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Thomas SE, Wagner L, Joos R, Sittig R, Nawrath C, Burdekin P, de Buy Wenniger IM, Rasiah MJ, Huber-Loyola T, Sagona-Stophel S, Höfling S, Jetter M, Michler P, Walmsley IA, Portalupi SL, Ledingham PM. Deterministic storage and retrieval of telecom light from a quantum dot single-photon source interfaced with an atomic quantum memory. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadi7346. [PMID: 38608017 PMCID: PMC11014446 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi7346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
A hybrid interface of solid-state single-photon sources and atomic quantum memories is a long sought-after goal in photonic quantum technologies. Here, we demonstrate deterministic storage and retrieval of light from a semiconductor quantum dot in an atomic ensemble quantum memory at telecommunications wavelengths. We store single photons from an indium arsenide quantum dot in a high-bandwidth rubidium vapor-based quantum memory, with a total internal memory efficiency of (12.9 ± 0.4)%. The signal-to-noise ratio of the retrieved light field is 18.2 ± 0.6, limited only by detector dark counts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Thomas
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BW, UK
| | - Lukas Wagner
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Raphael Joos
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Robert Sittig
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Cornelius Nawrath
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Paul Burdekin
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BW, UK
| | | | | | - Tobias Huber-Loyola
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Physikalisches Institut and Würzburg-Dresden Cluster of Excellence ct.qmat, Lehrstuhl für Technische Physik, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Sven Höfling
- Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Physikalisches Institut and Würzburg-Dresden Cluster of Excellence ct.qmat, Lehrstuhl für Technische Physik, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Michael Jetter
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Michler
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ian A. Walmsley
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BW, UK
| | - Simone L. Portalupi
- Institut für Halbleiteroptik und Funktionelle Grenzflächen (IHFG), Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology (IQ) and SCoPE, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Patrick M. Ledingham
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
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2
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Zaporski L, Shofer N, Bodey JH, Manna S, Gillard G, Appel MH, Schimpf C, Covre da Silva SF, Jarman J, Delamare G, Park G, Haeusler U, Chekhovich EA, Rastelli A, Gangloff DA, Atatüre M, Le Gall C. Ideal refocusing of an optically active spin qubit under strong hyperfine interactions. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 18:257-263. [PMID: 36702953 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-022-01282-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Combining highly coherent spin control with efficient light-matter coupling offers great opportunities for quantum communication and computing. Optically active semiconductor quantum dots have unparalleled photonic properties but also modest spin coherence limited by their resident nuclei. The nuclear inhomogeneity has thus far bound all dynamical decoupling measurements to a few microseconds. Here, we eliminate this inhomogeneity using lattice-matched GaAs-AlGaAs quantum dot devices and demonstrate dynamical decoupling of the electron spin qubit beyond 0.113(3) ms. Leveraging the 99.30(5)% visibility of our optical π-pulse gates, we use up to Nπ = 81 decoupling pulses and find a coherence time scaling of [Formula: see text]. This scaling manifests an ideal refocusing of strong interactions between the electron and the nuclear spin ensemble, free of extrinsic noise, which holds the promise of lifetime-limited spin coherence. Our findings demonstrate that the most punishing material science challenge for such quantum dot devices has a remedy and constitute the basis for highly coherent spin-photon interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Zaporski
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Noah Shofer
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan H Bodey
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Santanu Manna
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - George Gillard
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | | | - Christian Schimpf
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | | | - John Jarman
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffroy Delamare
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Gunhee Park
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Urs Haeusler
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Evgeny A Chekhovich
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Armando Rastelli
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | - Dorian A Gangloff
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Mete Atatüre
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Claire Le Gall
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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3
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Wang JQ, Yang YH, Li M, Zhou H, Xu XB, Zhang JZ, Dong CH, Guo GC, Zou CL. Synthetic five-wave mixing in an integrated microcavity for visible-telecom entanglement generation. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6223. [PMID: 36266289 PMCID: PMC9585089 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33914-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonlinear optics processes lie at the heart of photonics and quantum optics for their indispensable role in light sources and information processing. During the past decades, the three- and four-wave mixing (χ(2) and χ(3)) effects have been extensively studied, especially in the micro-/nano-structures by which the photon-photon interaction strength is greatly enhanced. So far, the high-order nonlinearity beyond the χ(3) has rarely been studied in dielectric materials due to their weak intrinsic nonlinear susceptibility, even in high-quality microcavities. Here, an effective five-wave mixing process (χ(4)) is synthesized by incorporating χ(2) and χ(3) processes in a single microcavity. The coherence of the synthetic χ(4) is verified by generating time-energy entangled visible-telecom photon pairs, which requires only one drive laser at the telecom waveband. The photon-pair generation rate from the synthetic process shows an estimated enhancement factor over 500 times upon intrinsic five-wave mixing. Our work demonstrates a universal approach of nonlinear synthesis via photonic structure engineering at the mesoscopic scale rather than material engineering, and thus opens a new avenue for realizing high-order optical nonlinearities and exploring functional photonic devices. High-order optical nonlinearities are a key tool in photonics and quantum optics, but their use is hindered by materials’ small intrinsic high-order susceptibility. Here, the authors show how to realize high-order nonlinear processes by combining intrinsic low-order ones in a microcavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Qi Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Yuan-Hao Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Ming Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China. .,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.
