Nuclear receptor-like transcription factors in fungi

CeGAL: Redefining a Widespread Fungal-Specific Transcription Factor Family Using an In Silico Error-Tracking Approach

In fungi, the most abundant transcription factor (TF) class contains a fungal-specific ‘GAL4-like’ Zn2C6 DNA binding domain (DBD), while the second class contains another fungal-specific domain, known as ‘fungal_trans’ or middle homology domain (MHD), whose function remains largely uncharacterized. Remarkably, almost a third of MHD-containing TFs in public sequence databases apparently lack DNA binding activity, since they are not predicted to contain a DBD. Here, we reassess the domain organization of these ‘MHD-only’ proteins using an in silico error-tracking approach. In a large-scale analysis of ~17,000 MHD-only TF sequences present in all fungal phyla except Microsporidia and Cryptomycota, we show that the vast majority (>90%) result from genome annotation errors and we are able to predict a new DBD sequence for 14,261 of them. Most of these sequences correspond to a Zn2C6 domain (82%), with a small proportion of C2H2 domains (4%) found only in Dikarya. Our results contradict previous findings that the MHD-only TF are widespread in fungi. In contrast, we show that they are exceptional cases, and that the fungal-specific Zn2C6–MHD domain pair represents the canonical domain signature defining the most predominant fungal TF family. We call this family CeGAL, after the highly characterized members: Cep3, whose 3D structure is determined, and GAL4, a eukaryotic TF archetype. We believe that this will not only improve the annotation and classification of the Zn2C6 TF but will also provide critical guidance for future fungal gene regulatory network analyses.

Evolution of non-genomic nuclear receptor function

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are responsible for the regulation of diverse developmental and physiological systems in metazoans. NR actions can be the result of genomic and non-genomic mechanisms depending on whether they act inside or outside of the nucleus respectively. While the actions of both mechanisms have been shown to be crucial to NR functions, non-genomic actions are considered less frequently than genomic actions. Furthermore, hypotheses on the origin and evolution of non-genomic NR signaling pathways are rarely discussed in the literature. Here we summarize non-genomic NR signaling mechanisms in the context of NR protein family evolution and animal phyla. We find that NRs across groups and phyla act via calcium flux as well as protein phosphorylation cascades (MAPK/PI3K/PKC). We hypothesize and discuss a possible synapomorphy of NRs in the NR1 and NR3 families, including the thyroid hormone receptor, vitamin D receptor, ecdysone receptor, retinoic acid receptor, steroid receptors, and others. In conclusion, we propose that the advent of non-genomic NR signaling may have been a driving force behind the expansion of NR diversity in Cnidarians, Placozoans, and Bilaterians.

Mediator subunit MDT-15/MED15 and Nuclear Receptor HIZR-1/HNF4 cooperate to regulate toxic metal stress responses in Caenorhabditis elegans

Zinc is essential for cellular functions as it is a catalytic and structural component of many proteins. In contrast, cadmium is not required in biological systems and is toxic. Zinc and cadmium levels are closely monitored and regulated as their excess causes cell stress. To maintain homeostasis, organisms induce metal detoxification gene programs through stress responsive transcriptional regulatory complexes. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the MDT-15 subunit of the evolutionarily conserved Mediator transcriptional coregulator is required to induce genes upon exposure to excess zinc and cadmium. However, the regulatory partners of MDT-15 in this response, its role in cellular and physiological stress adaptation, and the putative role for mammalian MED15 in the metal stress responses remain unknown. Here, we show that MDT-15 interacts physically and functionally with the Nuclear Hormone Receptor HIZR-1 to promote molecular, cellular, and organismal adaptation to cadmium and excess zinc. Using gain- and loss-of-function mutants and qRT-PCR and reporter analysis, we find that mdt-15 and hizr-1 cooperate to induce zinc and cadmium responsive genes. Moreover, the two proteins interact physically in yeast-two-hybrid assays and this interaction is enhanced by the addition of zinc or cadmium, the former a known ligand of HIZR-1. Functionally, mdt-15 and hizr-1 mutants show defective storage of excess zinc in the gut and are hypersensitive to zinc-induced reductions in egg-laying. Furthermore, mdt-15 but not hizr-1 mutants are hypersensitive to cadmium-induced reductions in egg-laying, suggesting potential divergence of regulatory pathways. Lastly, mammalian MDT-15 orthologs bind genomic regulatory regions of metallothionein and zinc transporter genes in a cadmium and zinc-stimulated fashion, and human MED15 is required to induce a metallothionein gene in lung adenocarcinoma cells exposed to cadmium. Collectively, our data show that mdt-15 and hizr-1 cooperate to regulate cadmium detoxification and zinc storage and that this mechanism is at least partially conserved in mammals.

The Mediator subunit OsMED15a is a transcriptional co-regulator of seed size/weight-modulating genes in rice

Although several transcription factors (TFs) that regulate seed size/weight in plants are known, the molecular landscape regulating this important trait is unclear. Here, we report that a Mediator subunit, OsMED15a, links rice grain size/weight-regulating TFs to their target genes. Expression analysis and high-resolution quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping suggested that OsMED15a is involved in rice seed development. OsMED15a has an N-terminal, three-helical KIX domain. Two of these helices, α1 and α3, and three amino acids, 76LRC78, within OsMED15a helix α3 were important for its interaction with several proteins, including interactions with the transactivation domains of two NAC-type TFs, OsNAC024 and OsNAC025. Moreover, OsMED15a, OsNAC024, and OsNAC025 all exhibited increased expression during seed development, and we identified several grain size/weight-associated SNPs in these genes in 509 low- and high-grain-weight rice genotypes. RNAi-mediated repression of OsMED15a expression down-regulated the expression of the grain size/weight regulating genes GW2, GW5 and DR11 and reduced grain length, weight, and yield. Of note, both OsNAC024 and OsNAC025 bound to the promoters of these three genes. We conclude that the transactivation domains of OsNAC024 and OsNAC025 target the KIX domain of OsMED15a in the regulation of grain size/weight-associated genes such as GW2, GW5, and D11. We propose that the integrated molecular-genetics approach used here could help identify networks of functional alleles of other regulator and co-regulator genes and thereby inform efforts for marker-assisted introgression of useful alleles in rice crop improvement.

