Conduction switching of photochromic molecules

Revisiting fulgide photochromism: Mechanistic decoding and electron transport from computational exploration

The photochromic behavior of the fulgide molecule relies on ring-closure and ring-opening processes involving conical intersections during excited state transformation between isomers. The precise location and topography of these conical intersections significantly shape the decay process and fluorescence phenomena inherent to the molecule. This work combines electronic structure theory calculations using the density functional theory and wavefunction methods, as well as surface hopping simulation to analyze the photochemical behavior of an experimentally synthesized fulgide molecule, (E)-p-methylacetophenylisopropylidenesuccinic anhydride (1E). Our study reveals the conical intersection between the first excited state (S1) and the ground electronic state (S0), which emerges beyond the S1 minimum of 1E to the ring-closing side. The distinctive topography of this conical intersection appears to be sloped. These findings suggest a reduced quantum yield for the formation of the closed isomer, indicating a higher likelihood of reformation of the open isomer(s). The surface hopping simulation further supports this observation, revealing a mere ∼8% quantum yield for the formation of the closed isomer. In addition, the photoisomerization of the fulgide molecule initiates a cascade of conduction switching and holds great potential for applications in molecular electronics. Delving into the realm of molecular electronics, we have further examined the electron transport properties, disclosing the higher conductivity of the closed isomer.

Ferroelectric Phase Transition Driven by Switchable Covalent Bonds

The mechanism on ferroelectric phase transitions is mainly attributed to the displacive and/or order-disorder transition of internal components since the discovery of the ferroelectricity in 1920, rather than the breaking and recombination of chemical bonds. Here, we demonstrate how to utilize the chemical bond rearrangement in a diarylethene-based crystal to realize the light-driven mm2F1-type ferroelectric phase transition. Such a photoinduced phase transition is entirely driven by switchable covalent bonds with breaking and reformation, enabling the reversible light-controllable ferroelectric polarization switching, dielectric and nonlinear optical bistability. Moreover, light as quantized energy can achieve contactless, nondestructive, and remote-control operations. This work proposes a new mechanism of ferroelectric phase transition, and highlights the significance of photochromic molecules in designing new ferroelectrics for photocontrol data storage and sensing.

Providing theoretical insight into the role of symmetry in the photoisomerization mechanism of a non-symmetric dithienylethene photoswitch

Dithienylethene (DTE) molecular photoswitches have shown to be excellent candidates in the design of efficient optoelectronic devices, due to their high photoisomerization quantum yield (QY), for which symmetry is suggested to play a crucial role. Here, we present a theoretical study on the photochemistry of a non-symmetric dithienylethene photoswitch, with a special emphasis on the effect of asymmetric substitution on the photocyclization and photoreversion mechanisms. We used the Spin-Flip Time Dependent Density Functional Theory (SF-TDDFT) method to locate and characterize the main structures (conical intersections and minima) of the ground state and the first two excited states, S₁ and S₂, along the ring-opening/closure reaction coordinate of the photocyclization and photoreversion processes, and to identify the important coordinates governing the radiationless decay pathways. Our results suggest that while the main features that characterize the photoisomerization of symmetric DTEs are also present for the photoisomerization of the non-symmetric DTE, the lower energy barrier on S₁ along the cycloreversion reaction speaks in favor of a more efficient and therefore a higher cycloreversion QY for the non-symmetric DTEs, making them a better candidate for molecular optoelectronic devices than their symmetric counterparts.

