Catellicoccus marimammalium gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel Gram-positive, catalase-negative, coccus-shaped bacterium from porpoise and grey seal

When to suspect contamination rather than colonization - lessons from a putative fetal sheep microbiome

There is an ongoing controversy around the existence of a prenatal, fetal microbiome in humans, livestock, and other animals. The 'in utero microbial colonization' hypothesis challenges the clinical paradigm of the 'sterile womb' but has been criticized for its reliance on DNA-based evidence to detect microbiomes and the failure to conciliate the routine experimental derivation of germ-free animals from surgically resected embryos with a thriving fetal microbiome. In order to avoid the propagation of misinformation in the scientific literature, a critical assessment and careful review of newly published studies, particularly those that challenge the convincing current clinical dogma of the sterile womb, is of critical importance.We read with interest a recent publication that postulated the presence of a fetal microbiome in sheep, but questioned the plausibility of the reported findings and their meaningfulness to prove "microbial colonisation of the fetal gut […] in utero". We reanalyzed the published metagenomic and metatranscriptomic sequence data from the original publication and identified evidence for different types of contamination that affected all samples alike and could explain the reported findings without requiring the existence of a fetal microbiome.Our reanalysis challenges the reported findings as supportive of a prenatal fetal lamb microbiome. The shortcomings of the original analysis and data interpretation highlight common problems of low-biomass microbiome projects. We propose genomic independence of separate biological samples, i.e. distinctive profiles at the microbial strain level, as a potential new microbiome marker to increase confidence in metagenomics analyses of controversial low-biomass microbiomes.

Gut microbiome is affected by inter-sexual and inter-seasonal variation in diet for thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia)

The role of the gut microbiome is increasingly being recognized by health scientists and veterinarians, yet its role in wild animals remains understudied. Variations in the gut microbiome could be the result of differential diets among individuals, such as variation between sexes, across seasons, or across reproductive stages. We evaluated the hypothesis that diet alters the avian gut microbiome using stable isotope analysis (SIA) and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. We present the first description of the thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia) fecal microbiome. The murre microbiome was dominated by bacteria from the genus Catellicoccus, ubiquitous in the guts of many seabirds. Microbiome variation was explained by murre diet in terms of proportion of littoral carbon, trophic position, and sulfur isotopes, especially for the classes Actinobacteria, Bacilli, Bacteroidia, Clostridia, Alphaproteobacteria, and Gammaproteobacteria. We also observed differences in the abundance of bacterial genera such as Catellicoccus and Cetobacterium between sexes and reproductive stages. These results are in accordance with behavioural observations of changes in diet between sexes and across the reproductive season. We concluded that the observed variation in the gut microbiome may be caused by individual prey specialization and may also be reinforced by sexual and reproductive stage differences in diet.

Relationship between Rainfall, Fecal Pollution, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Microbial Diversity in an Urbanized Subtropical Bay

The presence of human enteric pathogens, stemming from fecal pollution, is a serious environmental and public health concern in recreational waters. Accurate assessments of fecal pollution are therefore needed to properly assess exposure risks and guide water quality policies and practices. In this study, the absence of a direct correlation between enterococci and source-specific human and animal markers disputes the utility of enterococci as an indicator of fecal pollution in urbanized subtropical bays. Moreover, the inverse correlation between enterococci and the human-specific marker HF183 indicates that recreational beach advisories, triggered by elevated enterococcus concentrations, are a misleading practice. This study clearly demonstrates that a multiparameter approach that includes the quantitation of host-specific markers, as well as analyses of microbial diversity, is a more effective means of assessing water quality in urbanized subtropical bays.