Live-cell assays reveal selectivity and sensitivity of the multidrug response in budding yeast

Pleiotropic drug resistance arises by the enhanced extrusion of bioactive molecules and is present in a wide range of organisms, ranging from fungi to human cells. A key feature of this adaptation is the sensitive detection of intracellular xenobiotics by transcriptional activators, activating expression of multiple drug exporters. Here, we investigated the selectivity and sensitivity of the budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) multidrug response to better understand how differential drug recognition leads to specific activation of drug exporter genes and to drug resistance. Applying live-cell luciferase reporters, we demonstrate that the SNQ2, PDR5, PDR15, and YOR1 transporter genes respond to different mycotoxins, menadione, and hydrogen peroxide in a distinguishable manner and with characteristic amplitudes, dynamics, and sensitivities. These responses correlated with differential sensitivities of the respective transporter mutants to the specific xenobiotics. We further establish a binary vector system, enabling quantitative determination of xenobiotic-transcription factor (TF) interactions in real time. Applying this system we found that the TFs Pdr1, Pdr3, Yrr1, Stb5, and Pdr8 have largely different drug recognition patterns. We noted that Pdr1 is the most promiscuous activator, whereas Yrr1 and Stb5 are selective for ochratoxin A and hydrogen peroxide, respectively. We also show that Pdr1 is rapidly degraded after xenobiotic exposure, which leads to a desensitization of the Pdr1-specific response upon repeated activation. The findings of our work indicate that in the yeast multidrug system, several transcriptional activators with distinguishable selectivities trigger differential activation of the transporter genes.

A phosphorylated transcription factor regulates sterol biosynthesis in Fusarium graminearum

Sterol biosynthesis is controlled by transcription factor SREBP in many eukaryotes. Here, we show that SREBP orthologs are not involved in the regulation of sterol biosynthesis in Fusarium graminearum, a fungal pathogen of cereal crops worldwide. Instead, sterol production is controlled in this organism by a different transcription factor, FgSR, that forms a homodimer and binds to a 16-bp cis-element of its target gene promoters containing two conserved CGAA repeat sequences. FgSR is phosphorylated by the MAP kinase FgHog1, and the phosphorylated FgSR interacts with the chromatin remodeling complex SWI/SNF at the target genes, leading to enhanced transcription. Interestingly, FgSR orthologs exist only in Sordariomycetes and Leotiomycetes fungi. Additionally, FgSR controls virulence mainly via modulating deoxynivalenol biosynthesis and responses to phytoalexin.

A role for the transcription factor Mca1 in activating the meiosis-specific copper transporter Mfc1

When reproduction in fungi takes place by sexual means, meiosis enables the formation of haploid spores from diploid precursor cells. Copper is required for completion of meiosis in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. During the meiotic program, genes encoding copper transporters exhibit distinct temporal expression profiles. In the case of the major facilitator copper transporter 1 (Mfc1), its maximal expression is induced during middle-phase meiosis and requires the presence of the Zn₆Cys₂ binuclear cluster-type transcription factor Mca1. In this study, we further characterize the mechanism by which Mca1 affects the copper-starvation-induced expression of mfc1⁺. Using a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) approach, results showed that a functional Mca1-TAP occupies the mfc1⁺ promoter irrespective of whether this gene is transcriptionally active. Under conditions of copper starvation, results showed that the presence of Mca1 promotes RNA polymerase II (Pol II) occupancy along the mfc1⁺ transcribed region. In contrast, Pol II did not significantly occupy the mfc1⁺ locus in meiotic cells that were incubated in the presence of copper. Further analysis by ChIP assays revealed that binding of Pol II to chromatin at the chromosomal locus of mfc1⁺ is exclusively detected during meiosis and absent in cells proliferating in mitosis. Protein function analysis of a series of internal mutants compared to the full-length Mca1 identified a minimal form of Mca1 consisting of its DNA-binding domain (residues 1 to 150) fused to the amino acids 299 to 600. This shorter form is sufficient to enhance Pol II occupancy at the mfc1⁺ locus under low copper conditions. Taken together, these results revealed novel characteristics of Mca1 and identified an internal region of Mca1 that is required to promote Pol II-dependent mfc1⁺ transcription during meiosis.

A Xenobiotic Detoxification Pathway through Transcriptional Regulation in Filamentous Fungi

Fungi are known to utilize transcriptional regulation of genes that encode efflux transporters to detoxify xenobiotics; however, to date it is unknown how fungi transcriptionally regulate and coordinate different phases of detoxification system (phase I, modification; phase II, conjugation; and phase III, secretion). Here we present evidence of an evolutionary convergence between the fungal and mammalian lineages, whereby xenobiotic detoxification genes (phase I coding for cytochrome P450 monooxygenases [CYP450s] and phase III coding for ATP-binding cassette [ABC] efflux transporters) are transcriptionally regulated by structurally unrelated proteins. Following next-generation RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of a filamentous fungus, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa, the causal agent of dollar spot on turfgrasses, a multidrug resistant (MDR) field strain was found to overexpress phase I and III genes, coding for CYP450s and ABC transporters for xenobiotic detoxification. Furthermore, there was confirmation of a gain-of-function mutation of the fungus-specific transcription factor S. homoeocarpa XDR1 (ShXDR1), which is responsible for constitutive and induced overexpression of the phase I and III genes, resulting in resistance to multiple classes of fungicidal chemicals. This fungal pathogen detoxifies xenobiotics through coordinated transcriptional control of CYP450s, biotransforming xenobiotics with different substrate specificities and ABC transporters, excreting a broad spectrum of xenobiotics or biotransformed metabolites. A Botrytis cinerea strain harboring the mutated ShXDR1 showed increased expression of phase I (BcCYP65) and III (BcatrD) genes, resulting in resistance to fungicides. This indicates the regulatory system is conserved in filamentous fungi. This molecular genetic mechanism for xenobiotic detoxification in fungi holds potential for facilitating discovery of new antifungal drugs and further studies of convergent and divergent evolution of xenobiotic detoxification in eukaryote lineages.IMPORTANCE Emerging multidrug resistance (MDR) in pathogenic filamentous fungi is a significant threat to human health and agricultural production. Understanding mechanisms of MDR is essential to combating fungal pathogens; however, there is still limited information on MDR mechanisms conferred by xenobiotic detoxification. Here, we report for the first time that overexpression of phase I drug-metabolizing monooxygenases (cytochrome P450s) and phase III ATP-binding cassette efflux transporters is regulated by a gain-of-function mutation in the fungus-specific transcription factor in the MDR strains of the filamentous plant-pathogenic fungus Sclerotinia homoeocarpa This study establishes a novel molecular mechanism of MDR through the xenobiotic detoxification pathway in filamentous fungi, which may facilitate the discovery of new antifungal drugs to control pathogenic fungi.