Photoinduced Changes in Aromaticity Facilitate Electrocyclization of Dithienylbenzene Switches

The concepts of excited-state aromaticity and antiaromaticity have in recent years with increasing frequency been invoked to rationalize the photochemistry of cyclic conjugated organic compounds, with the long-term goal of using these concepts to improve the reactivities of such compounds toward different photochemical transformations. In this regard, it is of particular interest to assess how the presence of a benzene motif affects photochemical reactivity, as benzene is well-known to completely change its aromatic character in its lowest excited states. Here, we investigate how a benzene motif influences the photoinduced electrocyclization of dithienylethenes, a major class of molecular switches. Specifically, we report on the synthesis of a dithienylbenzene switch where the typical nonaromatic, ethene-like motif bridging the two thienyl units is replaced by a benzene motif, and show that this compound undergoes electrocyclization upon irradiation with UV-light. Furthermore, through a detailed quantum chemical analysis, we demonstrate that the electrocyclization is driven jointly and synergistically by the loss of aromaticity in this motif from the formation of a reactive, antiaromatic excited state during the initial photoexcitation, and by the subsequent relief of this antiaromaticity as the reaction progresses from the Franck–Condon region. Overall, we conclude that photoinduced changes in aromaticity facilitate the electrocyclization of dithienylbenzene switches.

Thermally Activated Tunneling Transition in a Photoswitchable Single-Molecule Electrical Junction

Exploring the charge transport process in molecular junctions is essential to the development of molecular electronics. Here, we investigate the temperature-dependent charge transport mechanism of carbon electrode-diarylethene single-molecule junctions, which possess photocontrollable molecular orbital energy levels due to reversible photoisomerization of individual diarylethenes between open and closed conformations. Both the experimental results and theoretical calculations consistently demonstrate that the vibronic coupling (thermally activated at the proper temperature) drives the transition of charge transport in the junctions from coherent tunneling to incoherent transport. Due to the subtle electron-phonon coupling effect, incoherent transport in the junctions proves to have different activation energies, depending on the photoswitchable molecular energy levels of two different conformations. These results improve fundamental understanding of charge transport mechanisms in molecular junctions and should lead to the rapid development of functional molecular devices toward practical applications.

Controlling the Conductance of a Graphene-Molecule Nanojunction by Proton Transfer

The possibility of using single molecule junctions as components of nanoelectronic devices has motivated intensive experimental and theoretical research on the underlying transport mechanism in these systems. In this Letter, we investigate from a theoretical perspective intramolecular proton transfer reactions as a mechanism for controlling the conductance state of graphene-based molecular junctions. Employing a methodology that combines first-principles electronic structure methods with transport approaches, we show that the proton transfer reaction proceeds via a stepwise mechanism, giving rise to several tautomers with different conductance states. The analysis reveals that the relative stability of the tautomers as well as the energy barrier for their interconversion can be controlled by means of an external electrostatic field, which provides a mechanism for switching the nanojunction.

Non-adiabatic molecular dynamic simulations of opening reaction of molecular junctions

We report non-adiabatic molecular dynamic simulations of the ring opening reaction of diarylethene (DAE) derivative molecules, both free standing and embedded between gold electrodes. Simulations are performed by the surface hopping method employing density functional theory. Typically, the free-standing molecules exhibit large quantum yields to open and close; however the process is quenched for the molecules embedded between electrodes. Our simulations reveal the importance of the DAE side chemical groups, which explain the efficiency of the quenching process. Namely, delocalization of the LUMO state contributes to electronic coupling between the molecule and electrodes, suppressing or enhancing the reaction process. The simulations indicate that a proper choice of the chemical side group, which provides the strong localization of the LUMO state, can substantially diminish the quenching mechanism. Additionally, we analyze a strong dependency of the quantum yield of the opening reaction coming from the mechanical strength of the molecules.

Light-Induced Switching of Tunable Single-Molecule Junctions

A major goal of molecular electronics is the development and implementation of devices such as single-molecular switches. Here, measurements are presented that show the controlled in situ switching of diarylethene molecules from their nonconductive to conductive state in contact to gold nanoelectrodes via controlled light irradiation. Both the conductance and the quantum yield for switching of these molecules are within a range making the molecules suitable for actual devices. The conductance of the molecular junctions in the opened and closed states is characterized and the molecular level E0, which dominates the current transport in the closed state, and its level broadening Γ are identified. The obtained results show a clear light-induced ring forming isomerization of the single-molecule junctions. Electron withdrawing side-groups lead to a reduction of conductance, but do not influence the efficiency of the switching mechanism. Quantum chemical calculations of the light-induced switching processes correlate these observations with the fundamentally different low-lying electronic states of the opened and closed forms and their comparably small modification by electron-withdrawing substituents. This full characterization of a molecular switch operated in a molecular junction is an important step toward the development of real molecular electronics devices.

