The multivesicular body-localized GTPase ARFA1b/1c is important for callose deposition and ROR2 syntaxin-dependent preinvasive basal defense in barley

A powdery mildew core effector protein targets the host endosome tethering complexes HOPS and CORVET in barley

Powdery mildew fungi are serious pathogens affecting many plant species. Their genomes encode extensive repertoires of secreted effector proteins that suppress host immunity. Here, we revised and analyzed the candidate secreted effector protein (CSEP) effectome of the powdery mildew fungus, Blumeria hordei (Bh). We identified seven putative effectors that are broadly conserved in powdery mildew species, suggesting that they are core effectors of these phytopathogens. We showed that one of these effectors, CSEP0214, interacts with the barley (Hordeum vulgare) vacuolar protein-sorting 18 (VPS18) protein, a shared component of the class C core vacuole/endosome tethering (CORVET) and homotypic fusion and protein-sorting (HOPS) endosomal tethering complexes that mediate fusion of early endosomes and multivesicular bodies, respectively, with the central vacuole. Overexpression of CSEP0214 and knockdown of either VPS18, HOPS-specific VPS41, or CORVET-specific VPS8 blocked the vacuolar pathway and the accumulation of the fluorescent vacuolar marker protein (SP)-RFP-AFVY in the endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, CSEP0214 inhibited the interaction between VPS18 and VPS16, which are both shared components of CORVET as well as HOPS. Additionally, introducing CSEP0214 into barley leaf cells blocked the hypersensitive cell death response associated with resistance gene-mediated immunity, indicating that endomembrane trafficking is required for this process. CSEP0214 expression also prevented callose deposition in cell wall appositions at attack sites and encasements of fungal infection structures. Our results indicate that the powdery mildew core effector CSEP0214 is an essential suppressor of plant immunity.

ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) protein interacts with elicitor PvNLP7 from Plasmopara viticola to mediate PvNLP7-triggered immunity

Revealing the effector-host molecular interactions is crucial for understanding the host immunity against Plasmopara viticola and devising innovative disease management strategies. As a pathogenic oomycete causing grapevine downy mildew, Plasmopara viticola employs various effectors to manipulate the defense systems of host plants. One of these P. viticola derived effectors is necrosis- and ethylene-inducing peptide 1 (Nep1) -like protein (PvNLP7), which has been known to elicit cell death and immune responses in plants. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain obscure, prompting the focus of this study. Through yeast two-hybrid screening, we have identified the Vitis rotundifolia ADP-ribosylation factor (VrARF1) as a host interactor of PvNLP7. This interaction is corroborated through bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) and co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assays. Heterologous expression of VrARF1 in Nicotiana benthamiana verifies its accumulation in both the cytoplasm and nucleus, and induction of cell death. Moreover, the VrARF1 gene is strongly induced during early P. viticola infection and upon PvNLP7 transient expression. Overexpression of the VrARF1 gene in grapevine and N. benthamiana enhances resistance to P. viticola and Phytophthora capsici, respectively, via induction of defense related genes PR1 and PR2. Conversely, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) of NbARF1 in N. benthamiana, homologous to VrARF1, markedly attenuates PvNLP7-triggered cell death and reduces the expression of four PTI marker genes (PTI5, Acre31, WRKY7 and Cyp71D20) and two defense related genes (PR1 and PR2), rendering plants transiently transformed with PvNLP7 more susceptible to oomycete P. capsici. These findings highlight the role of ARF1 in mediating PvNLP7-induced immunity and indicate its potential as a target for engineering disease-resistant transgenic plants against oomycete pathogens.

Infection of Alfalfa Cotyledons by an Incompatible but Not a Compatible Species of Colletotrichum Induces Formation of Paramural Bodies and Secretion of EVs