Molecular basis of resistance to the microtubule-depolymerizing antitumor compound plocabulin

Plocabulin (PM060184) is a microtubule depolymerizing agent with potent antiproliferative activity undergoing phase II clinical trials for the treatment of solid tumors. Plocabulin shows antifungal activity virtually abolishing growth of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. A. nidulans hyphae depend both on mitotic and interphase microtubules, as human cells. Here, we exploited the A. nidulans genetic amenability to gain insight into the mechanism of action of plocabulin. By combining mutations in the two A. nidulans β-tubulin isotypes we obtained a plocabulin-insensitive strain, showing that β-tubulin is the only molecular target of plocabulin in fungal cells. From a genetic screen, we recovered five mutants that show plocabulin resistance but do not carry mutations in β-tubulin. Resistance mutations resulted in amino acid substitutions in (1) two subunits of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2B activating the General Amino Acid Control, (2) TIM44, an essential component of the inner mitochondrial membrane translocase, (3) two transcription factors of the binuclear zinc cluster family potentially interfering with the uptake or efflux of plocabulin. Given the conservation of some of the identified proteins and their respective cellular functions in the tumor environment, our results pinpoint candidates to be tested as potential biomarkers for determination of drug efficiency.

Mediator Tail Module Is Required for Tac1-Activated CDR1 Expression and Azole Resistance in Candida albicans

The human fungal pathogen Candida albicans develops drug resistance after long-term exposure to azole drugs in the treatment of chronic candidiasis. Gain-of-function (GOF) mutations in the transcription factor Tac1 and the consequent expression of its targets, drug efflux pumps Cdr1 and Cdr2, are a common mechanism by which C. albicans acquires fluconazole resistance. The mechanism by which GOF mutations hyperactivate Tac1 is currently unknown. Here, we define a transcriptional activation domain (TAD) at the C terminus of Tac1. GOF mutations within the Tac1 TAD, outside the context of full-length Tac1, generally do not enhance its absolute potential as a transcriptional activator. Negative regulation of the Tac1 TAD by the Tac1 middle region is necessary for the activating effect of GOF mutations or fluphenazine to be realized. We have found that full-length Tac1, when hyperactivated by xenobiotics or GOF mutations, facilitates the recruitment of the Mediator coactivator complex to the CDR1 promoter. Azole resistance and the activation of Tac1 target genes, such as CDR1, are dependent on the Tac1 TAD and subunits of the Mediator tail module. The dependence of different Tac1 target promoters on the Mediator tail module, however, varies widely. Lastly, we show that hyperactivation of Tac1 is correlated with its Mediator-dependent phosphorylation, a potentially useful biomarker for Tac1 hyperactivation. The role of Mediator in events downstream of Tac1 hyperactivation in fluconazole-resistant clinical isolates is complex and provides opportunities and challenges for therapeutic intervention.

Trichoplax adhaerens reveals a network of nuclear receptors sensitive to 9-cis-retinoic acid at the base of metazoan evolution

Trichoplax adhaerens, the only known species of Placozoa is likely to be closely related to an early metazoan that preceded branching of Cnidaria and Bilateria. This animal species is surprisingly well adapted to free life in the World Ocean inhabiting tidal costal zones of oceans and seas with warm to moderate temperatures and shallow waters. The genome of T. adhaerens (sp. Grell) includes four nuclear receptors, namely orthologue of RXR (NR2B), HNF4 (NR2A), COUP-TF (NR2F) and ERR (NR3B) that show a high degree of similarity with human orthologues. In the case of RXR, the sequence identity to human RXR alpha reaches 81% in the DNA binding domain and 70% in the ligand binding domain. We show that T. adhaerens RXR (TaRXR) binds 9-cis retinoic acid (9-cis-RA) with high affinity, as well as high specificity and that exposure of T. adhaerens to 9-cis-RA regulates the expression of the putative T. adhaerens orthologue of vertebrate L-malate-NADP⁺ oxidoreductase (EC 1.1.1.40) which in vertebrates is regulated by a heterodimer of RXR and thyroid hormone receptor. Treatment by 9-cis-RA alters the relative expression profile of T. adhaerens nuclear receptors, suggesting the existence of natural ligands. Keeping with this, algal food composition has a profound effect on T. adhaerens growth and appearance. We show that nanomolar concentrations of 9-cis-RA interfere with T. adhaerens growth response to specific algal food and causes growth arrest. Our results uncover an endocrine-like network of nuclear receptors sensitive to 9-cis-RA in T. adhaerens and support the existence of a ligand-sensitive network of nuclear receptors at the base of metazoan evolution.

Phytohormone sensing in the biotrophic fungus Ustilago maydis - the dual role of the transcription factor Rss1

The phenolic compound salicylic acid (SA) is a key signalling molecule regulating local and systemic plant defense responses, mainly against biotrophs. Many microbial organisms, including pathogens, share the ability to degrade SA. However, the mechanism by which they perceive SA is unknown. Here we show that Ustilago maydis, the causal agent of corn smut disease, employs a so far uncharacterized SA sensing mechanism. We identified and characterized the novel SA sensing regulator, Rss1, a binuclear zinc cluster protein with dual functions as putative SA receptor and transcriptional activator regulating genes important for SA and tryptophan degradation. Rss1 represents a major component in the identified SA sensing pathway during the fungus' saprophytic stage. However, Rss1 does not have a detectable impact on virulence. The data presented in this work indicate that alternative or redundant sensing cascades exist that regulate the expression of SA-responsive genes in U. maydis during its pathogenic development.

Human transcription factors in yeast: the fruitful examples of P53 and NF-кB

The observation that human transcription factors (TFs) can function when expressed in yeast cells has stimulated the development of various functional assays to investigate (i) the role of binding site sequences (herein referred to as response elements, REs) in transactivation specificity, (ii) the impact of polymorphic nucleotide variants on transactivation potential, (iii) the functional consequences of mutations in TFs and (iv) the impact of cofactors or small molecules. These approaches have found applications in basic as well as applied research, including the identification and the characterisation of mutant TF alleles from clinical samples. The ease of genome editing of yeast cells and the availability of regulated systems for ectopic protein expression enabled the development of quantitative reporter systems, integrated at a chosen chromosomal locus in isogenic yeast strains that differ only at the level of a specific RE targeted by a TF or for the expression of distinct TF alleles. In many cases, these assays were proven predictive of results in higher eukaryotes. The potential to work in small volume formats and the availability of yeast strains with modified chemical uptake have enhanced the scalability of these approaches. Next to well-established one-, two-, three-hybrid assays, the functional assays with non-chimeric human TFs enrich the palette of opportunities for functional characterisation. We review ∼25 years of research on human sequence-specific TFs expressed in yeast, with an emphasis on the P53 and NF-кB family of proteins, highlighting outcomes, advantages, challenges and limitations of these heterologous assays.