Ordered nanoparticle arrays interconnected by molecular linkers: electronic and optoelectronic properties

Arrays of metal nanoparticles in an organic matrix have attracted a lot of interest due to their diverse electronic and optoelectronic properties.

Density functional theory study of electric field effects on the isomerization of a photochromic molecular switch based on 1,2-dithienylethene

Structural and electronic properties of 1,2-bis(5-methyl-[2,2′-bithiophen]-4-yl)cyclopent-1-ene in closed form and open form under various external electric field with strengths, 0, 10 × 10−4, 20 × 10−4, 30 × 10−4, 40 × 10−4, and 50 × 10−4a.u., were studied using the DFT-B3LYP/6-31G* method. As a positive index, structural parameters, length of the photoisomers, and the electronic spatial extents are almost stable at different external electric fields. The UV-Vis electronic spectrum based on time-dependent density functional theory indicated that the HOMO → LUMO transition in the closed form under different electric field strengths is strongly allowed, whereas is very weak in the open form. Electronic response parameters such as the HOMO−LUMO gap, electric dipole moment, and polarizability showed that electric conductivity of the closed form at different field strengths is greater than in the open form. Results of electronic density of states show that at high external electric field, the conductivity of the open form and closed form will be probably equal and switching behavior cannot be observed. Isomerization of the closed form to the open form at different external electric fields can be considered as exothermic and spontaneous.

Electronic transport properties of a dithienylethene-based polymer with different metallic contacts

We have studied the electronic transport behaviors of a dithienylethene-based polymer between two metal surfaces using nonequilibrium Green's functions combined with density functional theory.

Charge transport characteristics of diarylethene photoswitching single-molecule junctions

We report on the experimental analysis of the charge transport through single-molecule junctions of the open and closed isomers of photoswitching molecules. Sulfur-free diarylethene molecules are developed and studied via electrical and optical measurements as well as density functional theory calculations. The single-molecule conductance and the current-voltage characteristics are measured in a mechanically controlled break-junction system at low temperatures. Comparing the results with the single-level transport model, we find an unexpected behavior of the current-dominating molecular orbital upon isomerization. We show that both the side chains and end groups of the molecules are crucial to understand the charge transport mechanism of photoswitching molecular junctions.

Single molecule electronics and devices

The manufacture of integrated circuits with single-molecule building blocks is a goal of molecular electronics. While research in the past has been limited to bulk experiments on self-assembled monolayers, advances in technology have now enabled us to fabricate single-molecule junctions. This has led to significant progress in understanding electron transport in molecular systems at the single-molecule level and the concomitant emergence of new device concepts. Here, we review recent developments in this field. We summarize the methods currently used to form metal-molecule-metal structures and some single-molecule techniques essential for characterizing molecular junctions such as inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy. We then highlight several important achievements, including demonstration of single-molecule diodes, transistors, and switches that make use of electrical, photo, and mechanical stimulation to control the electron transport. We also discuss intriguing issues to be addressed further in the future such as heat and thermoelectric transport in an individual molecule.

Organic-based molecular switches for molecular electronics

In a general sense, molecular electronics (ME) is the branch of nanotechnology which studies the application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components. Among the different types of molecules, organic compounds have been revealed as promising candidates for ME, due to the easy access, great structural diversity and suitable electronic and mechanical properties. Thanks to these useful capabilities, organic molecules have been used to emulate electronic devices at the nanoscopic scale. In this feature article, we present the diverse strategies used to develop organic switches towards ME with special attention to non-volatile systems.