Hemibiotrophic fungi in the genus Colletotrichum employ a biotrophic phase to invade host epidermal cells followed by a necrotrophic phase to spread through neighboring mesophyll and epidermal cells. We used serial block face-scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) to compare subcellular changes that occur in Medicago sativa (alfalfa) cotyledons during infection by Colletotrichum destructivum (compatible on M. sativa) and C. higginsianum (incompatible on M. sativa). Three-dimensional reconstruction of serial images revealed that alfalfa epidermal cells infected with C. destructivum undergo massive cytological changes during the first 60 h following inoculation to accommodate extensive intracellular hyphal growth. Conversely, inoculation with the incompatible species C. higginsianum resulted in no successful penetration events and frequent formation of papilla-like structures and cytoplasmic aggregates beneath attempted fungal penetration sites. Further analysis of the incompatible interaction using focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) revealed the formation of large multivesicular body-like structures that appeared spherical and were not visible in compatible interactions. These structures often fused with the host plasma membrane, giving rise to paramural bodies that appeared to be releasing extracellular vesicles (EVs). Isolation of EVs from the apoplastic space of alfalfa leaves at 60 h postinoculation showed significantly more vesicles secreted from alfalfa infected with incompatible fungus compared with compatible fungus, which in turn was more than produced by noninfected plants. Thus, the increased frequency of paramural bodies during incompatible interactions correlated with an increase in EV quantity in apoplastic wash fluids. Together, these results suggest that EVs and paramural bodies contribute to immunity during pathogen attack in alfalfa. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Vesicle trafficking pathways in defence-related cell wall modifications: papillae and encasements

Filamentous pathogens that cause plant diseases such as powdery mildew, rust, anthracnose, and late blight continue to represent an enormous challenge for farmers worldwide. Interestingly, these pathogens, although phylogenetically distant, initiate pathogenesis in a very similar way by penetrating the cell wall and establishing a feeding structure inside the plant host cell. To prevent pathogen ingress, the host cell responds by forming defence structures known as papillae and encasements that are thought to mediate pre- and post-invasive immunity, respectively. This form of defence is evolutionarily conserved in land plants and is highly effective and durable against a broad selection of non-adapted filamentous pathogens. As most pathogens have evolved strategies to overcome the defences of only a limited range of host plants, the papilla/encasement response could hold the potential to become an optimal transfer of resistance from one plant species to another. In this review I lay out current knowledge of the involvement of membrane trafficking that forms these important defence structures and highlight some of the questions that still need to be resolved.

Emerging role of small GTPases and their interactome in plants to combat abiotic and biotic stress

Plants are frequently subjected to abiotic and biotic stress which causes major impediments in their growth and development. It is emerging that small guanosine triphosphatases (small GTPases), also known as monomeric GTP-binding proteins, assist plants in managing environmental stress. Small GTPases function as tightly regulated molecular switches that get activated with the aid of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) and deactivated by the subsequent hydrolysis of GTP to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). All small GTPases except Rat sarcoma (Ras) are found in plants, including Ras-like in brain (Rab), Rho of plant (Rop), ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) and Ras-like nuclear (Ran). The members of small GTPases in plants interact with several downstream effectors to counteract the negative effects of environmental stress and disease-causing pathogens. In this review, we describe processes of stress alleviation by developing pathways involving several small GTPases and their associated proteins which are important for neutralizing fungal infections, stomatal regulation, and activation of abiotic stress-tolerant genes in plants. Previous reviews on small GTPases in plants were primarily focused on Rab GTPases, abiotic stress, and membrane trafficking, whereas this review seeks to improve our understanding of the role of all small GTPases in plants as well as their interactome in regulating mechanisms to combat abiotic and biotic stress. This review brings to the attention of scientists recent research on small GTPases so that they can employ genome editing tools to precisely engineer economically important plants through the overexpression/knock-out/knock-in of stress-related small GTPase genes.

Membrane Dynamics Regulated by Cytoskeleton in Plant Immunity

The plasma membrane (PM), which is composed of a lipid layer implanted with proteins, has diverse functions in plant responses to environmental triggers. The heterogenous dynamics of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane play important roles in regulating cellular activities with an intricate pathway that orchestrates reception, signal transduction and appropriate response in the plant immune system. In the process of the plasma membrane participating in defense responses, the cytoskeletal elements have important functions in a variety of ways, including regulation of protein and lipid dynamics as well as vesicle trafficking. In this review, we summarized how the plasma membrane contributed to plant immunity and focused on the dynamic process of cytoskeleton regulation of endocytosis and exocytosis and propose future research directions.