Tryptophan 299 is a conserved residue of human pregnane X receptor critical for the functional consequence of ligand binding

PXR is a xenobiotic receptor that regulates drug metabolism by regulating the expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes including CYP3A4. It can be modulated by chemicals with different structures, functional groups and sizes. X-ray crystal structures of the ligand binding domain of human PXR (hPXR) alone or bound with agonists reveal a highly hydrophobic ligand binding pocket where the aromatic amino acid residue W299 appears to play a critical role in ligand binding. Here, we have investigated the role of W299 on the functional consequence of hPXR ligand binding. We first found that substitution of W299 with a hydrophobic residue retained its response to rifampicin, but substitution with a charged residue altered such agonist response in activating the transcription of CYP3A4. The activity of hPXR mutants on CYP3A4 expression correlates with the ability of hPXR mutants to interact with co-activator SRC-1. We further demonstrated that the effect of replacing W299 by residues with different side chains on hPXR's function varied depending on the specific agonist used. Finally we interpreted the cellular activity of the hPXR mutants by analyzing reported crystallographic data and proposing a model. Our findings reveal the essential role of W299 in the transactivation of hPXR in response to agonist binding, and provide useful information for designing modulators of hPXR.

A Novel Type Pathway-Specific Regulator and Dynamic Genome Environments of a Solanapyrone Biosynthesis Gene Cluster in the Fungus Ascochyta rabiei

Secondary metabolite genes are often clustered together and situated in particular genomic regions, like the subtelomere, that can facilitate niche adaptation in fungi. Solanapyrones are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi occupying different ecological niches. Full-genome sequencing of the ascomycete Ascochyta rabiei revealed a solanapyrone biosynthesis gene cluster embedded in an AT-rich region proximal to a telomere end and surrounded by Tc1/Mariner-type transposable elements. The highly AT-rich environment of the solanapyrone cluster is likely the product of repeat-induced point mutations. Several secondary metabolism-related genes were found in the flanking regions of the solanapyrone cluster. Although the solanapyrone cluster appears to be resistant to repeat-induced point mutations, a P450 monooxygenase gene adjacent to the cluster has been degraded by such mutations. Among the six solanapyrone cluster genes (sol1 to sol6), sol4 encodes a novel type of Zn(II)2Cys6 zinc cluster transcription factor. Deletion of sol4 resulted in the complete loss of solanapyrone production but did not compromise growth, sporulation, or virulence. Gene expression studies with the sol4 deletion and sol4-overexpressing mutants delimited the boundaries of the solanapyrone gene cluster and revealed that sol4 is likely a specific regulator of solanapyrone biosynthesis and appears to be necessary and sufficient for induction of the solanapyrone cluster genes. Despite the dynamic surrounding genomic regions, the solanapyrone gene cluster has maintained its integrity, suggesting important roles of solanapyrones in fungal biology.

Epigenetic and Posttranslational Modifications in Light Signal Transduction and the Circadian Clock in Neurospora crassa

Blue light, a key abiotic signal, regulates a wide variety of physiological processes in many organisms. One of these phenomena is the circadian rhythm presents in organisms sensitive to the phase-setting effects of blue light and under control of the daily alternation of light and dark. Circadian clocks consist of autoregulatory alternating negative and positive feedback loops intimately connected with the cellular metabolism and biochemical processes. Neurospora crassa provides an excellent model for studying the molecular mechanisms involved in these phenomena. The White Collar Complex (WCC), a blue-light receptor and transcription factor of the circadian oscillator, and Frequency (FRQ), the circadian clock pacemaker, are at the core of the Neurospora circadian system. The eukaryotic circadian clock relies on transcriptional/translational feedback loops: some proteins rhythmically repress their own synthesis by inhibiting the activity of their transcriptional factors, generating self-sustained oscillations over a period of about 24 h. One of the basic mechanisms that perpetuate self-sustained oscillations is post translation modification (PTM). The acronym PTM generically indicates the addition of acetyl, methyl, sumoyl, or phosphoric groups to various types of proteins. The protein can be regulatory or enzymatic or a component of the chromatin. PTMs influence protein stability, interaction, localization, activity, and chromatin packaging. Chromatin modification and PTMs have been implicated in regulating circadian clock function in Neurospora. Research into the epigenetic control of transcription factors such as WCC has yielded new insights into the temporal modulation of light-dependent gene transcription. Here we report on epigenetic and protein PTMs in the regulation of the Neurospora crassa circadian clock. We also present a model that illustrates the molecular mechanisms at the basis of the blue light control of the circadian clock.

Genome sequencing of the Trichoderma reesei QM9136 mutant identifies a truncation of the transcriptional regulator XYR1 as the cause for its cellulase-negative phenotype

Background

Trichoderma reesei is the main industrial source of cellulases and hemicellulases required for the hydrolysis of biomass to simple sugars, which can then be used in the production of biofuels and biorefineries. The highly productive strains in use today were generated by classical mutagenesis. As byproducts of this procedure, mutants were generated that turned out to be unable to produce cellulases. In order to identify the mutations responsible for this inability, we sequenced the genome of one of these strains, QM9136, and compared it to that of its progenitor T. reesei QM6a.

Results

In QM9136, we detected a surprisingly low number of mutagenic events in the promoter and coding regions of genes, i.e. only eight indels and six single nucleotide variants. One of these indels led to a frame-shift in the Zn₂Cys₆ transcription factor XYR1, the general regulator of cellulase and xylanase expression, and resulted in its C-terminal truncation by 140 amino acids. Retransformation of strain QM9136 with the wild-type xyr1 allele fully recovered the ability to produce cellulases, and is thus the reason for the cellulase-negative phenotype. Introduction of an engineered xyr1 allele containing the truncating point mutation into the moderate producer T. reesei QM9414 rendered this strain also cellulase-negative. The correspondingly truncated XYR1 protein was still able to enter the nucleus, but failed to be expressed over the basal constitutive level.

Conclusion

The missing 140 C-terminal amino acids of XYR1 are therefore responsible for its previously observed auto-regulation which is essential for cellulases to be expressed. Our data present a working example of the use of genome sequencing leading to a functional explanation of the QM9136 cellulase-negative phenotype.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1526-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Structural mechanism of ergosterol regulation by fungal sterol transcription factor Upc2

Transcriptional regulation of ergosterol biosynthesis in fungi is crucial for sterol homeostasis and for resistance to azole drugs. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Upc2 transcription factor activates the expression of related genes in response to sterol depletion by poorly understood mechanisms. We have determined the structure of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of Upc2, which displays a novel α-helical fold with a deep hydrophobic pocket. We discovered that the conserved CTD is a ligand-binding domain and senses the ergosterol level in the cell. Ergosterol binding represses its transcription activity, while dissociation of the ligand leads to relocalization of Upc2 from cytosol to nucleus for transcriptional activation. The C-terminal activation loop is essential for ligand binding and for transcriptional regulation. Our findings highlight that Upc2 represents a novel class of fungal zinc cluster transcription factors, which can serve as a target for the developments of antifungal therapeutics.