| | - Haiqi Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Xin-Biao Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Ji-Zhe Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Chun-Hua Dong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - Guang-Can Guo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China
| | - C-L Zou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China. .,CAS Center For Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, China.
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4
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Zhai L, Nguyen GN, Spinnler C, Ritzmann J, Löbl MC, Wieck AD, Ludwig A, Javadi A, Warburton RJ. Quantum interference of identical photons from remote GaAs quantum dots. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 17:829-833. [PMID: 35589820 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-022-01131-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Photonic quantum technology provides a viable route to quantum communication1,2, quantum simulation3 and quantum information processing4. Recent progress has seen the realization of boson sampling using 20 single photons3 and quantum key distribution over hundreds of kilometres2. Scaling the complexity requires architectures containing multiple photon sources, photon counters and a large number of indistinguishable single photons. Semiconductor quantum dots are bright and fast sources of coherent single photons5-9. For applications, a roadblock is the poor quantum coherence on interfering single photons created by independent quantum dots10,11. Here we demonstrate two-photon interference with near-unity visibility (93.0 ± 0.8)% using photons from two completely separate GaAs quantum dots. The experiment retains all the emission into the zero phonon line-only the weak phonon sideband is rejected; temporal post-selection is not employed. By exploiting quantum interference, we demonstrate a photonic controlled-not circuit and an entanglement with fidelity of (85.0 ± 1.0)% between photons of different origins. The two-photon interference visibility is high enough that the entanglement fidelity is well above the classical threshold. The high mutual coherence of the photons stems from high-quality materials, diode structure and relatively large quantum dot size. Our results establish a platform-GaAs quantum dots-for creating coherent single photons in a scalable way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhai
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Giang N Nguyen
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Julian Ritzmann
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Matthias C Löbl
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas D Wieck
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Arne Ludwig
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Alisa Javadi
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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5
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Ma L, Lei X, Yan J, Li R, Chai T, Yan Z, Jia X, Xie C, Peng K. High-performance cavity-enhanced quantum memory with warm atomic cell. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2368. [PMID: 35501315 PMCID: PMC9061733 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30077-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractHigh-performance quantum memory for quantized states of light is a prerequisite building block of quantum information technology. Despite great progresses of optical quantum memories based on interactions of light and atoms, physical features of these memories still cannot satisfy requirements for applications in practical quantum information systems, since all of them suffer from trade-off between memory efficiency and excess noise. Here, we report a high-performance cavity-enhanced electromagnetically-induced-transparency memory with warm atomic cell in which a scheme of optimizing the spatial and temporal modes based on the time-reversal approach is applied. The memory efficiency up to 67 ± 1% is directly measured and a noise level close to quantum noise limit is simultaneously reached. It has been experimentally demonstrated that the average fidelities for a set of input coherent states with different phases and amplitudes within a Gaussian distribution have exceeded the classical benchmark fidelities. Thus the realized quantum memory platform has been capable of preserving quantized optical states, and is ready to be applied in quantum information systems, such as distributed quantum logic gates and quantum-enhanced atomic magnetometry.
