contrast, showed an abrupt decrease in step width at the walk-run transition. In the modern bipeds, these patterns reflect the use of either a discontinuous locomotor repertoire, characterized by distinct gaits (humans), or a continuous locomotor repertoire, where walking smoothly transitions into running (birds). The non-avian theropods are consequently inferred to have had a continuous locomotor repertoire, possibly including grounded running. Thus, features that characterize avian terrestrial locomotion had begun to evolve early in theropod history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P J Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia .,School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - C J Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - R E Weems
- Calvert Marine Museum, Solomons, USA.,Paleo Quest, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - D F Graham
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - L P Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - J Rubenson
- College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - R S Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - S A Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia.,School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - R S Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - D G Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.,Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Southport, Queensland, Australia.,School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bishop PJ, Graham DF, Lamas LP, Hutchinson JR, Rubenson J, Hancock JA, Wilson RS, Hocknull SA, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG, Clemente CJ. The influence of speed and size on avian terrestrial locomotor biomechanics: Predicting locomotion in extinct theropod dinosaurs. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192172. [PMID: 29466362 PMCID: PMC5821450 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
How extinct, non-avian theropod dinosaurs moved is a subject of considerable interest and controversy. A better understanding of non-avian theropod locomotion can be achieved by better understanding terrestrial locomotor biomechanics in their modern descendants, birds. Despite much research on the subject, avian terrestrial locomotion remains little explored in regards to how kinematic and kinetic factors vary together with speed and body size. Here, terrestrial locomotion was investigated in twelve species of ground-dwelling bird, spanning a 1,780-fold range in body mass, across almost their entire speed range. Particular attention was devoted to the ground reaction force (GRF), the force that the feet exert upon the ground. Comparable data for the only other extant obligate, striding biped, humans, were also collected and studied. In birds, all kinematic and kinetic parameters examined changed continuously with increasing speed, while in humans all but one of those same parameters changed abruptly at the walk-run transition. This result supports previous studies that show birds to have a highly continuous locomotor repertoire compared to humans, where discrete 'walking' and 'running' gaits are not easily distinguished based on kinematic patterns alone. The influences of speed and body size on kinematic and kinetic factors in birds are developed into a set of predictive relationships that may be applied to extinct, non-avian theropods. The resulting predictive model is able to explain 79-93% of the observed variation in kinematics and 69-83% of the observed variation in GRFs, and also performs well in extrapolation tests. However, this study also found that the location of the whole-body centre of mass may exert an important influence on the nature of the GRF, and hence some caution is warranted, in lieu of further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P. J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - D. F. Graham
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - L. P. Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J. R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - J. Rubenson
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - J. A. Hancock
- Murphy Deming College of Health Sciences, Mary Baldwin University, Staunton, Virginia, United States of America
| | - R. S. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - S. A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - R. S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - D. G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- Innovations in Health Technology, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - C. J. Clemente
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Memtombi Chanu C, Gupta S, Gupta A. Acute toxicity of cadmium in Anisops sardeus (Heteroptera:Notonectidae): Effects on adult and nymphal survival and swimming behavior. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2017; 145:169-175. [PMID: 28734219 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Adult female and male, and final instar nymph of Anisops sardeus (Heteroptera: Notonectidae) were exposed to graded concentrations of cadmium in 96h static-with-renewal acute toxicity tests, which were conducted in dry (March) and wet (May-June) seasons. The 96h LC50 values for instar V nymph, adult female and male were found to be 0.9, 0.59 and 0.51mgL-1 Cd, respectively, in wet season, while these were 26.7 and 20.2mgL-1 Cd for adult female and male, respectively, in dry season. Adult males were most sensitive to Cd, followed by females in both seasons, while highest tolerance in wet season was observed in instar V nymph. There was a steep decline in LC50 values from 24 to 96h in wet season. Besides mortality at higher concentrations of Cd, sublethal effects in terms of reduced 'velocity magnitude' (swimming speed) and mostly increased 'rotation angle' (turning angle) could be discerned at concentrations as low as 0.03mgL-1. The swimming pattern of Cd-exposed nymph and adults were also affected. Based on the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) values, A. sardeus could be designated as a macroconcentrator of Cd (BAF > 2), with highest Cd accumulation in instar V nymph, followed by that in female, and with lowest Cd accumulation in male.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Susmita Gupta