Urbanized bays are vulnerable to fecal bacterial pollution, and the extent of this pollution, in marine recreational waters, is commonly assessed by quantifying enterococcus concentrations. Recent reports have questioned the utility of enterococci as an indicator of fecal bacterial pollution in subtropical bays impaired by non-point source pollution, and enterococcus data alone cannot identify fecal bacterial sources (i.e., hosts). The purpose of this study was to assess relationships between rainfall, fecal bacterial pollution, antimicrobial resistance, and microbial diversity in an urbanized subtropical bay. Thus, a comprehensive bacterial source tracking (BST) study was conducted using a combination of traditional and modern BST methods. Findings show that rainfall was directly correlated with elevated enterococcus concentrations, including the increased prevalence of Enterococcus faecium, although it was not correlated with an increase in the prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant strains. Rainfall was also correlated with decreased microbial diversity. In contrast, neither rainfall nor enterococcus concentrations were directly correlated with the concentrations of three omnipresent host-associated fecal markers (i.e., human, canine, and gull). Notably, the human fecal marker (HF183) was inversely correlated with enterococcus concentrations, signifying that traditional enterococcus data alone are not an accurate proxy for human fecal waste in urbanized subtropical bays.

IMPORTANCE The presence of human enteric pathogens, stemming from fecal pollution, is a serious environmental and public health concern in recreational waters. Accurate assessments of fecal pollution are therefore needed to properly assess exposure risks and guide water quality policies and practices. In this study, the absence of a direct correlation between enterococci and source-specific human and animal markers disputes the utility of enterococci as an indicator of fecal pollution in urbanized subtropical bays. Moreover, the inverse correlation between enterococci and the human-specific marker HF183 indicates that recreational beach advisories, triggered by elevated enterococcus concentrations, are a misleading practice. This study clearly demonstrates that a multiparameter approach that includes the quantitation of host-specific markers, as well as analyses of microbial diversity, is a more effective means of assessing water quality in urbanized subtropical bays.

Evolutionary signal in the gut microbiomes of 74 bird species from Equatorial Guinea

How the microbiome interacts with hosts across evolutionary time is poorly understood. Data sets including many host species are required to conduct comparative analyses. Here, we analyzed 142 intestinal microbiome samples from 92 birds belonging to 74 species from Equatorial Guinea, using the 16S rRNA gene. Using four definitions for microbial taxonomic units (97%OTU, 99%OTU, 99%OTU with singletons removed, ASV), we conducted alpha and beta diversity analyses. We found that raw abundances and diversity varied between the data sets but relative patterns were largely consistent across data sets. Host taxonomy, diet and locality were significantly associated with microbiomes, at generally similar levels using three distance metrics. Phylogenetic comparative methods assessed the evolutionary relationship between the microbiome as a trait of a host species and the underlying bird phylogeny. Using multiple ways of defining "microbiome traits", we found that a neutral Brownian motion model did not explain variation in microbiomes. Instead, we found a White Noise model (indicating little phylogenetic signal), was most likely. There was some support for the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model (that invokes selection), but the level of support was similar to that of a White Noise simulation, further supporting the White Noise model as the best explanation for the evolution of the microbiome as a trait of avian hosts. Our study demonstrated that both environment and evolution play a role in the gut microbiome and the relationship does not follow a neutral model; these biological results are qualitatively robust to analytical choices.

Comparative Analysis of Intestine Microbiota of Four Wild Waterbird Species

Waterbirds are ubiquitous and globally distributed. Yet, studies on wild waterbirds' gut microbiota are still rare. Our aim was to explore and compare the gut microbial community composition of wild waterbird species. Four wild waterbird species that are either wintering or all-year residents in Israel were studied: great cormorants, little egrets, black-crowned night herons and black-headed gulls. For each bird, three intestinal sections were sampled; anterior, middle and posterior. No significant differences were found among the microbiota compositions in the three intestine sections of each individual bird. Each waterbird species had a unique microbial composition. The gut microbiota of the black-headed gulls' fundamentally deviated from that of the other bird species, probably due to a very high abundance (58.8%) of the genus Catellicoccus (Firmicutes). Our results suggest a correlation between the waterbird species' phylogeny and their intestine microbial community hierarchical tree, which evinced phylosymbiosis. This recent coinage stands for eco-evolutionary patterns between the host phylogeny and its microbiota composition. We conclude that eco-evolutionary processes termed phylosymbiosis may occur between wild waterbird species and their gut microbial community composition.

