1
|
Chatelain P, Elias M, Fontaine C, Villemant C, Dajoz I, Perrard A. Müllerian mimicry among bees and wasps: a review of current knowledge and future avenues of research. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1310-1328. [PMID: 36994698 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
Many bees and stinging wasps, or aculeates, exhibit striking colour patterns or conspicuous coloration, such as black and yellow stripes. Such coloration is often interpreted as an aposematic signal advertising aculeate defences: the venomous sting. Aposematism can lead to Müllerian mimicry, the convergence of signals among different species unpalatable to predators. Müllerian mimicry has been extensively studied, notably on Neotropical butterflies and poison frogs. However, although a very high number of aculeate species harbour putative aposematic signals, aculeates are under-represented in mimicry studies. Here, we review the literature on mimicry rings that include bee and stinging wasp species. We report over a hundred described mimicry rings, involving a thousand species that belong to 19 aculeate families. These mimicry rings are found all throughout the world. Most importantly, we identify remaining knowledge gaps and unanswered questions related to the study of Müllerian mimicry in aculeates. Some of these questions are specific to aculeate models, such as the impact of sociality and of sexual dimorphism in defence levels on mimicry dynamics. Our review shows that aculeates may be one of the most diverse groups of organisms engaging in Müllerian mimicry and that the diversity of aculeate Müllerian mimetic interactions is currently under-explored. Thus, aculeates represent a new and major model system to study the evolution of Müllerian mimicry. Finally, aculeates are important pollinators and the global decline of pollinating insects raises considerable concern. In this context, a better understanding of the impact of Müllerian mimicry on aculeate communities may help design strategies for pollinator conservation, thereby providing future directions for evolutionary research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Chatelain
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Colin Fontaine
- Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la conservation, CESCO UMR 7204, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, 43 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Claire Villemant
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Isabelle Dajoz
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Université Paris Cité, 45 Rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, F-75006, France
| | - Adrien Perrard
- Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences-Paris (iEES-Paris), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Université Paris Cité, UPEC, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris, 75005, France
- Université Paris Cité, 45 Rue des Saints-Pères, Paris, F-75006, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sena AT, Ruane S. Concepts and contentions of coral snake resemblance: Batesian mimicry and its alternatives. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Venomous coral snakes and non-venomous coral snake lookalikes are often regarded as a classic example of Batesian mimicry, whereby a harmless or palatable organism imitates a harmful or less palatable organism. However, the validity of this claim is questionable. The existing literature regarding coral snake mimicry presents a divisive stance on whether Batesian mimicry is occurring or whether the similarity between snakes is attributable to alternative factors. Here, we compile available literature on coral snake mimicry and assess the support for Batesian mimicry. We find that most of the recent relevant literature (after approximately 2000) supports the Batesian mimicry hypothesis. However, this is not strongly supported by empirical evidence. Potential considerations addressed here for both the Batesian and alternative hypotheses include the function of the colour pattern, predatory learning and the biogeographical distribution of similar snakes. The analyses performed previously by mimicry researchers show that the interpretation of the conditions for mimicry is not consistent throughout the scientific community when applied to coral snake systems. This review focuses on this division and stresses the need to reach an agreement about the adaptive significance of New World coral snakes and their lookalikes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Thomas Sena
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Sara Ruane
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 South Lake Shore Drive, IL, USA
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University Newark, 195 University Ave, Newark, NJ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kikuchi DW, Barfield M, Herberstein ME, Mappes J, Holt RD. The Effect of Predator Population Dynamics on Batesian Mimicry Complexes. Am Nat 2022; 199:406-419. [DOI: 10.1086/718162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David W. Kikuchi
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Konsequez 45, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Michael Barfield
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Marie E. Herberstein
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Program, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland; and Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä FI-40014, Finland
| | - Robert D. Holt
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
A molecularphylogeny offorktail damselflies(genus Ischnura)revealsa dynamic macroevolutionary history of female colour polymorphisms. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2021; 160:107134. [PMID: 33677008 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Colour polymorphisms are popular study systems among biologists interested in evolutionary dynamics, genomics, sexual selection and sexual conflict. In many damselfly groups, such as in the globally distributed genus Ischnura (forktails), sex-limited female colour polymorphisms occur in multiple species. Female-polymorphic species contain two or three female morphs, one of which phenotypically matches the male (androchrome or male mimic) and the other(s) which are phenotypically distinct from the male (heterochrome). These female colour polymorphisms are thought to be maintained by frequency-dependent sexual conflict, but their macroevolutionary histories are unknown, due to the lack of a robust molecular phylogeny. Here, we present the first time-calibrated phylogeny of Ischnura, using a multispecies coalescent approach (StarBEAST2) and incorporating both molecular and fossil data for 41 extant species (55% of the genus). We estimate the age of Ischnura to be between 13.8 and 23.4 millions of years, i.e. Miocene. We infer the ancestral state of this genus as female monomorphism with heterochrome females, with multiple gains and losses of female polymorphisms, evidence of trans-species female polymorphisms and a significant positive relationship between female polymorphism incidence and current geographic range size. Our study provides a robust phylogenetic framework for future research on the dynamic macroevolutionary history of this clade with its extraordinary diversity of sex-limited female polymorphisms.