- Department of Ecology & Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar 788011, India
| | - Abhik Gupta
- Department of Ecology & Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar 788011, India.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Belnap SC, Lickliter R. Coordinated movement is influenced by prenatal light experience in bobwhite quail chicks (Colinus virginianus). Behav Brain Res 2017; 327:103-111. [PMID: 28359880 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sensory-motor development begins early during embryogenesis and is influenced by sensory experience. Little is known about the prenatal factors that influence the development of motor coordination. Here we investigated whether and to what extent prenatal light experience can influence the development of motor coordination in bobwhite quail hatchlings. Quail embryos were incubated under four light conditions: no light (dark), 2h of total light (2HR), 6h of total light (6HR), and diffused sunlight (controls). Hatchlings were video recording walking down a runway at three developmental ages (12, 24, and 48h). Videos were assessed for forward locomotion, a measurement of motor coordination, falls, a measurement of motor instability, and motivation to complete the task. We anticipated a linear decline of coordination with a reduction in prenatal light experience and improved coordination with age. Furthermore, as motor coordination becomes more laborious we anticipated motivation to complete the task would decline. However, our findings revealed hatchlings did not uniformly improve with age as expected, nor did the reduction of light result in a linear reduction in motor coordination. Instead, we found a more complex relationship with 6HR and 2HR hatchlings showing distinct patterns of stability and instability. Similarly, we found a reduction in motivation within the 6HR light condition. It appears that prenatal light exposure influences the development of postnatal motor coordination and we discuss these finding in light of neurodevelopmental processes influenced by light experience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Starlie C Belnap
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, United States.
| | - Robert Lickliter
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, United States
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rode C, Sutedja Y, Kilbourne BM, Blickhan R, Andrada E. Minimizing the cost of locomotion with inclined trunk predicts crouched leg kinematics of small birds at realistic levels of elastic recoil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 219:485-90. [PMID: 26643087 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.127910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Small birds move with pronograde trunk orientation and crouched legs. Although the pronograde trunk has been suggested to be beneficial for grounded running, the cause(s) of the specific leg kinematics are unknown. Here we show that three charadriiform bird species (northern lapwing, oystercatcher, and avocet; great examples of closely related species that differ remarkably in their hind limb design) move their leg segments during stance in a way that minimizes the cost of locomotion. We imposed measured trunk motions and ground reaction forces on a kinematic model of the birds. The model was used to search for leg configurations that minimize leg work that accounts for two factors: elastic recoil in the intertarsal joint, and cheaper negative muscle work relative to positive muscle work. A physiological level of elasticity (∼ 0.6) yielded segment motions that match the experimental data best, with a root mean square of angular deviations of ∼ 2.1 deg. This finding suggests that the exploitation of elastic recoil shapes the crouched leg kinematics of small birds under the constraint of pronograde trunk motion. Considering that an upright trunk and more extended legs likely decrease the cost of locomotion, our results imply that the cost of locomotion is a secondary movement criterion for small birds. Scaling arguments suggest that our approach may be utilized to provide new insights into the motion of extinct species such as dinosaurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rode
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07749, Germany
| | - Yefta Sutedja
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07749, Germany
| | - Brandon M Kilbourne
- Institute of Systematic Zoology and Evolutionary Biology with Phyletic Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07743, Germany College for Life Sciences, Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin 19143, Germany