The Mediator complex of Caenorhabditis elegans: insights into the developmental and physiological roles of a conserved transcriptional coregulator

The Mediator multiprotein complex (‘Mediator’) is an important transcriptional coregulator that is evolutionarily conserved throughout eukaryotes. Although some Mediator subunits are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes, others influence the expression of only subsets of genes and participate selectively in cellular signaling pathways. Here, we review the current knowledge of Mediator subunit function in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a metazoan in which established and emerging genetic technologies facilitate the study of developmental and physiological regulation in vivo. In this nematode, unbiased genetic screens have revealed critical roles for Mediator components in core developmental pathways such as epidermal growth factor (EGF) and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. More recently, important roles for C. elegans Mediator subunits have emerged in the regulation of lipid metabolism and of systemic stress responses, engaging conserved transcription factors such as nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs). We emphasize instances where similar functions for individual Mediator subunits exist in mammals, highlighting parallels between Mediator subunit action in nematode development and in human cancer biology. We also discuss a parallel between the association of the Mediator subunit MED12 with several human disorders and the role of its C. elegans ortholog mdt-12 as a regulatory hub that interacts with numerous signaling pathways.

Mechanisms of Antifungal Drug Resistance

Antifungal therapy is a central component of patient management for acute and chronic mycoses. Yet, treatment choices are restricted because of the sparse number of antifungal drug classes. Clinical management of fungal diseases is further compromised by the emergence of antifungal drug resistance, which eliminates available drug classes as treatment options. Once considered a rare occurrence, antifungal drug resistance is on the rise in many high-risk medical centers. Most concerning is the evolution of multidrug- resistant organisms refractory to several different classes of antifungal agents, especially among common Candida species. The mechanisms responsible are mostly shared by both resistant strains displaying inherently reduced susceptibility and those acquiring resistance during therapy. The molecular mechanisms include altered drug affinity and target abundance, reduced intracellular drug levels caused by efflux pumps, and formation of biofilms. New insights into genetic factors regulating these mechanisms, as well as cellular factors important for stress adaptation, provide a foundation to better understand the emergence of antifungal drug resistance.

Frienemies of infection: A chronic case of host nuclear receptors acting as cohorts or combatants of infection

Macrophages and dendritic cells provide critical effector functions to efficiently resist and promptly eliminate infection. Pattern recognition receptors signaling operative in these cell types is imperative for their innate properties. However, it is now emerging that besides these conventional signaling pathways, nuclear receptors coupled gene regulation and transrepression pathways assemble immune regulatory networks. A couple of these networks associated with members of nuclear receptor superfamily decide heterogeneity in macrophages and dendritic cells population and thereby play decisive role in determining protective immunity against bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and helminths. Pathogens also direct shift in the expression of nuclear receptors and their target genes and this is proclaimed to be a sui generis mechanism whereby microbes disconnect the genomic component from the peripheral immune response. Many endogenous and synthetic nuclear receptor ligands have been tested in various in vitro and in vivo infection models to study their effect on pathogen burden. Here, we discuss current advances in our understanding of the composite interactions between nuclear receptor and pathogens and their implications on the causatum infectious diseases.

An investigation into eukaryotic pseudouridine synthases

A common post-transcriptional modification of RNA is the conversion of uridine to its isomer pseudouridine. We investigated the biological significance of eukaryotic pseudouridine synthases using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We conducted a comprehensive statistical analysis on growth data from automated perturbation (gene deletion) experiments, and used bi-logistic curve analysis to characterise the yeast phenotypes. The deletant strains displayed different alteration in growth properties, including in some cases enhanced growth and/or biphasic growth curves not seen in wild-type strains under matched conditions. These results demonstrate that disrupting pseudouridine synthases can have a significant qualitative effect on growth. We further investigated the significance of post-transcriptional pseudouridine modification through investigation of the scientific literature. We found that (1) In Toxoplasma gondii, a pseudouridine synthase gene is critical in cellular differentiation between the two asexual forms: Tachyzoites and bradyzoites; (2) Mutation of pseudouridine synthase genes has also been implicated in human diseases (mitochondrial myopathy and sideroblastic anemia (MLASA); dyskeratosis congenita). Taken together, these results are consistent with pseudouridine synthases having a Gene Ontology function of "biological regulation".

The conserved Mediator subunit MDT-15 is required for oxidative stress responses in Caenorhabditis elegans

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play important signaling roles in metazoans, but also cause significant molecular damage. Animals tightly control ROS levels using sophisticated defense mechanisms, yet the transcriptional pathways that induce ROS defense remain incompletely understood. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the transcription factor SKN-1 is considered a master regulator for detoxification and oxidative stress responses. Here, we show that MDT-15, a subunit of the conserved Mediator complex, is also required for oxidative stress responses in nematodes. Specifically, mdt-15 is required to express SKN-1 targets upon chemical and genetic increase in SKN-1 activity. mdt-15 is also required to express genes in SKN-1-dependent and SKN-1-independent fashions downstream of insulin/IGF-1 signaling and for the longevity of daf-2/insulin receptor mutants. At the molecular level, MDT-15 binds SKN-1 through a region distinct from the classical transcription-factor-binding KIX-domain. Moreover, mdt-15 is essential for the transcriptional response to and survival on the organic peroxide tert-butyl-hydroperoxide (tBOOH), a largely SKN-1-independent response. The MDT-15 interacting nuclear hormone receptor, NHR-64, is specifically required for tBOOH but not arsenite resistance, but NHR-64 is dispensable for the transcriptional response to tBOOH. Hence, NHR-64 and MDT-15’s mode of action remain elusive. Lastly, the role of MDT-15 in oxidative stress defense is functionally separable from its function in fatty acid metabolism, as exogenous polyunsaturated fatty acid complementation rescues developmental, but not stress sensitivity phenotypes of mdt-15 worms. Our findings reveal novel conserved players in the oxidative stress response and suggest a broad cytoprotective role for MDT-15.