The Enterococcus: a Model of Adaptability to Its Environment

The genus Enterococcus comprises a ubiquitous group of Gram-positive bacteria that are of great relevance to human health for their role as major causative agents of health care-associated infections. The enterococci are resilient and versatile species able to survive under harsh conditions, making them well adapted to the health care environment. Two species cause the majority of enterococcal infections: Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium Both species demonstrate intrinsic resistance to common antibiotics, such as virtually all cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, clindamycin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Additionally, a remarkably plastic genome allows these two species to readily acquire resistance to further antibiotics, such as high-level aminoglycoside resistance, high-level ampicillin resistance, and vancomycin resistance, either through mutation or by horizontal transfer of genetic elements conferring resistance determinants.

Recommended minimal standards for description of new taxa of the genera Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and related genera

Minimal standards for the description of new cultivable strains that represent novel genera and species belonging to the genera Bifidobacterium , Lactobacillus and related genera are proposed in accordance with Recommendation 30b of the Bacteriological Code (1990 Revision): the description of novel species should be based on phenotypic, genotypic and ecological characteristics to ensure a rich polyphasic characterization. Concerning genotypic characterization, in addition to DNA G+C content (mol%) data, the description should be based on DNA–DNA hybridization (DDH), 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities and at least two housekeeping gene (e.g. hsp60 and recA) sequence similarities. DDH might not be needed if the 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to the closest known species is lower than 97 %. This proposal has been endorsed by members of the Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Bifidobacterium , Lactobacillus and related organisms of the International Committee on the Systematics of Prokaryotes.

Development and application of a quantitative PCR assay targeting Catellicoccus marimammalium for assessing gull-associated fecal contamination at Lake Erie beaches

Gulls represent one of the major fecal contamination sources responsible for the degradation of water quality at Lake Erie beaches. For assessing gull-associated fecal contamination, a real-time quantitative PCR assay (qPCR) targeting 16S rRNA gene sequences from Catellicoccus marimammalium, which are abundant in gull feces, was developed and evaluated by comparing assay results with beach survey data that included gull counting, and quantifying densities of Escherichia coli and human-associated fecal markers at two Lake Erie beaches. In evaluating the specificity and sensitivity of the qPCR assay with animal and wastewater samples, C. marimammalium was detected in most gull fecal samples (80.7%), some chicken fecal samples (24.1%), but was not readily detected from other fecal samples of animals and humans, and wastewater. Among 66 Lake Erie water samples collected in 2010, C. marimammalium was frequently detected from Villa Angela (36.4%) and Headlands beaches (57.6%). C. marimammalium densities were not associated with E. coli densities or sanitary survey data. E. coli counts were likely driven by other sources, such as human, rather than gulls at the study sites. The presumption that human contamination influenced E. coli counts was supported by more frequent detection of the human-specific Bacteroides gyrB marker (gyrB) at Villa Angela (33.3%) than Headlands (6.1%). Since E. coli may not be an effective indicator for assessing gull-related fecal contamination at these beaches, where contamination sources are mixed, our novel qPCR assay can be useful for understanding fecal source contributions from gulls not explained by gull abundance or E. coli densities.

Recent innovation in microbial source tracking using bacterial real-time PCR markers in shellfish

We assessed the capacity of real-time PCR markers to identify the origin of contamination in shellfish. Oyster, cockles or clams were either contaminated with fecal materials and host-associated markers designed from Bacteroidales or Catellicoccus marimammalium 16S RNA genes were extracted from their intravalvular liquid, digestive tissues or shellfish flesh. Extraction of bacterial DNA from the oyster intravalvular liquid with FastDNA spin kit for soil enabled the selected markers to be quantified in 100% of artificially contaminated samples, and the source of contamination to be identified in 13 out of 38 naturally contaminated batches from European Class B and Class C areas. However, this protocol did not enable the origin of the contamination to be identified in cockle or clam samples. Although results are promising for extracts from intravalvular liquid in oyster, it is unlikely that a single protocol could be the best across all bacterial markers and types of shellfish.

Draft Genome Sequence of Catellicoccus marimammalium, a Novel Species Commonly Found in Gull Feces

Catellicoccus marimammalium is a relatively uncharacterized Gram-positive facultative anaerobe with potential utility as an indicator of waterfowl fecal contamination. Here, we report an annotated draft genome sequence that suggests that this organism may be a symbiotic gut microbe.