Collapse
|
5
|
Khan MK. Female prereproductive coloration reduces mating harassment in damselflies. Evolution 2020; 74:2293-2303. [PMID: 32573766 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Conspicuous female coloration can evolve through male mate choice or via female-female competition thereby increasing female mating success. However, when mating is not beneficial, such as in pre-reproductive females, selection should favor cryptic rather than conspicuous coloration to avoid male detection and the associated harassment. Nevertheless, conspicuous female coloration occurs in many prereproductive animals, and its evolution remains an enigma. Here, I studied conspicuous female coloration in Agriocnemis femina damselflies, in which the conspicuous red color of the immature females changes to a less conspicuous green approximately a week after their emergence. I measured body size, weight, and egg numbers of the female morphs and found that red females are smaller and lighter and do not carry developed eggs. Finally, I calculated the occurrence frequency and mating frequency of red and green females in several populations over a three-year period. The results demonstrate that red females mated less frequently than green females even when red females were the abundant morph in the populations. I concluded that conspicuous female coloration is likely to function as a warning signal of sexual unprofitability, thereby reducing sexual harassment for females and unprofitable mating for males.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Md Kawsar Khan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, 3114, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
McLean DJ, Cassis G, Kikuchi DW, Giribet G, Herberstein ME. Insincere Flattery? Understanding the Evolution of Imperfect Deceptive Mimicry. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1086/706769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
|
7
|
Svensson EI, Willink B, Duryea MC, Lancaster LT. Temperature drives pre‐reproductive selection and shapes the biogeography of a female polymorphism. Ecol Lett 2019; 23:149-159. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.13417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
8
|
Vos W, Komdeur J, Hammers M. Frequency-dependent resemblance of male-colored females to males in a damselfly. INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 26:958-962. [PMID: 29510002 PMCID: PMC7379685 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wicher Vos
- Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Jan Komdeur
- Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Martijn Hammers
- Behavioural and Physiological Ecology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life SciencesUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Finkbeiner SD, Salazar PA, Nogales S, Rush CE, Briscoe AD, Hill RI, Kronforst MR, Willmott KR, Mullen SP. Frequency dependence shapes the adaptive landscape of imperfect Batesian mimicry. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2017.2786. [PMID: 29618547 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite more than a century of biological research on the evolution and maintenance of mimetic signals, the relative frequencies of models and mimics necessary to establish and maintain Batesian mimicry in natural populations remain understudied. Here we investigate the frequency-dependent dynamics of imperfect Batesian mimicry, using predation experiments involving artificial butterfly models. We use two geographically distinct populations of Adelpha butterflies that vary in their relative frequencies of a putatively defended model (Adelpha iphiclus) and Batesian mimic (Adelpha serpa). We found that in Costa Rica, where both species share similar abundances, Batesian mimicry breaks down, and predators more readily attack artificial butterfly models of the presumed mimic, A. serpa By contrast, in Ecuador, where A. iphiclus (model) is significantly more abundant than A. serpa (mimic), both species are equally protected from predation. Our results provide compelling experimental evidence that imperfect Batesian mimicry is frequency-dependent on the relative abundance of models and mimics in natural populations, and contribute to the growing body of evidence that complex dynamics, such as seasonality or the availability of alternative prey, influence the evolution of mimetic traits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA .,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Patricio A Salazar
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Sofía Nogales
- Department of Biology, Pontifica Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Cassidi E Rush
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Ryan I Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Marcus R Kronforst
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Keith R Willmott
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Sean P Mullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kikuchi DW, Dornhaus A, Gopeechund V, Sherratt TN. Signal categorization by foraging animals depends on ecological diversity. eLife 2019; 8:e43965. [PMID: 31021317 PMCID: PMC6510532 DOI: 10.7554/elife.43965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Warning signals displayed by defended prey are mimicked by both mutualistic (Müllerian) and parasitic (Batesian) species. Yet mimicry is often imperfect: why does selection not improve mimicry? Predators create selection on warning signals, so predator psychology is crucial to understanding mimicry. We conducted experiments where humans acted as predators in a virtual ecosystem to ask how prey diversity affects the way that predators categorize prey phenotypes as profitable or unprofitable. The phenotypic diversity of prey communities strongly affected predator categorization. Higher diversity increased the likelihood that predators would use a 'key' trait to form broad categories, even if it meant committing errors. Broad categorization favors the evolution of mimicry. Both species richness and evenness contributed significantly to this effect. This lets us view the behavioral and evolutionary processes leading to mimicry in light of classical community ecology. Broad categorization by receivers is also likely to affect other forms of signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David William Kikuchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ArizonaTucsonUnited States