| | - Reinhard Blickhan
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07749, Germany
| | - Emanuel Andrada
- Department of Motion Science, Institute of Sport Science, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07749, Germany Institute of Systematic Zoology and Evolutionary Biology with Phyletic Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena 07743, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kambic RE, Roberts TJ, Gatesy SM. Guineafowl with a twist: asymmetric limb control in steady bipedal locomotion. J Exp Biol 2015; 218:3836-44. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.126193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
In avian bipeds performing steady locomotion, right and left limbs are typically assumed to act out of phase, but with little kinematic disparity. However, outwardly appearing steadiness may harbor previously unrecognized asymmetries. Here, we present marker-based XROMM data showing that guineafowl on a treadmill routinely yaw away from their direction of travel using asymmetrical limb kinematics. Variation is most strongly reflected at the hip joints, where patterns of femoral long-axis rotation closely correlate to degree of yaw divergence. As yaw deviations increase, hip long-axis rotation angles undergo larger excursions and shift from biphasic to monophasic patterns. At large yaw angles, the alternately striding limbs exhibit synchronous external and internal femoral rotations of substantial magnitude. Hip coordination patterns resembling those used during sidestep maneuvers allow birds to asymmetrically modulate their mediolateral limb trajectories and thereby advance using a range of body orientations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert E. Kambic
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Thomas J. Roberts
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Stephen M. Gatesy
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Rose KA, Nudds RL, Butler PJ, Codd JR. Sex differences in gait utilization and energy metabolism during terrestrial locomotion in two varieties of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) selected for different body size. Biol Open 2015; 4:1306-15. [PMID: 26405047 PMCID: PMC4610220 DOI: 10.1242/bio.013094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) of standard breed (large) and bantam (small) varieties, artificial selection has led to females being permanently gravid and sexual selection has led to male-biased size dimorphism. Using respirometry, videography and morphological measurements, sex and variety differences in metabolic cost of locomotion, gait utilisation and maximum sustainable speed (Umax) were investigated during treadmill locomotion. Males were capable of greater Umax than females and used a grounded running gait at high speeds, which was only observed in a few bantam females and no standard breed females. Body mass accounted for variation in the incremental increase in metabolic power with speed between the varieties, but not the sexes. For the first time in an avian species, a greater mass-specific incremental cost of locomotion, and minimum measured cost of transport (CoTmin) were found in males than in females. Furthermore, in both varieties, the female CoTmin was lower than predicted from interspecific allometry. Even when compared at equivalent speeds (using Froude number), CoT decreased more rapidly in females than in males. These trends were common to both varieties despite a more upright limb in females than in males in the standard breed, and a lack of dimorphism in posture in the bantam variety. Females may possess compensatory adaptations for metabolic efficiency during gravidity (e.g. in muscle specialization/posture/kinematics). Furthermore, the elevated power at faster speeds in males may be linked to their muscle properties being suited to inter-male aggressive combat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kayleigh A Rose
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M139PT, UK
| | - Robert L Nudds
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M139PT, UK
| | - Patrick J Butler
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B152TT, UK
| | - Jonathan R Codd
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M139PT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abe D, Fukuoka Y, Horiuchi M. Economical Speed and Energetically Optimal Transition Speed Evaluated by Gross and Net Oxygen Cost of Transport at Different Gradients. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138154. [PMID: 26383249 PMCID: PMC4575035 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxygen cost of transport per unit distance (CoT; mL·kg-1·km-1) shows a U-shaped curve as a function of walking speed (v), which includes a particular walking speed minimizing the CoT, so called economical speed (ES). The CoT-v relationship in running is approximately linear. These distinctive walking and running CoT-v relationships give an intersection between U-shaped and linear CoT relationships, termed the energetically optimal transition speed (EOTS). This study investigated the effects of subtracting the standing oxygen cost for calculating the CoT and its relevant effects on the ES and EOTS at the level and gradient slopes (±5%) in eleven male trained athletes. The percent effects of subtracting the standing oxygen cost (4.8 ± 0.4 mL·kg-1·min-1) on the CoT were significantly greater as the walking speed was slower, but it was not significant at faster