Genetic markers for rapid PCR-based identification of gull, Canada goose, duck, and chicken fecal contamination in water

Avian feces contaminate waterways but contribute fewer human pathogens than human sources. Rapid identification and quantification of avian contamination would therefore be useful to prevent overestimation of human health risk. We used subtractive hybridization of PCR-amplified gull fecal 16S RNA genes to identify avian-specific fecal rRNA gene sequences. The subtracters were rRNA genes amplified from human, dog, cat, cow, and pig feces. Recovered sequences were related to Enterobacteriaceae (47%), Helicobacter (26%), Catellicoccus (11%), Fusobacterium (11%), and Campylobacter (5%). Three PCR assays, designated GFB, GFC, and GFD, were based on recovered sequence fragments. Quantitative PCR assays for GFC and GFD were developed using SYBR green. GFC detected down to 0.1 mg gull feces/100 ml (corresponding to 2 gull enterococci most probable number [MPN]/100 ml). GFD detected down to 0.1 mg chicken feces/100 ml (corresponding to 13 Escherichia coli MPN/100 ml). GFB and GFC were 97% and 94% specific to gulls, respectively. GFC cross-reacted with 35% of sheep samples but occurred at about 100,000 times lower concentrations in sheep. GFD was 100% avian specific and occurred in gulls, geese, chickens, and ducks. In the United States, Canada, and New Zealand, the three markers differed in their geographic distributions but were found across the range tested. These assays detected four important bird groups contributing to fecal contamination of waterways: gulls, geese, ducks, and chickens. Marker distributions across North America and in New Zealand suggest that they will have broad applicability in other parts of the world as well.

Distribution and potential significance of a gull fecal marker in urban coastal and riverine areas of southern Ontario, Canada

To better understand the distribution of gull fecal contamination in urban areas of southern Ontario, we used gull-specific PCR and qPCR assays against 1309 water samples collected from 15 urban coastal and riverine locations during 2007. Approximately, 58% of the water samples tested positive for the gull-assay. Locations observed to have higher numbers of gulls and their fecal droppings had a higher frequency of occurrence of the gull marker and a higher gull marker qPCR signal than areas observed to be less impacted by gulls. Lower gull marker occurrence and lower qPCR signals were associated with municipal wastewater (7.4%) and urban stormwater effluents (29.5%). Overall, there were no statistically significant differences in gull marker occurrence at beach sites for pore water, ankle, and chest-depth samples, although signals were generally higher in interstitial beach sand pore water and ankle-depth water than in chest-depth water samples. Overall, the results indicated that gull fecal pollution is widespread in urban coastal and riverine areas in southern Ontario and that it significantly contributes to fecal indicator bacterial loads.

Phylogenetic diversity and molecular detection of bacteria in gull feces

In spite of increasing public health concerns about the potential risks associated with swimming in waters contaminated with waterfowl feces, little is known about the composition of the gut microbial community of aquatic birds. To address this, a gull 16S rRNA gene clone library was developed and analyzed to determine the identities of fecal bacteria. Analysis of 282 16S rRNA gene clones demonstrated that the gull gut bacterial community is mostly composed of populations closely related to Bacilli (37%), Clostridia (17%), Gammaproteobacteria (11%), and Bacteriodetes (1%). Interestingly, a considerable number of sequences (i.e., 26%) were closely related to Catellicoccus marimammalium, a gram-positive, catalase-negative bacterium. To determine the occurrence of C. marimammalium in waterfowl, species-specific 16S rRNA gene PCR and real-time assays were developed and used to test fecal DNA extracts from different bird (n = 13) and mammal (n = 26) species. The results showed that both assays were specific to gull fecal DNA and that C. marimammalium was present in gull fecal samples collected from the five locations in North America (California, Georgia, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Toronto, Canada) tested. Additionally, 48 DNA extracts from waters collected from six sites in southern California, Great Lakes in Michigan, Lake Erie in Ohio, and Lake Ontario in Canada presumed to be impacted with gull feces were positive by the C. marimammalium assay. Due to the widespread presence of this species in gulls and environmental waters contaminated with gull feces, targeting this bacterial species might be useful for detecting gull fecal contamination in waterfowl-impacted waters.