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6
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Jaurigue L, Robertson E, Wolters J, Lüdge K. Reservoir Computing with Delayed Input for Fast and Easy Optimisation. ENTROPY 2021; 23:e23121560. [PMID: 34945866 PMCID: PMC8700644 DOI: 10.3390/e23121560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Reservoir computing is a machine learning method that solves tasks using the response of a dynamical system to a certain input. As the training scheme only involves optimising the weights of the responses of the dynamical system, this method is particularly suited for hardware implementation. Furthermore, the inherent memory of dynamical systems which are suitable for use as reservoirs mean that this method has the potential to perform well on time series prediction tasks, as well as other tasks with time dependence. However, reservoir computing still requires extensive task-dependent parameter optimisation in order to achieve good performance. We demonstrate that by including a time-delayed version of the input for various time series prediction tasks, good performance can be achieved with an unoptimised reservoir. Furthermore, we show that by including the appropriate time-delayed input, one unaltered reservoir can perform well on six different time series prediction tasks at a very low computational expense. Our approach is of particular relevance to hardware implemented reservoirs, as one does not necessarily have access to pertinent optimisation parameters in physical systems but the inclusion of an additional input is generally possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Jaurigue
- Institute of Theoretical Physics, Technische Universität Berlin, Hardenbergstr. 36, 10623 Berlin, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Elizabeth Robertson
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Institut fur Optische Sensorsysteme, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany; (E.R.); (J.W.)
- Institut für Optik und Atomare Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Janik Wolters
- Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Institut fur Optische Sensorsysteme, Rutherfordstr. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany; (E.R.); (J.W.)
- Institut für Optik und Atomare Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kathy Lüdge
- Institute of Physics, Technische Universität Ilmenau, Weimarer Str. 25, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany;
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7
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Babin HG, Ritzmann J, Bart N, Schmidt M, Kruck T, Zhai L, Löbl MC, Nguyen GN, Spinnler C, Ranasinghe L, Warburton RJ, Heyn C, Wieck AD, Ludwig A. Charge Tunable GaAs Quantum Dots in a Photonic n-i-p Diode. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:2703. [PMID: 34685139 PMCID: PMC8537184 DOI: 10.3390/nano11102703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this submission, we discuss the growth of charge-controllable GaAs quantum dots embedded in an n-i-p diode structure, from the perspective of a molecular beam epitaxy grower. The QDs show no blinking and narrow linewidths. We show that the parameters used led to a bimodal growth mode of QDs resulting from low arsenic surface coverage. We identify one of the modes as that showing good properties found in previous work. As the morphology of the fabricated QDs does not hint at outstanding properties, we attribute the good performance of this sample to the low impurity levels in the matrix material and the ability of n- and p-doped contact regions to stabilize the charge state. We present the challenges met in characterizing the sample with ensemble photoluminescence spectroscopy caused by the photonic structure used. We show two straightforward methods to overcome this hurdle and gain insight into QD emission properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Georg Babin
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Julian Ritzmann
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Nikolai Bart
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Marcel Schmidt
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Timo Kruck
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Liang Zhai
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; (L.Z.); (M.C.L.); (G.N.N.); (C.S.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Matthias C. Löbl
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; (L.Z.); (M.C.L.); (G.N.N.); (C.S.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Giang N. Nguyen
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; (L.Z.); (M.C.L.); (G.N.N.); (C.S.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Clemens Spinnler
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; (L.Z.); (M.C.L.); (G.N.N.); (C.S.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Leonardo Ranasinghe
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, DE-22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.R.); (C.H.)
| | - Richard J. Warburton
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; (L.Z.); (M.C.L.); (G.N.N.); (C.S.); (R.J.W.)
| | - Christian Heyn
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), University of Hamburg, DE-22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.R.); (C.H.)
| | - Andreas D. Wieck
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
| | - Arne Ludwig
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Universitätsstraße 150, DE-44801 Bochum, Germany; (J.R.); (N.B.); (M.S.); (T.K.); (A.D.W.); (A.L.)