| | - Anna Dornhaus
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ArizonaTucsonUnited States
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Akcali CK, Pfennig DW. Geographic variation in mimetic precision among different species of coral snake mimics. J Evol Biol 2017; 30:1420-1428. [PMID: 28425157 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Batesian mimicry is widespread, but whether and why different species of mimics vary geographically in resemblance to their model is unclear. We characterized geographic variation in mimetic precision among four Batesian mimics of coral snakes. Each mimic occurs where its model is abundant (i.e. in 'deep sympatry'), rare (i.e. at the sympatry/allopatry boundary or 'edge sympatry') and absent (i.e. in allopatry). Geographic variation in mimetic precision was qualitatively different among these mimics. In one mimic, the most precise individuals occurred in edge sympatry; in another, they occurred in deep sympatry; in the third, they occurred in allopatry; and in the fourth, precise mimics were not concentrated anywhere throughout their range. Mimicry was less precise in allopatry than in sympatry in only two mimics. We present several nonmutually exclusive hypotheses for these patterns. Generally, examining geographic variation in mimetic precision - within and among different mimics - offers novel insights into the causes and consequences of mimicry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C K Akcali
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - D W Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gering EJ. Male‐mimicking females increase male‐male interactions, and decrease male survival and condition in a female‐polymorphic damselfly. Evolution 2017; 71:1390-1396. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eben J. Gering
- Section of Integrative Biology University of Texas at Austin 1 University Station C0900 Austin Texas 78712
- Current Address: Department of Integrative Biology W.K. Kellogg Biological Field Station 3700 East Gull Lake Drive Hickory Corners Michigan 49060
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
|
14
|
Skelhorn J, Holmes GG, Hossie TJ, Sherratt TN. Multicomponent deceptive signals reduce the speed at which predators learn that prey are profitable. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
15
|
Kikuchi DW, Malick G, Webster RJ, Whissell E, Sherratt TN. An empirical test of 2-dimensional signal detection theory applied to Batesian mimicry. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
|
16
|
Møller AP, Stokke BG, Samia DS. Hawk models, hawk mimics, and antipredator behavior of prey. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
17
|
Bots J, Iserbyt A, Van Gossum H, Hammers M, Sherratt TN. Frequency-dependent selection on female morphs driven by premating interactions with males. Am Nat 2015; 186:141-50. [PMID: 26098345 DOI: 10.1086/681005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Species showing color polymorphisms-the presence of two or more genetically determined color morphs within a single population-are excellent systems for studying the selective forces driving the maintenance of genetic diversity. Despite a shortage of empirical evidence, it is often suggested that negative frequency-dependent mate preference by males (or diet choice by predators) results in fitness benefits for the rare female morph (or prey type). Moreover, most studies have focused on the male (or predator) behavior in these systems and largely overlooked the importance of female (or prey) resistance behavior. Here, we provide the first explicit test of the role of frequency-dependent and frequency-independent intersexual interactions in female polymorphic damselflies. We identify the stage of the mating sequence when frequency-dependent selection is likely to act by comparing indexes of male mate preference when the female has little (females presented on sticks), moderate (females in cages), and high (females free to fly in the field) ability to avoid male mating attempts. Frequency-dependent male preferences were found only in those experiments where females had little ability to resist male harassment, indicating that premating interactions most likely drive negative frequency-dependent selection in this system. In addition, by separating frequency-dependent male mating preference from the baseline frequency-independent component, we reconcile the seemingly contradictory results of previous studies and highlight the roles of both forms of selection in maintaining the polymorphism at a given equilibrium. We conclude that considering interactions among all players-here, males and females-is crucial to fully understanding the mechanisms underlying the maintenance of genetic polymorphisms in the wild.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Bots