A role for FACT in repopulation of nucleosomes at inducible genes

Xenobiotic drugs induce Pleiotropic Drug Resistance (PDR) genes via the orthologous Pdr1/Pdr3 transcription activators. We previously identified the Mediator transcription co-activator complex as a key target of Pdr1 orthologs and demonstrated that Pdr1 interacts directly with the Gal11/Med15 subunit of the Mediator complex. Based on an interaction between Pdr1 and the FACT complex, we show that strains with spt16 or pob3 mutations are sensitive to xenobiotic drugs and display diminished PDR gene induction. Although FACT acts during the activation of some genes by assisting in the nucleosomes eviction at promoters, PDR promoters already contain nucleosome-depleted regions (NDRs) before induction. To determine the function of FACT at PDR genes, we examined the kinetics of RNA accumulation and changes in nucleosome occupancy following exposure to a xenobiotic drug in wild type and FACT mutant yeast strains. In the presence of normal FACT, PDR genes are transcribed within 5 minutes of xenobiotic stimulation and transcription returns to basal levels by 30–40 min. Nucleosomes are constitutively depleted in the promoter regions, are lost from the open reading frames during transcription, and the ORFs are wholly repopulated with nucleosomes as transcription ceases. While FACT mutations cause minor delays in activation of PDR genes, much more pronounced and significant defects in nucleosome repopulation in the ORFs are observed in FACT mutants upon transcription termination. FACT therefore has a major role in nucleosome redeposition following cessation of transcription at the PDR genes, the opposite of its better-known function in nucleosome disassembly.

Glucocorticoid receptors on and in a unicellular organism, Cryptobia salmositica

This is the first report to our knowledge that demonstrates a functional steroid hormone receptor in a protozoon. The study used Cryptobia salmositica, a pathogenic haemoflagellate found in salmonid fishes. It has been previously shown that cortisol and dexamethasone (a synthetic glucocorticoid) enhanced the multiplication of C. salmositica under in vitro conditions indicating the presence of glucocorticoid receptors on/in the parasite. Also, the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, mifepristone (RU486), inhibited the stimulatory effect of the two glucocorticoids on parasite multiplication. In the present study, we used an antibody (produced in a rabbit against glucocorticoid receptor protein) agglutination test and confocal microscopy with immunohistofluorescence staining to demonstrate cortisol-glucocorticoid receptor-like protein receptors on the plasma membrane and in the cytoplasm of the parasite. In two in vitro studies, the addition of 50ngml(-1) of RU486 was more effective in inhibiting parasite replication in cultures with 7,000parasitesml(-1) than in cultures with 14,000parasitesml(-1). Also, 100ngml(-1) of RU486/ml was more effective than 50ngml(-1) in inhibiting parasite multiplication in the 14,000 parasitesml(-1) cultures. These in vitro studies indicate that the number of binding sites on/in the parasite is finite. The findings may be important in future studies especially on steroid receptor signalling pathways and dissection of ligand-receptor interactions, and for evaluating the adaptations that develop in pathogens as part of the host-parasite interaction.

Physical association of the WC-1 photoreceptor and the histone acetyltransferase NGF-1 is required for blue light signal transduction in Neurospora crassa

In Neurospora crassa and other filamentous fungi, light-dependent-specific phenomena are regulated by transcription factors WC-1 and WC-2. In addition to its transcriptional activity, WC-1 is able to directly sense light stimuli through a LOV sensor domain. Its location in the nucleus and heterodimerization with WC-2, together with the presence of a zinc-finger DNA-binding domain and an environmental sensor domain, all resemble the functional evolutionary architecture adopted by vertebrate nuclear receptors (NRs). Here we describe a scenario in which WC-1 represents a functional orthologue of NRs and acts through association with the chromatin-modifying coactivator NGF-1, which encodes a homologue of the yeast Gcn5p acetyltransferase. To support this view, we show a direct association between WC-1 and NGF-1 that depends on a WC-1 region containing a conserved functional LXXLL motif, a signature previously described as being an exclusive feature of NR/coactivator interaction. Our data suggest that a WC-1/NGF-1 complex is preassembled in the dark on light-inducible promoters and that, after exposure to light stimulation, NGF-1-associated HAT activity leads to histone H3 acetylation and transcriptional activation. Finally, we provide evidence for a NGF-1-independent acetylated form of WC-1. Overall our data indicate that Neurospora and higher eukaryotes share a common mechanism for the signal transduction of environmental stimuli.

Functional dissection of a Candida albicans zinc cluster transcription factor, the multidrug resistance regulator Mrr1

The overexpression of the MDR1 gene, which encodes a multidrug efflux pump of the major facilitator superfamily, is a frequent cause of resistance to the widely used antimycotic agent fluconazole and other toxic compounds in the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. The zinc cluster transcription factor Mrr1 controls MDR1 expression in response to inducing chemicals, and gain-of-function mutations in MRR1 are responsible for the constitutive MDR1 upregulation in fluconazole-resistant C. albicans strains. To understand how Mrr1 activity is regulated, we identified functional domains of this transcription factor. A hybrid protein consisting of the N-terminal 106 amino acids of Mrr1 and the transcriptional activation domain of Gal4 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae constitutively induced MDR1 expression, demonstrating that the DNA binding domain is sufficient to target Mrr1 to the MDR1 promoter. Using a series of C-terminal truncations and systematic internal deletions, we could show that Mrr1 contains multiple activation and inhibitory domains. One activation domain (AD1) is located in the C terminus of Mrr1. When fused to the tetracycline repressor TetR, this distal activation domain induced gene expression from a TetR-dependent promoter. The deletion of an inhibitory region (ID1) located near the distal activation domain resulted in constitutive activity of Mrr1. The additional removal of AD1 abolished the constitutive activity, but the truncated Mrr1 still could activate the MDR1 promoter in response to the inducer benomyl. These results demonstrate that the activity of Mrr1 is regulated in multiple ways and provide insights into the function of an important mediator of drug resistance in C. albicans.

Thyroid hormone receptor mutations in cancer and resistance to thyroid hormone: perspective and prognosis

Thyroid hormone, operating through its receptors, plays crucial roles in the control of normal human physiology and development; deviations from the norm can give rise to disease. Clinical endocrinologists often must confront and correct the consequences of inappropriately high or low thyroid hormone synthesis. Although more rare, disruptions in thyroid hormone endocrinology due to aberrations in the receptor also have severe medical consequences. This review will focus on the afflictions that are caused by, or are closely associated with, mutated thyroid hormone receptors. These include Resistance to Thyroid Hormone Syndrome, erythroleukemia, hepatocellular carcinoma, renal clear cell carcinoma, and thyroid cancer. We will describe current views on the molecular bases of these diseases, and what distinguishes the neoplastic from the non-neoplastic. We will also touch on studies that implicate alterations in receptor expression, and thyroid hormone levels, in certain oncogenic processes.

