Phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance of Listeria spp. in Spain

Listeriosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria ivanovii. The genus Listeria currently includes 27 recognized species and is found throughout the environment. The number of systematic studies on antimicrobial resistance in L. monocytogenes isolates from domestic farms using antimicrobial substances is limited. Importantly, dairy ruminant farms are reservoir of hypervirulent lineage I L. monocytogenes isolates, previously associated with human clinical cases. Considering that the classes of antibiotics used in food-producing domestic animals are frequently the same or closely related to those used in human medicine, studies about the impact of antibiotic use on the acquisition of antibiotic resistance in Listeria spp. in domestic animal farms are, therefore, of high importance. Here, susceptibility to 25 antibiotics was determined. Eighty-one animal-related, 35 food and 21 human pathogenic Listeria spp. isolates and 114 animal-related non-pathogenic Listeria spp. isolates were tested. Whole genome sequencing data was used for molecular characterization. Regarding L. monocytogenes, 2 strains from the clinical-associated linage I showed resistance to erythromycin, both related to dairy ruminants. Acquired resistance to one antibiotic was exhibited in 1.5% of L. monocytogenes isolates compared with 14% of non-pathogenic Listeria spp. isolates. Resistance to tetracycline (7.9%), doxycycline (7.9%), penicillin (4.4%), and ampicillin (4.4%) were the most frequently observed in non-pathogenic Listeria spp. While resistance to two or more antibiotics (5.6%) was most common in Listeria spp., isolates, resistance to one antibiotic was also observed (1.6%). The present results show that non-pathogenic Listeria spp. harbour antimicrobial resistance genes.

Taxonomy, ecology, and relevance to food safety of the genus Listeria with a particular consideration of new Listeria species described between 2010 and 2022

Since 2010, the genus Listeria has had the addition of 22 new species that more than tripled the number of species identified until 2010. Sixteen of these 22 new species are distantly related to the type species, Listeria monocytogenes, and several of these present phenotypes that distinguish them from classical Listeria species (L. monocytogenes, Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria welshimeri, and Listeria grayi). These 22 newly described species also show that Listeria is more genetically diverse than previously estimated. While future studies and surveys are needed to clarify the distribution of these species, at least some of these species may not be widely spread, while other species may be frequently found spread to human-related settings (e.g., farms and processing facilities), and others may be adapted to specific environmental habitats. Here, we review the taxonomic, phylogenetic, and ecological characteristics of these new Listeria species identified since 2010 and re-iterate the suggestion of re-classification of some species into three new genera: Murraya, Mesolisteria, and Paenilisteria. We also provide a review of current detection issues and the relevance to food safety related to the identification of these new species. For example, several new non-pathogenic species could be misidentified as the pathogen L. monocytogenes, based on methods that do not target L. monocytogenes-specific virulence genes/factors, leading to unnecessary product recalls. Moreover, eight species in the proposed new genus Mesolisteria are not good indicators of environmental conditions that could allow L. monocytogenes to grow since Mesolisteria species are unable to grow at low temperatures.

Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes and other Listeria species in fish, fish products and fish processing environment: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Fish and seafood products are one of the most common causes of listeriosis in humans. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted using scientific literature to summarize available data on the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria sp. in fish, fish products and fish processing environment. Meta-analysis models were used to estimate the mean prevalence of the pathogen and to compare prevalence among the most popular fishes. Data from a total of 14,496 samples were analysed. Pooled prevalence of L. monocytogenes and Listeria sp. in raw fish was 5.8 % (95 % CI: 4.7-6.9) and 12.2 % (95 % CI: 8.9-15.5) respectively. Significantly higher results were observed for ready-to-eat products, occurrence of L. monocytogenes and Listeria sp. was 14.5 % (95 % CI: 11.1-18.0) and 21.7 % (95 % CI: 11.8-31.6) respectively. Moreover, meta-regression was performed to investigate changes in L. monocytogenes and Listeria sp. occurrence over the years and it shows a downward trend for both raw fish and RTE products. The results of the present study provide useful epidemiological information about the contamination level and distribution of Listeria sp. and L. monocytogenes among raw fish, fish products and fish processing environment.