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kikuchi DW, Pfennig DW. Imperfect mimicry and the limits of natural selection. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2014; 88:297-315. [PMID: 24552099 DOI: 10.1086/673758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mimicry--when one organism (the mimic) evolves a phenotypic resemblance to another (the model) due to selective benefits--is widely used to illustrate natural selection's power to generate adaptations. However, many putative mimics resemble their models imprecisely, and such imperfect mimicry represents a specific challenge to mimicry theory and a general one to evolutionary theory. Here, we discuss 11 nonmutually exclusive hypotheses for imperfect mimicry. We group these hypotheses according to whether imperfect mimicry reflects: an artifact of human perception, which is not shared by any naturally occurring predators and therefore is not truly an instance of imperfect mimicry; genetic, developmental or time-lag constraints, which (temporarily) prevent a response to selection for perfect mimicry; relaxed selection, where imperfect mimicry is as adaptive as perfect mimicry; or tradeoffs, where imperfect mimicry is (locally) more adaptive than perfect mimicry. We find that the relaxed selection hypothesis has garnered the most support. However, because only a few study systems have thus far been comprehensively evaluated, the relative contributions of the various hypotheses toward explaining the evolution of imperfect mimicry remain unclear. Ultimately, clarifying why imperfect mimicry exists should provide critical insights into the limits of natural selection in producing complex adaptations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3280, USA.
| | - David W Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3280, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lehmann KDS, Goldman BW, Dworkin I, Bryson DM, Wagner AP. From cues to signals: evolution of interspecific communication via aposematism and mimicry in a predator-prey system. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91783. [PMID: 24614755 PMCID: PMC3948874 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Current theory suggests that many signaling systems evolved from preexisting cues. In aposematic systems, prey warning signals benefit both predator and prey. When the signal is highly beneficial, a third species often evolves to mimic the toxic species, exploiting the signaling system for its own protection. We investigated the evolutionary dynamics of predator cue utilization and prey signaling in a digital predator-prey system in which prey could evolve to alter their appearance to mimic poison-free or poisonous prey. In predators, we observed rapid evolution of cue recognition (i.e. active behavioral responses) when presented with sufficiently poisonous prey. In addition, active signaling (i.e. mimicry) evolved in prey under all conditions that led to cue utilization. Thus we show that despite imperfect and dishonest signaling, given a high cost of consuming poisonous prey, complex systems of interspecific communication can evolve via predator cue recognition and prey signal manipulation. This provides evidence supporting hypotheses that cues may serve as stepping-stones in the evolution of more advanced communication and signaling systems that incorporate information about the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenna D. S. Lehmann
- Department of Zoology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Program in Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Brian W. Goldman
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Ian Dworkin
- Department of Zoology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Program in Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - David M. Bryson
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Aaron P. Wagner
- BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
The sicker sex: understanding male biases in parasitic infection, resource allocation and fitness. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76246. [PMID: 24194830 PMCID: PMC3806765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The "sicker sex" idea summarizes our knowledge of sex biases in parasite burden and immune ability whereby males fare worse than females. The theoretical basis of this is that because males invest more on mating effort than females, the former pay the costs by having a weaker immune system and thus being more susceptible to parasites. Females, conversely, have a greater parental investment. Here we tested the following: a) whether both sexes differ in their ability to defend against parasites using a natural host-parasite system; b) the differences in resource allocation conflict between mating effort and parental investment traits between sexes; and, c) effect of parasitism on survival for both sexes. We used a number of insect damselfly species as study subjects. For (a), we quantified gregarine and mite parasites, and experimentally manipulated gregarine levels in both sexes during adult ontogeny. For (b), first, we manipulated food during adult ontogeny and recorded thoracic fat gain (a proxy of mating effort) and abdominal weight (a proxy of parental investment) in both sexes. Secondly for (b), we manipulated food and gregarine levels in both sexes when adults were about to become sexually mature, and recorded gregarine number. For (c), we infected male and female adults of different ages and measured their survival. Males consistently showed more parasites than females apparently due to an increased resource allocation to fat production in males. Conversely, females invested more on abdominal weight. These differences were independent of how much food/infecting parasites were provided. The cost of this was that males had more parasites and reduced survival than females. Our results provide a resource allocation mechanism for understanding sexual differences in parasite defense as well as survival consequences for each sex.