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8
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Main D, Hird TM, Gao S, Walmsley IA, Ledingham PM. Room temperature atomic frequency comb storage for light. OPTICS LETTERS 2021; 46:2960-2963. [PMID: 34129584 DOI: 10.1364/ol.426753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate coherent storage and retrieval of pulsed light using the atomic frequency comb protocol in a room temperature alkali vapor. We utilize velocity-selective optical pumping to prepare multiple velocity classes in the F=4 hyperfine ground state of cesium. The frequency spacing of the classes is chosen to coincide with the F'=4-F'=5 hyperfine splitting of the 62P3/2 excited state, resulting in a broadband periodic absorbing structure consisting of two usually Doppler-broadened optical transitions. Weak coherent states of duration 2ns are mapped into this atomic frequency comb with pre-programmed recall times of 8ns and 12ns, with multi-temporal mode storage and recall demonstrated. Utilizing two transitions in the comb leads to an additional interference effect upon rephasing that enhances the recall efficiency.
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9
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Davidson-Marquis F, Gargiulo J, Gómez-López E, Jang B, Kroh T, Müller C, Ziegler M, Maier SA, Kübler H, Schmidt MA, Benson O. Coherent interaction of atoms with a beam of light confined in a light cage. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2021; 10:114. [PMID: 34059619 PMCID: PMC8166889 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-021-00556-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Controlling coherent interaction between optical fields and quantum systems in scalable, integrated platforms is essential for quantum technologies. Miniaturised, warm alkali-vapour cells integrated with on-chip photonic devices represent an attractive system, in particular for delay or storage of a single-photon quantum state. Hollow-core fibres or planar waveguides are widely used to confine light over long distances enhancing light-matter interaction in atomic-vapour cells. However, they suffer from inefficient filling times, enhanced dephasing for atoms near the surfaces, and limited light-matter overlap. We report here on the observation of modified electromagnetically induced transparency for a non-diffractive beam of light in an on-chip, laterally-accessible hollow-core light cage. Atomic layer deposition of an alumina nanofilm onto the light-cage structure was utilised to precisely tune the high-transmission spectral region of the light-cage mode to the operation wavelength of the atomic transition, while additionally protecting the polymer against the corrosive alkali vapour. The experiments show strong, coherent light-matter coupling over lengths substantially exceeding the Rayleigh range. Additionally, the stable non-degrading performance and extreme versatility of the light cage provide an excellent basis for a manifold of quantum-storage and quantum-nonlinear applications, highlighting it as a compelling candidate for all-on-chip, integrable, low-cost, vapour-based photon delay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavie Davidson-Marquis
- Department of Physics and IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Gargiulo
- Chair in Hybrid Nanosystems, Nanoinstitute Munich, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80539, Munich, Germany
| | - Esteban Gómez-López
- Department of Physics and IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bumjoon Jang
- Department of Fiber Photonics, Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tim Kroh
- Department of Physics and IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Chris Müller
- Department of Physics and IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Ziegler
- Competence Center for Micro- and Nanotechnologies, Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan A Maier
- Chair in Hybrid Nanosystems, Nanoinstitute Munich, Faculty of Physics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 80539, Munich, Germany
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Harald Kübler
- 5. Physikalisches Institut and Center for Integrated Quantum Science and Technology, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus A Schmidt
- Department of Fiber Photonics, Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Otto Schott Institute of Material Research, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Oliver Benson