Genomic epidemiology of the clinically dominant clonal complex 1 in the Listeria monocytogenes population in the UK

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen, typically affecting the elderly, immunocompromised patients and pregnant women. The aim of this study was to determine the population structure of L. monocytogenes clonal complex 1 (CC1) in the UK and describe the genomic epidemiology of this clinically significant CC. We interrogated a working dataset of 4073 sequences of L. monocytogenes isolated between January 2015 and December 2020 from human clinical specimens, food and/or food-production environments. A minimum spanning tree was reconstructed to determine the population structure of L. monocytogenes in the UK. Subsequent analysis focused on L. monocytogenes CC1, as the cause of the highest proportion of invasive listeriosis in humans. Sequencing data was integrated with metadata on food and environmental isolates, and information from patient questionnaires, including age, sex and clinical outcomes. All isolates either belonged to lineage I (n=1299/4073, 32%) or lineage II (n=2774/4073, 68%), with clinical isolates from human cases more likely to belong to lineage I (n=546/928, 59%) and food isolates more likely to belong to lineage II (n=2352/3067, 77%). Of the four largest CCs, CC1 (n=237) had the highest proportion of isolates from human cases of disease (CC1 n=160/237, 67.5 %; CC121 n=13/843, 2 %; CC9 n=53/360, 15 %; CC2 n=69/339, 20%). Within CC1, most cases were female (n=95/160, 59%, P=0.01771) and the highest proportion of cases were in people >60 years old (39/95, 41%, P=1.314×10-6) with a high number of them aged 20-39 years old (n=35/95, 37%) most linked to pregnancy-related listeriosis (n=29/35, 83%). Most of the male cases were in men aged over 60 years old (40/65, 62%), and most of the fatal cases in both males and females were identified in this age group (42/55, 76%). Phylogenetic analysis revealed 23 5 SNP single linkage clusters comprising 80/237 (34 %) isolates with cluster sizes ranging from 2 to 19. Five 5 SNP clusters comprised isolates from human cases and an implicated food item. Expanding the analysis to 25 SNP single linkage clusters resolved an additional two clusters linking human cases to a potential food vehicle. Analysis of demographic and clinical outcome data identified CC1 as a clinically significant cause of invasive listeriosis in the elderly population and in women of child-bearing age. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the population structure of CC1 in the UK comprised small, sparsely populated genomic clusters. Only clusters containing isolates from an implicated food vehicle, or food processing or farming environments, were resolved, emphasizing the need for clinical, food and animal-health agencies to share sequencing data in real time, and the importance of a One Health approach to public-health surveillance of listeriosis.

Tetracycline resistance in Listeria monocytogenes and L. innocua from wild black bears (Ursus americanus) in the United States is mediated by novel transposable elements

IMPORTANCE

Listeria monocytogenes causes severe foodborne illness and is the only human pathogen in the genus Listeria. Previous surveys of AMR in Listeria focused on clinical sources and food or food processing environments, with AMR in strains from wildlife and other natural ecosystems remaining under-explored. We analyzed 185 sequenced strains from wild black bears (Ursus americanus) from the United States, including 158 and 27 L. monocytogenes and L. innocua, respectively. Tetracycline resistance was the most prevalent resistance trait. In L. monocytogenes, it was encountered exclusively in serotype 4b strains with the novel Tn916-like element Tn916.1039. In contrast, three distinct, novel tetracycline resistance elements (Tn5801.UAM, Tn5801.551, and Tn6000.205) were identified in L. innocua. Interestingly, Tn5801.551 was identical to elements in L. monocytogenes from a major foodborne outbreak in the United States in 2011. The findings suggest the importance of wildlife and non-pathogenic Listeria species as reservoir for resistance elements in Listeria.

Roles of host SUMOylation in bacterial pathogenesis

Bacteria frequently interfere with the post-translational modifications of host cells to facilitate their survival and growth after invasion. SUMOylation, a reversible post-translational modification process, plays an important role in biological life activities. In addition to being critical to host cell metabolism and survival, SUMOylation also regulates gene expression and cell signal transmission. Moreover, SUMOylation in eukaryotic cells can be used by a variety of bacterial pathogens to advance bacterial invasion. In this minireview, we focused on the role and mechanism of host SUMOylation in the pathogenesis of six important clinical bacterial pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella Typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli). Taken together, this review provided new insights for understanding the unique pathogen-host interaction based on host SUMOylation and provided a novel perspective on the development of new strategies to combat bacterial infections in the future.

Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in milk in Africa: a generalized logistic mixed-effects and meta-regression modelling

Listeria outbreaks and food recalls is on the raise globally. Milk particularly is highly susceptible to Listeria as its production and storage adequately support Listeria growth. The extent of milk contamination with Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) and preventative actions to halt milk associated outbreaks in Africa are unknown. Hence, this study aimed at assessing the national and subregional prevalence of Lm in milk in Africa and identify impacting factors via generalized logistic mixed-effects (GLMEs) and meta-regression modelling. Lm-milk-specific data acquired from primary studies according to standard protocol were fitted using a GLMEs. The GLMEs was subjected to leave-one-study-out-cross-validation (LOSOCV). Factors impacting Lm prevalence in milk were assayed via a 1000-permutation-assisted meta-regression-modelling. The pooled prevalence of Lm in milk in Africa was 4.35% [2.73-6.86] with a prediction interval (PI) of 0.14-59.86% and LOSOCV value of 2.43% [1.62-3.62; PI: 0.32-16.11%]. Western Africa had the highest prevalence [20.13%, 4.13-59.59], then Southern Africa [5.85%, 0.12-75.72], Northern Africa [4.67%, 2.82-7.64], Eastern Africa [1.91%, 0.64-5.55], and there was no record from Central Africa. In term of country, Lm prevalence in milk significantly (p < 0.01) varied from 0.00 to 90.00%. Whereas the Lm prevalence was negligibly different (p = 0.77) by milk type, raw-milk had the highest prevalence [5.26%], followed by fermented-milk [4.76%], boiled-milk [2.90%], pasteurized-milk [1.64%], and powdered-milk [1.58%]. DNA extraction approach did not significantly (p = 0.07) affect Lm prevalence (Boiling [7.82%] versus Kit [7.24%]) as well as Lm detection method (p = 0.10; (ACP [3.64%] vs. CP [8.92%] vs. CS [2.27%] vs. CSP [6.82%]). Though a bivariate/multivariate combination of all tested variables in meta-regression explained 19.68-68.75% (R2) variance in Lm prevalence in milk, N, nation, and subregion singly/robustly accounted for 17.61% (F1;65 = 7.5994; p = 0.005), 63.89% (F14;52 = 4.2028; p = 0.001), and 16.54% (F3;63 = 3.4743; p = 0.026), respectively. In conclusion, it is recommended that adequate sample size should be prioritized in monitoring Lm in milk to prevent spuriously high or low prevalence to ensure robust, plausible, and credible estimate. Also, national efforts/interests and commitments to Lm monitoring should be awaken.

Prevalence, Serotypes, Antimicrobial Resistance and Biofilm-Forming Ability of Listeria monocytogenes Isolated from Bulk-Tank Bovine Milk in Northern Greece

The prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in bovine bulk-tank milk (BTM) in Greece has not been previously investigated. The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of L. monocytogenes in bovine BTM in Greece and to characterize the isolates in terms of carriage of genes encoding for pathogenic determinants, assess the isolates' biofilm-forming ability and determine their susceptibility against 12 antimicrobials. Samples (n = 138) of bovine BTM were obtained from farms located throughout Northern Greece and were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively for L. monocytogenes. Five samples (3.6%) tested positive for L. monocytogenes. The pathogen's populations in these positive samples were below 5 CFU/mL. Most isolates belonged to the molecular serogroup "1/2a, 3a". All isolates carried the virulence genes inlA, inlC, inlJ, iap, plcA and hlyA, but actA was detected in only three isolates. The isolates displayed weak to moderate biofilm-forming ability and distinct antimicrobial resistance profiles. All isolates were characterized as multidrug resistant, with resistance to penicillin and clindamycin being a common feature. Considering that L. monocytogenes constitutes a serious public health threat, the key findings of the study, related to the carriage of virulence genes and multidrug resistance, highlight the importance of continued monitoring of the pathogen in farm animals.

Duplex real-time PCR assay with high-resolution melt analysis for the detection and quantification of Listeria species and Listeria monocytogenes in meat products

Listeria contamination in foods of animal origin is one of the most concerning food safety issues. A duplex, SYBR green-based, real-time PCR assay was developed with high-resolution melting analysis-based differentiation of the genus Listeria and Listeria monocytogenes. The primers were designed and tested against other related foodborne pathogens. The assay was optimized for standard parameters in a non-orthogonal fashion and validated following international standards. The LODabs and LOQ of the assay were calculated to be 0.78 and 1.56 ng of the target DNA. The LODrel of the assay was found to be 1% Listeria DNA in background DNA. The assay was evaluated for applicability in artificially spiked samples, providing a 120 CFU/ml detection. The assay was validated with proficiency test samples and also with samples collected for surveillance analysis. This well-established and validated assay can be utilized as a qualitative and quantitative tool for addressing the Listeria contamination in the food safety contexts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05695-2.