Collapse
|
21
|
Iserbyt A, Bots J, Van Gossum H, Sherratt TN. Negative frequency-dependent selection or alternative reproductive tactics: maintenance of female polymorphism in natural populations. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:139. [PMID: 23822745 PMCID: PMC3704290 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sex-limited polymorphisms have long intrigued evolutionary biologists and have been the subject of long-standing debates. The coexistence of multiple male and/or female morphs is widely believed to be maintained through negative frequency-dependent selection imposed by social interactions. However, remarkably few empirical studies have evaluated how social interactions, morph frequencies and fitness parameters relate to one another under natural conditions. Here, we test two hypotheses proposed to explain the maintenance of a female polymorphism in a species with extreme geographical variation in morph frequencies. We first elucidate how fecundity traits of the morphs vary in relation to the frequencies and densities of males and female morphs in multiple sites over multiple years. Second, we evaluate whether the two female morphs differ in resource allocation among fecundity traits, indicating alternative tactics to maximize reproductive output. Results We present some of the first empirical evidence collected under natural conditions that egg number and clutch mass was higher in the rarer female morph. This morph-specific fecundity advantage gradually switched with the population morph frequency. Our results further indicate that all investigated fecundity traits are negatively affected by relative male density (i.e. operational sex ratio), which confirms male harassment as selective agent. Finally, we show a clear trade-off between qualitative (egg mass) and quantitative (egg number) fecundity traits. This trade-off, however, is not morph-specific. Conclusion Our reported frequency- and density-dependent fecundity patterns are consistent with the hypothesis that the polymorphism is driven by a conflict between sexes over optimal mating rate, with costly male sexual harassment driving negative frequency-dependent selection on morph fecundity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arne Iserbyt
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wilson JS, Jahner JP, Williams KA, Forister ML. Ecological and evolutionary processes drive the origin and maintenance of imperfect mimicry. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61610. [PMID: 23593490 PMCID: PMC3625143 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the forces behind the evolution of imperfect mimicry remain poorly studied, recent hypotheses suggest that relaxed selection on small-bodied individuals leads to imperfect mimicry. While evolutionary history undoubtedly affects the development of imperfect mimicry, ecological community context has largely been ignored and may be an important driver of imperfect mimicry. Here we investigate how evolutionary and ecological contexts might influence mimetic fidelity in Müllerian and Batesian mimicry systems. In Batesian hoverfly systems we find that body size is not a strong predictor of mimetic fidelity. However, in Müllerian velvet ants we find a weak positive relationship between body size and mimetic fidelity when evolutionary context is controlled for and a much stronger relationship between community diversity and mimetic fidelity. These results suggest that reduced selection on small-bodied individuals may not be a major driver of the evolution of imperfect mimicry and that other factors, such as ecological community context, should be considered when studying the evolution of imperfect mimicry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Wilson
- Department of Biology, Utah State University Tooele, Tooele, Utah, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Wong-Muñoz J, Anderson CN, Munguía-Steyer R, Córdoba-Aguilar A. Body Size and Morph as Drivers of Copulation Duration in a Male Dimorphic Damselfly. Ethology 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesus Wong-Muñoz
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Instituto de Ecología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ciudad Universitaria; México D.F; México
| | | | - Roberto Munguía-Steyer
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Instituto de Ecología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ciudad Universitaria; México D.F; México
| | - Alex Córdoba-Aguilar
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva; Instituto de Ecología; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; Ciudad Universitaria; México D.F; México
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Sánchez-Guillén RA, Martínez-Zamilpa SMJ, Jiménez-Cortés JG, Forbes MRL, Córdoba-Aguilar A. Maintenance of polymorphic females: do parasites play a role? Oecologia 2012; 171:105-13. [PMID: 22710614 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-012-2388-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The role of parasites in explaining maintenance of polymorphism is an unexplored research avenue. In odonates, female-limited color polymorphism (one female morph mimicking the conspecific male and one or more gynochromatic morphs) is widespread. Here we investigated whether parasitism contributes to color polymorphism maintenance by studying six species of female dimorphic damselflies using large databases of field-collected animals. We predicted that androchrome females (male