Yeast zinc cluster proteins Dal81 and Uga3 cooperate by targeting common coactivators for transcriptional activation of γ-aminobutyrate responsive genes

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, optimal utilization of various compounds as a nitrogen source is mediated by a complex transcriptional network. The zinc cluster protein Dal81 is a general activator of nitrogen metabolic genes, including those for γ-aminobutyrate (GABA). In contrast, Uga3 (another zinc cluster protein) is an activator restricted to the control of genes involved in utilization of GABA. Uga3 binds to DNA elements found in the promoters of target genes and increases their expression in the presence of GABA. Dal81 appears to act as a coactivator since the DNA-binding activity of this factor is dispensable but its mode of action is not known. In this study, we have mapped a regulatory, as well as an activating, region for Uga3. A LexA-Uga3 chimeric protein activates a lexA reporter in a GABA- and Dal81-dependent manner. Activation by Uga3 requires the SAGA complex as well as Gal11, a component of mediator. ChIP analysis revealed that Uga3 is weakly bound to target promoters. The presence of GABA enhances binding of Uga3 and allows recruitment of Dal81 and Gal11 to target genes. Recruitment of Gal11 is prevented in the absence of Dal81. Importantly, Dal81 by itself is a potent activator when tethered to DNA and its activity depends on SAGA and Gal11 but not Uga3. Overexpression of Uga3 bypasses the requirement for Dal81 but not for SAGA or Gal11. Thus, under artificial conditions, both Dal81 and Uga3 can activate transcription independently of each other. However, under physiological conditions, both factors cooperate by targeting common coactivators.

Nuclear receptors from the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi lack a zinc-finger DNA-binding domain: lineage-specific loss or ancestral condition in the emergence of the nuclear receptor superfamily?

BACKGROUND

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are an ancient superfamily of metazoan transcription factors that play critical roles in regulation of reproduction, development, and energetic homeostasis. Although the evolutionary relationships among NRs are well-described in two prominent clades of animals (deuterostomes and protostomes), comparatively little information has been reported on the diversity of NRs in early diverging metazoans. Here, we identified NRs from the phylum Ctenophora and used a phylogenomic approach to explore the emergence of the NR superfamily in the animal kingdom. In addition, to gain insight into conserved or novel functions, we examined NR expression during ctenophore development.

RESULTS

We report the first described NRs from the phylum Ctenophora: two from Mnemiopsis leidyi and one from Pleurobrachia pileus. All ctenophore NRs contained a ligand-binding domain and grouped with NRs from the subfamily NR2A (HNF4). Surprisingly, all the ctenophore NRs lacked the highly conserved DNA-binding domain (DBD). NRs from Mnemiopsis were expressed in different regions of developing ctenophores. One was broadly expressed in the endoderm during gastrulation. The second was initially expressed in the ectoderm during gastrulation, in regions corresponding to the future tentacles; subsequent expression was restricted to the apical organ. Phylogenetic analyses of NRs from ctenophores, sponges, cnidarians, and a placozoan support the hypothesis that expansion of the superfamily occurred in a step-wise fashion, with initial radiations in NR family 2, followed by representatives of NR families 3, 6, and 1/4 originating prior to the appearance of the bilaterian ancestor.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides the first description of NRs from ctenophores, including the full complement from Mnemiopsis. Ctenophores have the least diverse NR complement of any animal phylum with representatives that cluster with only one subfamily (NR2A). Ctenophores and sponges have a similarly restricted NR complement supporting the hypothesis that the original NR was HNF4-like and that these lineages are the first two branches from the animal tree. The absence of a zinc-finger DNA-binding domain in the two ctenophore species suggests two hypotheses: this domain may have been secondarily lost within the ctenophore lineage or, if ctenophores are the first branch off the animal tree, the original NR may have lacked the canonical DBD. Phylogenomic analyses and categorization of NRs from all four early diverging animal phyla compared with the complement from bilaterians suggest the rate of NR diversification prior to the cnidarian-bilaterian split was relatively modest, with independent radiations of several NR subfamilies within the cnidarian lineage.

A catalogue of eukaryotic transcription factor types, their evolutionary origin, and species distribution

Transcription factors (TFs) play key roles in the regulation of gene expression by binding in a sequence-specific manner to genomic DNA. In eukaryotes, DNA binding is achieved by a wide range of structural forms and motifs. TFs are typically classified by their DNA-binding domain (DBD) type. In this chapter, we catalogue and survey 91 different TF DBD types in metazoa, plants, fungi, and protists. We briefly discuss well-characterized TF families representing the major DBD superclasses. We also examine the species distributions and inferred evolutionary histories of the various families, and the potential roles played by TF family expansion and dimerization.

Nuclear Receptors: Small Molecule Sensors that Coordinate Growth, Metabolism and Reproduction

One of the largest groups of metazoan transcription factors (TFs), the Nuclear Receptor superfamily, regulates genes required for virtually all aspects of development, reproduction and metabolism. Together, these master regulators can be thought of as a fundamental operating system for metazoan life. Their most distinguishing feature is a structurally conserved domain that acts as a switch, powered by the presence of small diffusible ligands. This ligand-responsive regulation has allowed the Nuclear Receptors to help their hosts adapt to a wide variety of physiological niches and roles, making them one of the most evolutionarily successful TF families. Originally discovered as receptors for steroid hormones, the Nuclear Receptor field has grown to encompass much more than traditional endocrinology. For example, recent work has highlighted the role of Nuclear Receptors as major regulators of metabolism and biological clocks. By monitoring endogenous metabolites and absorbed xenobiotics, these receptors also coordinate rapid, system-wide responses to changing metabolic and environmental states. While many new Nuclear Receptor ligands have been discovered in the past couple of decades, approximately half of the 48 human receptors are still orphans, with a significantly higher percentage of orphans in other organisms. The discovery of new ligands has led to the elucidation of new regulatory mechanisms, target genes, pathways and functions. This review will highlight both the common as well as newly emerging traits and functions that characterize this particularly unique and important TF family.

Aspergillus fumigatus AcuM regulates both iron acquisition and gluconeogenesis

Relatively few transcription factors that govern the virulence of Aspergillus fumigatus are known. We constructed 11 A. fumigatus transcription factor mutants and screened them for altered virulence in Galleria mellonella larvae. We discovered that the zinc cluster transcription factor, AcuM, is essential for maximal virulence in this model, as well as in murine models of haematogenously disseminated and invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Transcriptional profiling experiments suggested that AcuM suppresses sreA and induces hapX to stimulate expression of genes involved in both reductive iron assimilation and siderophore-mediated iron uptake. Consistent with these results, a ΔacuM mutant had reduced iron incorporation, decreased extracellular siderophore production and impaired capacity to grow under iron-limited conditions. Interestingly, an Aspergillus nidulansΔacuM mutant had normal extracellular siderophore production and growth under iron-limited conditions, indicating that AcuM does not govern iron acquisition in this organism. A. fumigatus AcuM also regulated genes involved in gluconeogenesis, and the ΔacuM mutant had impaired growth on gluconeogenic carbon sources. Deletion of sreA in the ΔacuM mutant restored iron uptake, extracellular siderophore production and virulence, but not the defect in gluconeogenesis. Thus, AcuM represses SreA and thereby induces iron acquisition, a process that is essential for the maximal virulence of A. fumigatus.