Barley endosomal MONENSIN SENSITIVITY1 is a target of the powdery mildew effector CSEP0162 and plays a role in plant immunity

Encasements formed around haustoria and biotrophic hyphae as well as hypersensitive reaction (HR) cell death are essential plant immune responses to filamentous pathogens. In this study we examine the components that may contribute to the absence of these responses in susceptible barley attacked by the powdery mildew fungus. We find that the effector CSEP0162 from this pathogen targets plant MONENSIN SENSITIVITY1 (MON1), which is important for the fusion of multivesicular bodies to their target membranes. Overexpression of CSEP0162 and silencing of barley MON1 both inhibit encasement formation. We find that the Arabidopsis ecotype No-0 has resistance to powdery mildew, and that this is partially dependent on MON1. Surprisingly, we find the MON1-dependent resistance in No-0 not only includes an encasement response, but also an effective HR. Similarly, silencing of MON1 in barley also blocks Mla3-mediated HR-based powdery mildew resistance. Our results indicate that MON1 is a vital plant immunity component, and we speculate that the barley powdery mildew fungus introduces the effector CSEP0162 to target MON1 and hence reduce encasement formation and HR.

CRISPR/Cas9 based mlo-mediated resistance against Podosphaera xanthii in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

Powdery mildews (PM) are common and severe pathogen groups that threaten plants, and PM resistance is complex and polygenic in cucumbers. Previously mlo-based resistance was reported in various plants, including cucumber, with generated loss-of CsaMLO function mutants. However, mlo-based resistance in cucumber is also complex and involves additional mechanisms such as hypersensitive response (HR) and papillae formation. For this reason, we focused on determining the mlo-based powdery mildew resistance mechanism in cucumber. CRISPR/Cas9 was used in the present study to generate loss-of-function mutants for CsaMLO1, CsaMLO8, and CsaMLO11 of PM susceptible ADR27 cucumber inbred lines and CsaMLO mutants were obtained and validated. Trypan Blue and DAB staining were performed to detect Podosphaera xanthii germination/penetration rates and accumulation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Our results indicate that PM-susceptibility associated CsaMLOs in cucumber are negative regulators in different defense mechanisms against powdery mildew at early and late stages of infection. Further, the experiment results indicated that CsaMLO8 mutation-based resistance was associated with the pre-invasive response, while CsaMLO1 and CsaMLO11 could be negative regulators in the post-invasive defense response in cucumber against P. xanthii. Although the loss-of CsaMLO8 function confers the highest penetration resistance, CsaMLO1 and CsaMLO11 double mutations could be potential candidates for HR-based resistance against PM pathogen in cucumber. These results highlighted the crucial role of CRISPR/Cas9 to develop PM resistant cucumber cultivars, possessing strong pre-invasive defense with CsaMLO8 or post-invasive with CsaMLO1/CsaMLO11 mutations.

Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Quantification of Callose

The existing methods of callose quantification include epifluorescence microscopy and fluorescence spectrophotometry of aniline blue-stained callose particles, immuno-fluorescence microscopy and indirect assessment of both callose synthase and β-(1,3)-glucanase enzyme activities. Some of these methods are laborious, time consuming, not callose-specific, biased and require high technical skills. Here, we describe a method of callose quantification based on Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (S-ELISA). Tissue culture-derived banana plantlets were inoculated with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) bacteria as a biotic stress factor inducing callose production. Banana leaf, pseudostem and corm tissue samples were collected at 14 days post-inoculation (dpi) for callose quantification. Callose levels were significantly different in banana tissues of Xcm-inoculated and control groups except in the pseudostems of both banana genotypes. The method described here could be applied for the quantification of callose in different plant species with satisfactory level of specificity to callose, and reproducibility. Additionally, the use of 96-well plate makes this method suitable for high throughput callose quantification studies with minimal sampling and analysis biases. We provide step-by-step detailed descriptions of the method.

An interolog-based barley interactome as an integration framework for immune signaling

The barley MLA nucleotide-binding leucine-rich-repeat (NLR) receptor and its orthologs confer recognition specificity to many fungal diseases, including powdery mildew, stem-, and stripe rust. We used interolog inference to construct a barley protein interactome (Hordeum vulgare predicted interactome, HvInt) comprising 66,133 edges and 7,181 nodes, as a foundation to explore signaling networks associated with MLA. HvInt was compared with the experimentally validated Arabidopsis interactome of 11,253 proteins and 73,960 interactions, verifying that the 2 networks share scale-free properties, including a power-law distribution and small-world network. Then, by successive layering of defense-specific "omics" datasets, HvInt was customized to model cellular response to powdery mildew infection. Integration of HvInt with expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) enabled us to infer disease modules and responses associated with fungal penetration and haustorial development. Next, using HvInt and infection-time-course RNA sequencing of immune signaling mutants, we assembled resistant and susceptible subnetworks. The resulting differentially coexpressed (resistant - susceptible) interactome is essential to barley immunity, facilitates the flow of signaling pathways and is linked to mildew resistance locus a (Mla) through trans eQTL associations. Lastly, we anchored HvInt with new and previously identified interactors of the MLA coiled coli + nucleotide-binding domains and extended these to additional MLA alleles, orthologs, and NLR outgroups to predict receptor localization and conservation of signaling response. These results link genomic, transcriptomic, and physical interactions during MLA-specified immunity.