Molecular electronic junction transport: some pathways and some ideas

When a single molecule, or a collection of molecules, is placed between two electrodes and voltage is applied, one has a molecular transport junction. We discuss such junctions, their properties, their description, and some of their applications. The discussion is qualitative rather than quantitative, and focuses on mechanism, structure/function relations, regimes and mechanisms of transport, some molecular regularities, and some substantial challenges facing the field. Because there are many regimes and mechanisms in transport junctions, we will discuss time scales, geometries, and inelastic scattering methods for trying to determine the properties of molecules within these junctions. Finally, we discuss some device applications, some outstanding problems, and some future directions.

Single-molecule conductance of pyridine-terminated dithienylethene switch molecules

We have investigated the conductance of individual optically switchable dithienylethene molecules in both their conducting closed configuration and nonconducting open configuration, using the technique of repeatedly formed break-junctions. We employed pyridine groups to link the molecules to gold electrodes in order to achieve relatively well-defined molecular contacts and stable conductance. For the closed form of each molecule, we observed a peak in the conductance histogram constructed without any data selection, allowing us to determine the conductance of the fully stretched molecules. For two different dithienylethene derivatives, these closed-configuration conductances were (3.3 ± 0.5) × 10(-5)G(0) and (1.5 ± 0.5) × 10(-6)G(0), where G(0) is the conductance quantum. For the open configuration of the molecules, the existence of electrical conduction via the molecule was evident in traces of conductance versus junction displacement, but the conductance of the fully stretched molecules was less than the noise floor of our measurement. We can set a lower limit of 30 for the on/off ratio for the simplest dithienylethene derivative we have investigated. Density functional theory calculations predict an on/off ratio consistent with this result.

Reversible light-controlled conductance switching of azobenzene-based metal/polymer nanocomposites

We present a new concept of light-controlled conductance switching based on metal/polymer nanocomposites with dissolved chromophores that do not have intrinsic current switching ability. Photoswitchable metal/PMMA nanocomposites were prepared by physical vapor deposition of Au and Pt clusters, respectively, onto spin-coated thin poly(methylmethacrylate) films doped with azo-dye molecules. High dye concentrations were achieved by functionalizing the azo groups with tails and branches, thus enhancing solubility. The composites show completely reversible optical switching of the absorption bands upon alternating irradiation with UV and blue light. We also demonstrate reversible light-controlled conductance switching. This is attributed to changes in the metal cluster separation upon isomerization based on model experiments where analogous conductance changes were induced by swelling of the composite films in organic vapors and by tensile stress.

Investigation of the conducting properties of a photoswitching dithienylethene molecule

Photoswitching molecules are attractive candidates as organic materials for optoelectronics applications because light impulses can switch them between states with different conducting characteristics. Here, we report a fully self-consistent density functional theory calculation of the electron transport properties of photoswitching dithienylethene attached to Au leads in both the open and closed conformations. The molecule is found to be a good conductor in both conformations, with the low-bias current for the closed one being about 20 times larger than that of the open. Importantly, the current-voltage characteristics away from the linear response are largely determined by molecular orbital rehybridization in an electric field, in close analogy to what happens for Mn(12) molecules. However, in the case of dithienylethene attached to Au, such a mechanism is effective also in conditions of strong electronic coupling to the electrodes. This makes the dithienylethene family an intriguing materials platform for constructing highly conducting organic optoelectronics switches.

Charge transport through molecular switches

We review the fascinating research on charge transport through switchable molecules. In the past decade, detailed investigations have been performed on a great variety of molecular switches, including mechanically interlocked switches (rotaxanes and catenanes), redox-active molecules and photochromic switches (e.g. azobenzenes and diarylethenes). To probe these molecules, both individually and in self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), a broad set of methods have been developed. These range from low temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) via two-terminal break junctions to larger scale SAM-based devices. It is generally found that the electronic coupling between molecules and electrodes has a profound influence on the properties of such molecular junctions. For example, an intrinsically switchable molecule may lose its functionality after it is contacted. Vice versa, switchable two-terminal devices may be created using passive molecules ('extrinsic switching'). Developing a detailed understanding of the relation between coupling and switchability will be of key importance for both future research and technology.