running speeds over 9.4 km·h-1. The percent effect was significantly dependent on the gradient (downhill > level > uphill, P < 0.001). The net ES (level 4.09 ± 0.31, uphill 4.22 ± 0.37, and downhill 4.16 ± 0.44 km·h-1) was approximately 20% slower than the gross ES (level 5.15 ± 0.18, uphill 5.27 ± 0.20, and downhill 5.37 ± 0.22 km·h-1, P < 0.001). Both net and gross ES were not significantly dependent on the gradient. In contrast, the gross EOTS was slower than the net EOTS at the level (7.49 ± 0.32 vs. 7.63 ± 0.36 km·h-1, P = 0.003) and downhill gradients (7.78 ± 0.33 vs. 8.01 ± 0.41 km·h-1, P < 0.001), but not at the uphill gradient (7.55 ± 0.37 vs. 7.63 ± 0.51 km·h-1, P = 0.080). Note that those percent differences were less than 2.9%. Given these results, a subtraction of the standing oxygen cost should be carefully considered depending on the purpose of each study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Nurzaman SG, Yu X, Kim Y, Iida F. Goal-directed multimodal locomotion through coupling between mechanical and attractor selection dynamics. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2015; 10:025004. [PMID: 25811228 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/10/2/025004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
One of the most significant challenges in bio-inspired robotics is how to realize and take advantage of multimodal locomotion, which may help robots perform a variety of tasks adaptively in different environments. In order to address the challenge properly, it is important to notice that locomotion dynamics are the result of interactions between a particular internal control structure, the mechanical dynamics and the environment. From this perspective, this paper presents an approach to enable a robot to take advantage of its multiple locomotion modes by coupling the mechanical dynamics of the robot with an internal control structure known as an attractor selection model. The robot used is a curved-beam hopping robot; this robot, despite its simple actuation method, possesses rich and complex mechanical dynamics that are dependent on its interactions with the environment. Through dynamical coupling, we will show how this robot performs goal-directed locomotion by gracefully shifting between different locomotion modes regulated by sensory input, the robot's mechanical dynamics and an internally generated perturbation. The efficacy of the approach is validated and discussed based on the simulation and on real-world experiments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S G Nurzaman
- Bio-Inspired Robotics Laboratory, Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Low KH, Hu T, Mohammed S, Tangorra J, Kovac M. Perspectives on biologically inspired hybrid and multi-modal locomotion. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2015; 10:020301. [PMID: 25807582 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/10/2/020301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K H Low
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Rose KA, Nudds RL, Codd JR. Intraspecific scaling of the minimum metabolic cost of transport in leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus): links with limb kinematics, morphometrics and posture. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:1028-34. [PMID: 25657211 PMCID: PMC4392593 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.111393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The minimum metabolic cost of transport (CoTmin; J kg−1 m−1) scales negatively with increasing body mass (∝Mb−1/3) across species from a wide range of taxa associated with marked differences in body plan. At the intraspecific level, or between closely related species, however, CoTmin does not always scale with Mb. Similarity in physiology, dynamics of movement, skeletal geometry and posture between closely related individuals is thought to be responsible for this phenomenon, despite the fact that energetic, kinematic and morphometric data are rarely collected together. We examined the relationship between these integrated components of locomotion in leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) selectively bred for large and bantam (miniature) varieties. Interspecific allometry predicts a CoTmin ∼16% greater in bantams compared with the larger variety. However, despite 38% and 23% differences in Mb and leg length, respectively, the two varieties shared an identical walking CoTmin, independent of speed and equal to the allometric prediction derived from interspecific data for the larger variety. Furthermore, the two varieties moved with dynamic similarity and shared geometrically similar appendicular and axial skeletons. Hip height, however, did not scale geometrically and the smaller variety had more erect limbs, contrary to interspecific scaling trends. The lower than predicted CoTmin in bantams for their Mb was associated with both the more erect posture and a lower cost per stride (J kg−1 stride−1). Therefore, our findings are consistent with the notion that a more erect limb is associated with a lower CoTmin and with the previous assumption that similarity in skeletal shape, inherently linked to walking dynamics, is associated with similarity in CoTmin. Summary: Chickens with differing body size and posture but similar skeletal shape show no difference in the cost of transport.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kayleigh A Rose
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Robert L Nudds