- Department of Physics and IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Zhai L, Löbl MC, Nguyen GN, Ritzmann J, Javadi A, Spinnler C, Wieck AD, Ludwig A, Warburton RJ. Low-noise GaAs quantum dots for quantum photonics. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4745. [PMID: 32958795 PMCID: PMC7506537 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18625-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantum dots are both excellent single-photon sources and hosts for single spins. This combination enables the deterministic generation of Raman-photons—bandwidth-matched to an atomic quantum-memory—and the generation of photon cluster states, a resource in quantum communication and measurement-based quantum computing. GaAs quantum dots in AlGaAs can be matched in frequency to a rubidium-based photon memory, and have potentially improved electron spin coherence compared to the widely used InGaAs quantum dots. However, their charge stability and optical linewidths are typically much worse than for their InGaAs counterparts. Here, we embed GaAs quantum dots into an n-i-p-diode specially designed for low-temperature operation. We demonstrate ultra-low noise behaviour: charge control via Coulomb blockade, close-to lifetime-limited linewidths, and no blinking. We observe high-fidelity optical electron-spin initialisation and long electron-spin lifetimes for these quantum dots. Our work establishes a materials platform for low-noise quantum photonics close to the red part of the spectrum. GaAs quantum dots emitting at the near-red part of the spectrum usually suffers from excess charge-noise. With a careful design of a n-i-p-diode structure hosting GaAs quantum dots, the authors demonstrate ultralow-noise behaviour and high-fidelity spin initialisation close to rubidium wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhai
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias C Löbl
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Giang N Nguyen
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland.,Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, DE-44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Julian Ritzmann
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, DE-44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Alisa Javadi
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Clemens Spinnler
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas D Wieck
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, DE-44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Arne Ludwig
- Lehrstuhl für Angewandte Festkörperphysik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, DE-44780, Bochum, Germany
| | - Richard J Warburton
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056, Basel, Switzerland
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11
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Mottola R, Buser G, Müller C, Kroh T, Ahlrichs A, Ramelow S, Benson O, Treutlein P, Wolters J. An efficient, tunable, and robust source of narrow-band photon pairs at the 87Rb D1 line. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:3159-3170. [PMID: 32121989 DOI: 10.1364/oe.384081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We present an efficient and robust source of photons at the 87Rb D1-line (795 nm) with a narrow bandwidth of δ = 226(1) MHz. The source is based on non-degenerate, cavity-enhanced spontaneous parametric down-conversion in a monolithic optical parametric oscillator far below threshold. The setup allows for efficient coupling to single mode fibers. A heralding efficiency of ηheralded = 45(5) % is achieved, and the uncorrected number of detected photon pairs is 3.8 × 103/(s mW). For pair generation rates up to 5 × 105/s, the source emits heralded single photons with a normalized, heralded, second-order correlation function g c(2)<0.01. The source is intrinsically stable due to the monolithic configuration. Frequency drifts are on the order of δ/20 per hour without active feedback on the emission frequency. We achieved fine-tuning of the source frequency within a range of >2 GHz by applying mechanical strain.
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12
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Jiráková K, Bartkiewicz K, Černoch A, Lemr K. Experimentally attacking quantum money schemes based on quantum retrieval games. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16318. [PMID: 31704951 PMCID: PMC6841968 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51953-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of quantum money (QM) was proposed by Wiesner in the 1970s. Its main advantage is that every attempt to copy QM unavoidably leads to imperfect counterfeits. In the Wiesner’s protocol, quantum banknotes need to be delivered to the issuing bank for verification. Thus, QM requires quantum communication which range is limited by noise and losses. Recently, Bozzio et al. (2018) have demonstrated experimentally how to replace challenging quantum verification with a classical channel and a quantum retrieval game (QRG). This brings QM significantly closer to practical realisation, but still thorough analysis of the revised scheme QM is required before it can be considered secure. We address this problem by presenting a proof-of-concept attack on QRG-based QM schemes, where we show that even imperfect quantum cloning can, under some circumstances, provide enough information to break a QRG-based QM scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateřina Jiráková
- RCPTM, Joint Laboratory of Optics of Palacký University and Institute of Physics of Czech Academy of Sciences, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Karol Bartkiewicz
- RCPTM, Joint Laboratory of Optics of Palacký University and Institute of Physics of Czech Academy of Sciences, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic. .,Faculty of Physics, Adam Mickiewicz University, PL-61-614, Poznan, Poland.