mimics) would be more intensively parasitized than gynochrome females which is, according to previous studies, counterbalanced by the advantages of the former when evading male harassment compared to gynochrome females. Here we show that in Ischnura denticollis and Enallagma novahispaniae, androchrome females suffer from a higher degree of parasitism than gynochromatic females, and contrary to prediction, than males. Thus, our study has detected a correlation between color polymorphism and parasitic burden in odonates. This leads us to hypothesize that natural selection, via parasite pressure, can explain in part how androchrome and gynochrome female color morphs can be maintained. Both morphs may cope with parasites in a different way: given that androchrome females are more heavily parasitized, they may pay a higher fecundity costs, in comparison to gynochrome females.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R A Sánchez-Guillén
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, México, DF, Mexico.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Penney HD, Hassall C, Skevington JH, Abbott KR, Sherratt TN. A comparative analysis of the evolution of imperfect mimicry. Nature 2012; 483:461-4. [PMID: 22437614 DOI: 10.1038/nature10961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although exceptional examples of adaptation are frequently celebrated, some outcomes of natural selection seem far from perfect. For example, many hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) are harmless (Batesian) mimics of stinging Hymenoptera. However, although some hoverfly species are considered excellent mimics, other species bear only a superficial resemblance to their models and it is unclear why this is so. To evaluate hypotheses that have been put forward to explain interspecific variation in the mimetic fidelity of Palearctic Syrphidae we use a comparative approach. We show that the most plausible explanation is that predators impose less selection for mimetic fidelity on smaller hoverfly species because they are less profitable prey items. In particular, our findings, in combination with previous results, allow us to reject several key hypotheses for imperfect mimicry: first, human ratings of mimetic fidelity are positively correlated with both morphometric measures and avian rankings, indicating that variation in mimetic fidelity is not simply an illusion based on human perception; second, no species of syrphid maps out in multidimensional space as being intermediate in appearance between several different hymenopteran model species, as the multimodel hypothesis requires; and third, we find no evidence for a negative relationship between mimetic fidelity and abundance, which calls into question the kin-selection hypothesis. By contrast, a strong positive relationship between mimetic fidelity and body size supports the relaxed-selection hypothesis, suggesting that reduced predation pressure on less profitable prey species limits the selection for mimetic perfection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather D Penney
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Iserbyt A, Van Gossum H, Stoks R. Biogeographical survey identifies consistent alternative physiological optima and a minor role for environmental drivers in maintaining a polymorphism. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32648. [PMID: 22384278 PMCID: PMC3287987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of adaptive mechanisms in maintaining genetic polymorphisms is still debated in many systems. To understand the contribution of selective factors in maintaining polymorphism, we investigated large-scale (>1000 km) geographic variation in morph frequencies and fitness-related physiological traits in the damselfly Nehalennia irene. As fitness-related physiological traits, we investigated investment in immune function (phenoloxidase activity), energy storage and fecundity (abdomen protein and lipid content), and flight muscles (thorax protein content). In the first part of the study, our aim was to identify selective agents maintaining the large-scale spatial variation in morph frequencies. Morph frequencies varied considerably among populations, but, in contrast to expectation, in a geographically unstructured way. Furthermore, frequencies co-varied only weakly with the numerous investigated ecological parameters. This suggests that spatial frequency patterns are driven by stochastic processes, or alternatively, are consequence of highly variable and currently unidentified ecological conditions. In line with this, the investigated ecological parameters did not affect the fitness-related physiological traits differently in both morphs. In the second part of the study, we aimed at identifying trade-offs between fitness-related physiological traits that may contribute to the local maintenance of both colour morphs by defining alternative phenotypic optima, and test the spatial consistency of such trade-off patterns. The female morph with higher levels of phenoloxidase activity had a lower thorax protein content, and vice versa, suggesting a trade-off between investments in immune function and in flight muscles. This physiological trade-off was consistent across the geographical scale studied and supports widespread correlational selection, possibly driven by male harassment, favouring alternative trait combinations in both female morphs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arne Iserbyt
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|