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jonathan R Codd
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Andrada E, Rode C, Sutedja Y, Nyakatura JA, Blickhan R. Trunk orientation causes asymmetries in leg function in small bird terrestrial locomotion. Proc Biol Sci 2014; 281:20141405. [PMID: 25377449 PMCID: PMC4240980 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In contrast to the upright trunk in humans, trunk orientation in most birds is almost horizontal (pronograde). It is conceivable that the orientation of the heavy trunk strongly influences the dynamics of bipedal terrestrial locomotion. Here, we analyse for the first time the effects of a pronograde trunk orientation on leg function and stability during bipedal locomotion. For this, we first inferred the leg function and trunk control strategy applied by a generalized small bird during terrestrial locomotion by analysing synchronously recorded kinematic (three-dimensional X-ray videography) and kinetic (three-dimensional force measurement) quail locomotion data. Then, by simulating quail gaits using a simplistic bioinspired numerical model which made use of parameters obtained in in vivo experiments with real quail, we show that the observed asymmetric leg function (left-skewed ground reaction force and longer leg at touchdown than at lift-off) is necessary for pronograde steady-state locomotion. In addition, steady-state locomotion becomes stable for specific morphological parameters. For quail-like parameters, the most common stable solution is grounded running, a gait preferred by quail and most of the other small birds. We hypothesize that stability of bipedal locomotion is a functional demand that, depending on trunk orientation and centre of mass location, constrains basic hind limb morphology and function, such as leg length, leg stiffness and leg damping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Andrada
- Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Rode
- Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - Yefta Sutedja
- Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany
| | - John A Nyakatura
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, 07743 Jena, Germany Image Knowledge Gestaltung: an interdisciplinary laboratory and Institute of Biology, Humboldt-University, Philippstraße 13, 11015 Berlin, Germany
| | - Reinhard Blickhan
- Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller University Jena, Seidelstraße 20, 07749 Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Lees JJ, Folkow LP, Nudds RL, Codd JR. The effects of season and sex upon the morphology and material properties of keratin in the Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea). J Therm Biol 2014; 44:126-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
25
|
Lees JJ, Folkow LP, Codd JR, Nudds RL. Seasonal differences in jump performance in the Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea). Biol Open 2014; 3:233-9. [PMID: 24659246 PMCID: PMC3988792 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20147930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fat storage is essential to the survival of many bird species, providing energy reserves, but can have an effect on locomotor performance with an associated potential increase in predation risk. In particular, the ability to initiate flight through jumping is critical to predator avoidance and may be influenced by changes in body mass (Mb). Here we investigate seasonal differences in the jump take-off performance of high Arctic Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea) resulting from around a 50% increase in Mb during winter as a result of fat deposition. Using force-plate data and videography, we reveal that, in the absence of alterations to take-off angle, winter Svalbard rock ptarmigan are unable to increase hind-limb power output during jumping to compensate for their increased Mb. As a result, peak take-off velocity is reduced by 42% and jump duration is also extended during winter. The consequences of reduced jumping performance upon Svalbard ptarmigan during winter may be relatively small given their low risk of predation during this season. It may be, however, that the observed reduction in jumping performance when fat may contribute to the sub-maximal pattern of fat acquisition observed in other bird species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John J Lees
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Neither season nor sex affects the cost of terrestrial locomotion in a circumpolar diving duck: the common eider (Somateria mollissima). Polar Biol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-014-1488-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
27
|