| | - Antonín Černoch
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Joint Laboratory of Optics of PU and IP AS CR, 17. listopadu 50A, 772 07, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Lemr
- RCPTM, Joint Laboratory of Optics of Palacký University and Institute of Physics of Czech Academy of Sciences, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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13
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Kroh T, Wolters J, Ahlrichs A, Schell AW, Thoma A, Reitzenstein S, Wildmann JS, Zallo E, Trotta R, Rastelli A, Schmidt OG, Benson O. Slow and fast single photons from a quantum dot interacting with the excited state hyperfine structure of the Cesium D 1-line. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13728. [PMID: 31551434 PMCID: PMC6760210 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50062-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hybrid interfaces between distinct quantum systems play a major role in the implementation of quantum networks. Quantum states have to be stored in memories to synchronize the photon arrival times for entanglement swapping by projective measurements in quantum repeaters or for entanglement purification. Here, we analyze the distortion of a single-photon wave packet propagating through a dispersive and absorptive medium with high spectral resolution. Single photons are generated from a single In(Ga)As quantum dot with its excitonic transition precisely set relative to the Cesium D1 transition. The delay of spectral components of the single-photon wave packet with almost Fourier-limited width is investigated in detail with a 200 MHz narrow-band monolithic Fabry-Pérot resonator. Reflecting the excited state hyperfine structure of Cesium, “slow light” and “fast light” behavior is observed. As a step towards room-temperature alkali vapor memories, quantum dot photons are delayed for 5 ns by strong dispersion between the two 1.17 GHz hyperfine-split excited state transitions. Based on optical pumping on the hyperfine-split ground states, we propose a simple, all-optically controllable delay for synchronization of heralded narrow-band photons in a quantum network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Kroh
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Janik Wolters
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.,Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V., Institute of Optical Sensor Systems, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Ahlrichs
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas W Schell
- CEITEC Brno University of Technology, 621 00, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Alexander Thoma
- Institute of Solid State Physics, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Reitzenstein
- Institute of Solid State Physics, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes S Wildmann
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, 4040, Linz, Austria
| | - Eugenio Zallo
- Paul-Drude-Institut für Festkörperelektronik, 10117, Berlin, Germany.,Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, Leibniz IFW Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Rinaldo Trotta
- Department of Physics, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Armando Rastelli
- Institute of Semiconductor and Solid State Physics, Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, 4040, Linz, Austria
| | - Oliver G Schmidt
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, Leibniz IFW Dresden, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Oliver Benson
- Department of Physics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12489, Berlin, Germany
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14
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Gurioli M, Wang Z, Rastelli A, Kuroda T, Sanguinetti S. Droplet epitaxy of semiconductor nanostructures for quantum photonic devices. NATURE MATERIALS 2019; 18:799-810. [PMID: 31086322 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-019-0355-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The long dreamed 'quantum internet' would consist of a network of quantum nodes (solid-state or atomic systems) linked by flying qubits, naturally based on photons, travelling over long distances at the speed of light, with negligible decoherence. A key component is a light source, able to provide single or entangled photon pairs. Among the different platforms, semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) are very attractive, as they can be integrated with other photonic and electronic components in miniaturized chips. In the early 1990s two approaches were developed to synthetize self-assembled epitaxial semiconductor QDs, or 'artificial atoms'-namely, the Stranski-Krastanov (SK) and the droplet epitaxy (DE) methods. Because of its robustness and simplicity, the SK method became the workhorse to achieve several breakthroughs in both fundamental and technological areas. The need for specific emission wavelengths or structural and optical properties has nevertheless motivated further research on the DE method and its more recent development, local droplet etching (LDE), as complementary routes to obtain high-quality semiconductor nanostructures. The recent reports on the generation of highly entangled photon pairs, combined with good photon indistinguishability, suggest that DE and LDE QDs may complement (and sometimes even outperform) conventional SK InGaAs QDs as quantum emitters. We present here a critical survey of the state of the art of DE and LDE, highlighting the advantages and weaknesses, the achievements and challenges that are still open, in view of applications in quantum communication and technology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhiming Wang
- Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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15
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Strauß M, Carmele A, Schleibner J, Hohn M, Schneider C, Höfling S, Wolters J, Reitzenstein S. Wigner Time Delay Induced by a Single Quantum Dot. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2019; 122:107401. [PMID: 30932646 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.122.107401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Resonant scattering of weak coherent laser pulses on a single two-level system realized in a semiconductor quantum dot is investigated with respect to a time delay between incoming and scattered light. This type of time delay was predicted by Wigner in 1955 for purely coherent scattering and was confirmed for an atomic system in 2013 [R. Bourgain et al., Opt. Lett. 38, 1963 (2013)OPLEDP0146-959210.1364/OL.38.001963]. In the presence of electron-phonon interaction, we observe deviations from Wigner's theory related to incoherent and strongly non-Markovian scattering processes which are hard to quantify via a detuning-independent pure dephasing time. We observe detuning-dependent Wigner delays of up to 530 ps in our experiments which are supported quantitatively by microscopic theory allowing for pure dephasing times of up to 950 ps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Strauß