Functional modularity of nuclear hormone receptors in a Caenorhabditis elegans metabolic gene regulatory network

We present the first gene regulatory network (GRN) that pertains to post-developmental gene expression. Specifically, we mapped a transcription regulatory network of Caenorhabditis elegans metabolic gene promoters using gene-centered yeast one-hybrid assays. We found that the metabolic GRN is enriched for nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) compared with other gene-centered regulatory networks, and that these NHRs organize into functional network modules.

The NHR family has greatly expanded in nematodes; C. elegans has 284 NHRs, whereas humans have only 48. We show that the NHRs in the metabolic GRN have metabolic phenotypes, suggesting that they do not simply function redundantly.

The mediator subunit MDT-15 preferentially interacts with NHRs that occur in the metabolic GRN.

We describe an NHR circuit that responds to nutrient availability and propose a model for the evolution and organization of NHRs in C. elegans metabolic regulatory networks.

Physical and/or regulatory interactions between transcription factors (TFs) and their target genes are essential to establish body plans of multicellular organisms during development, and these interactions have been studied extensively in the context of GRNs. The precise control of differential gene expression is also of critical importance to maintain physiological homeostasis, and many metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes coincide with substantial changes in gene expression. Much work has focused on the GRNs that control metazoan development; however, the design principles and organization of the GRNs that control systems physiology remain largely unexplored.

In this study, we present the first gene-centered GRN that includes ∼70 genes involved in C. elegans metabolism and physiology, 100 TFs and more than 500 protein–DNA interactions between them. The resulting metabolic GRN is enriched for NHRs, compared with other gene-centered regulatory networks. NHRs are well-known regulators of lipid meta-qj;bolism in mammals. The transcriptional activity of NHRs can be modified by diffusible ligands, which allows these TFs to function as molecular sensors and rapidly alter the expression of their target genes. Interestingly, NHRs comprise the largest family of TFs in nematodes; the C. elegans genome encodes 284 NHRs, most of which are uncharacterized. Furthermore, their organization in GRNs has not yet been investigated. In our study, we show that the C. elegans NHRs that we retrieved in the metabolic GRN organize into network modules, and that most of these NHRs function to maintain lipid homeostasis in the nematode. Interestingly, network modularity has been proposed to facilitate rapid and robust changes in gene expression. Our results suggest that the C. elegans metabolic GRN may have evolved by combining NHR family expansion with the specific modular wiring of NHRs to enable the rapid adaptation of the animal to different environmental cues.

NHRs can interact with transcriptional cofactors such as chromatin remodeling complexes and Mediator components. For instance, the C. elegans Mediator subunit, MDT-15, can interact with NHR-49 to regulate the expression of its target genes. To find all the TFs that MDT-15 can interact with, we performed systematic yeast two-hybrid assays with MDT-15 versus 755 full-length TFs. We found that MDT-15 preferentially associates with NHRs, and specifically with those NHRs that confer a metabolic phenotype and that occur in the metabolic GRN. This illustrates the central role of MDT-15 in the regulation of metabolic gene expression.

Using a variety of genetic and biochemical approaches, we characterized NHR-86 in more detail. NHR-86 participates in one of the two NHR modules, and has a high-flux capacity; that is it has both a high incoming and a high outgoing degree. We obtained an nhr-86 mutant and generated an NHR-86 antibody, and showed that NHR-86 functions as an auto-repressor in vivo and that nhr-86 mutant animals store abnormally high levels of body fat.

Finally, we discovered a novel NHR circuit that responds to nutrient availability. In this circuit NHR-45 regulates the activity of nhr-178 promoter in two distinct physiologically important tissues: the intestine and the hypodermis. Both of these NHRs are required to maintain lipid homeostasis in C. elegans. The expression of nhr-178 is responsive to the nutritional status of the animal, which switches between ON and OFF states in the hypodermis. We found that NHR-45 activity is necessary to control this switch in the hypodermis. Interestingly, NHR-45 has opposite effects on the activity of the nhr-178 promoter in these tissues: NHR-45 activates this promoter in the intestine, but represses it in the hypodermis.

Altogether our study leads to a model in which the expansion of the NHR family, TFs that have the capacity to act as fast molecular sensors, is combined with a modular network organization to enable rapid and robust responses to various environmental cues.

Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) provide insights into the mechanisms of differential gene expression at a systems level. GRNs that relate to metazoan development have been studied extensively. However, little is still known about the design principles, organization and functionality of GRNs that control physiological processes such as metabolism, homeostasis and responses to environmental cues. In this study, we report the first experimentally mapped metazoan GRN of Caenorhabditis elegans metabolic genes. This network is enriched for nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs). The NHR family has greatly expanded in nematodes: humans have 48 NHRs, but C. elegans has 284, most of which are uncharacterized. We find that the C. elegans metabolic GRN is highly modular and that two GRN modules predominantly consist of NHRs. Network modularity has been proposed to facilitate a rapid response to different cues. As NHRs are metabolic sensors that are poised to respond to ligands, this suggests that C. elegans GRNs evolved to enable rapid and adaptive responses to different cues by a concurrence of NHR family expansion and modular GRN wiring.

Snf1 dependence of peroxisomal gene expression is mediated by Adr1

Eukaryotes utilize fatty acids by beta-oxidation, which occurs in the mitochondria and peroxisomes in higher organisms and in the peroxisomes in yeast. The AMP-activated protein kinase regulates this process in mammalian cells, and its homolog Snf1, together with the transcription factors Adr1, Oaf1, and Pip2, regulates peroxisome proliferation and beta-oxidation in yeast. A constitutive allele of Adr1 (Adr1(c)) lacking the glucose- and Snf1-regulated phosphorylation substrate Ser-230 was found to be Snf1-independent for regulation of peroxisomal genes. In addition, it could compensate for and even suppress the requirement for Oaf1 or Pip2 for gene induction. Peroxisomal genes were found to be regulated by oleate in the presence of glucose, as long as Adr1(c) was expressed, suggesting that the Oaf1/Pip2 heterodimer is Snf1-independent. Consistent with this observation, Oaf1 binding to promoters in the presence of oleate was not reduced in a snf1Delta strain. Exploring the mechanism by which Adr1(c) permits Snf1-independent peroxisomal gene induction, we found that strength of promoter binding did not correlate with transcription, suggesting that stable binding is not a prerequisite for enhanced transcription. Instead, enhanced transcriptional activation and suppression of Oaf1, Pip2, and Snf1 by Adr1(c) may be related to the ability of Adr1(c) to suppress the requirement for and enhance the recruitment of transcriptional coactivators in a promoter- and growth medium-dependent manner.