Lock RJ, Burgess SC, Vaidyanathan R. Multi-modal locomotion: from animal to application. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2014; 9:011001. [PMID: 24343102 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3182/9/1/011001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The majority of robotic vehicles that can be found today are bound to operations within a single media (i.e. land, air or water). This is very rarely the case when considering locomotive capabilities in natural systems. Utility for small robots often reflects the exact same problem domain as small animals, hence providing numerous avenues for biological inspiration. This paper begins to investigate the various modes of locomotion adopted by different genus groups in multiple media as an initial attempt to determine the compromise in ability adopted by the animals when achieving multi-modal locomotion. A review of current biologically inspired multi-modal robots is also presented. The primary aim of this research is to lay the foundation for a generation of vehicles capable of multi-modal locomotion, allowing ambulatory abilities in more than one media, surpassing current capabilities. By identifying and understanding when natural systems use specific locomotion mechanisms, when they opt for disparate mechanisms for each mode of locomotion rather than using a synergized singular mechanism, and how this affects their capability in each medium, similar combinations can be used as inspiration for future multi-modal biologically inspired robotic platforms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R J Lock
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, Queen's Building, University Walk, Clifton, Bristol, BS8 1TR, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Andrada E, Rode C, Blickhan R. Grounded running in quails: simulations indicate benefits of observed fixed aperture angle between legs before touch-down. J Theor Biol 2013; 335:97-107. [PMID: 23831138 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2013.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Many birds use grounded running (running without aerial phases) in a wide range of speeds. Contrary to walking and running, numerical investigations of this gait based on the BSLIP (bipedal spring loaded inverted pendulum) template are rare. To obtain template related parameters of quails (e.g. leg stiffness) we used x-ray cinematography combined with ground reaction force measurements of quail grounded running. Interestingly, with speed the quails did not adjust the swing leg's angle of attack with respect to the ground but adapted the angle between legs (which we termed aperture angle), and fixed it about 30ms before touchdown. In simulations with the BSLIP we compared this swing leg alignment policy with the fixed angle of attack with respect to the ground typically used in the literature. We found symmetric periodic grounded running in a simply connected subset comprising one third of the investigated parameter space. The fixed aperture angle strategy revealed improved local stability and surprising tolerance with respect to large perturbations. Starting with the periodic solutions, after step-down step-up or step-up step-down perturbations of 10% leg rest length, in the vast majority of cases the bipedal SLIP could accomplish at least 50 steps to fall. The fixed angle of attack strategy was not feasible. We propose that, in small animals in particular, grounded running may be a common gait that allows highly compliant systems to exploit energy storage without the necessity of quick changes in the locomotor program when facing perturbations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emanuel Andrada
- Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller University Jena, Seidelstr. 20, 07749 Jena, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kilbourne BM. On birds: scale effects in the neognath hindlimb and differences in the gross morphology of wings and hindlimbs. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Institute for Systematic Zoology & Evolutionary Biology; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Erbertstraße 1; 07743; Jena; Thüringen; Germany
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Nyakatura J, Andrada E, Grimm N, Weise H, Fischer M. Kinematics and Center of Mass Mechanics During Terrestrial Locomotion in Northern Lapwings (Vanellus vanellus, Charadriiformes). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 317:580-94. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.A. Nyakatura
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Jena; Germany
| | - E. Andrada
- Institut für Sportwissenschaft; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Jena; Germany
| | - N. Grimm
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Jena; Germany
| | - H. Weise
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Jena; Germany
| | - M.S. Fischer
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Jena; Germany
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
|
32
|
Lees JJ, Nudds RL, Folkow LP, Stokkan KA, Codd JR. Understanding sex differences in the cost of terrestrial locomotion. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:826-32. [PMID: 21849317 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known regarding the physiological consequences of the behavioural and morphological differences that result from sexual selection in birds. Male and female Svalbard rock ptarmigans (Lagopus muta hyperborea) exhibit distinctive behavioural differences during the breeding season. In particular, males continuously compete for and defend territories in order to breed successfully, placing large demands on their locomotor system. Here, we demonstrate that male birds have improved locomotor performance compared with females, showing both a lower cost of locomotion (CoL) and a higher top speed. We propose that the observed sex differences in locomotor capability may be due to sexual selection for improved male performance. While the mechanisms underlying these energetic differences are unclear, future studies should be wary when pooling male and female data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John J Lees
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|