- Insitut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Carmele
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Schleibner
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcel Hohn
- Insitut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Schneider
- Technische Physik, Physikalisches Institut,Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Center for Complex Material Systems, Universität Würzburg, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sven Höfling
- Technische Physik, Physikalisches Institut,Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen Center for Complex Material Systems, Universität Würzburg, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
- SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9SS, United Kingdom
| | - Janik Wolters
- Insitut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Reitzenstein
- Insitut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Berlin, D-10263 Berlin, Germany
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16
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Liu C, Manz J, Ohmori K, Sommer C, Takei N, Tremblay JC, Zhang Y. Attosecond Control of Restoration of Electronic Structure Symmetry. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 121:173201. [PMID: 30411939 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.121.173201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Laser pulses can break the electronic structure symmetry of atoms and molecules by preparing a superposition of states with different irreducible representations. Here, we discover the reverse process, symmetry restoration, by means of two circularly polarized laser pulses. The laser pulse for symmetry restoration is designed as a copy of the pulse for symmetry breaking. Symmetry restoration is achieved if the time delay is chosen such that the superposed states have the same phases at the temporal center. This condition must be satisfied with a precision of a few attoseconds. Numerical simulations are presented for the C_{6}H_{6} molecule and ^{87}Rb atom. The experimental feasibility of symmetry restoration is demonstrated by means of high-contrast time-dependent Ramsey interferometry of the ^{87}Rb atom.
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Affiliation(s)
- ChunMei Liu
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie und Biochemie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörn Manz
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie und Biochemie, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Kenji Ohmori
- Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University of Advanced Studies), Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | - Christian Sommer
- Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University of Advanced Studies), Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Max-Planck-Institut für die Physik des Lichts, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Nobuyuki Takei
- Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University of Advanced Studies), Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | | | - Yichi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
- Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
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17
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Finkelstein R, Poem E, Michel O, Lahad O, Firstenberg O. Fast, noise-free memory for photon synchronization at room temperature. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaap8598. [PMID: 29349302 PMCID: PMC5771694 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aap8598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Future quantum photonic networks require coherent optical memories for synchronizing quantum sources and gates of probabilistic nature. We demonstrate a fast ladder memory (FLAME) mapping the optical field onto the superposition between electronic orbitals of rubidium vapor. Using a ladder-level system of orbital transitions with nearly degenerate frequencies simultaneously enables high bandwidth, low noise, and long memory lifetime. We store and retrieve 1.7-ns-long pulses, containing 0.5 photons on average, and observe short-time external efficiency of 25%, memory lifetime (1/e) of 86 ns, and below 10-4 added noise photons. Consequently, coupling this memory to a probabilistic source would enhance the on-demand photon generation probability by a factor of 12, the highest number yet reported for a noise-free, room temperature memory. This paves the way toward the controlled production of large quantum states of light from probabilistic photon sources.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ohad Michel
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ohr Lahad
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ofer Firstenberg
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
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18
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Podhora L, Obšil P, Straka I, Ježek M, Slodička L. Nonclassical photon pairs from warm atomic vapor using a single driving laser. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:31230-31238. [PMID: 29245800 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.031230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Generation of nonclassical light is an essential tool for quantum optics research and applications in quantum information technology. We present realization of the source of nonclassically correlated photon pairs based on the process of spontaneous four-wave-mixing in warm atomic vapor. Atoms are excited only by a single laser beam in retro-reflected configuration and narrowband frequency filtering is employed for selection of correlated photon pairs. Nonclassicality of generated light fields is proved by analysis of their statistical properties. Measured parameters of the presented source promise further applicability for efficient interaction with atomic ensembles.
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