Biochemical and cytological interactions between callose synthase and microtubules in the tobacco pollen tube

KEY MESSAGE

The article concerns the association between callose synthase and cytoskeleton by biochemical and ultrastructural analyses in the pollen tube. Results confirmed this association and immunogold labeling showed a colocalization. Callose is a cell wall polysaccharide involved in fundamental biological processes, from plant development to the response to abiotic and biotic stress. To gain insight into the deposition pattern of callose, it is important to know how the enzyme callose synthase is regulated through the interaction with the vesicle-cytoskeletal system. Actin filaments likely determine the long-range distribution of callose synthase through transport vesicles but the spatial/biochemical relationships between callose synthase and microtubules are poorly understood, although experimental evidence supports the association between callose synthase and tubulin. In this manuscript, we further investigated the association between callose synthase and microtubules through biochemical and ultrastructural analyses in the pollen tube model system, where callose is an essential component of the cell wall. Results by native 2-D electrophoresis, isolation of callose synthase complex and far-western blot confirmed that callose synthase is associated with tubulin and can therefore interface with cortical microtubules. In contrast, actin and sucrose synthase were not permanently associated with callose synthase. Immunogold labeling showed colocalization between the enzyme and microtubules, occasionally mediated by vesicles. Overall, the data indicate that pollen tube callose synthase exerts its activity in cooperation with the microtubular cytoskeleton.

Plant SYP12 syntaxins mediate an evolutionarily conserved general immunity to filamentous pathogens

Filamentous fungal and oomycete plant pathogens that invade by direct penetration through the leaf epidermal cell wall cause devastating plant diseases. Plant preinvasive immunity toward nonadapted filamentous pathogens is highly effective and durable. Pre- and postinvasive immunity correlates with the formation of evolutionarily conserved and cell-autonomous cell wall structures, named papillae and encasements, respectively. Yet, it is still unresolved how papillae/encasements are formed and whether these defense structures prevent pathogen ingress. Here, we show that in Arabidopsis the two closely related members of the SYP12 clade of syntaxins (PEN1 and SYP122) are indispensable for the formation of papillae and encasements. Moreover, loss-of-function mutants were hampered in preinvasive immunity toward a range of phylogenetically distant nonadapted filamentous pathogens, underlining the versatility and efficacy of this defense. Complementation studies using SYP12s from the early diverging land plant, Marchantia polymorpha, showed that the SYP12 clade immunity function has survived 470 million years of independent evolution. These results suggest that ancestral land plants evolved the SYP12 clade to provide a broad and durable preinvasive immunity to facilitate their life on land and pave the way to a better understanding of how adapted pathogens overcome this ubiquitous plant defense strategy.

Arabidopsis EXO70B2 exocyst subunit contributes to papillae and encasement formation in antifungal defence

In the reaction to non-adapted Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei (Bgh), Arabidopsis thaliana leaf epidermal cells deposit cell wall reinforcements called papillae or seal fungal haustoria in encasements, both of which involve intensive exocytosis. A plant syntaxin, SYP121/PEN1, has been found to be of key importance for the timely formation of papillae, and the vesicle tethering complex exocyst subunit EXO70B2 has been found to contribute to their morphology. Here, we identify a specific role for the EXO70B2-containing exocyst complex in the papillae membrane domains important for callose deposition and GFP-SYP121 delivery to the focal attack sites, as well as its contribution to encasement formation. The mRuby2-EXO70B2 co-localizes with the exocyst core subunit SEC6 and GFP-SYP121 in the membrane domain of papillae, and EXO70B2 and SYP121 proteins have the capacity to directly interact. The exo70B2/syp121 double mutant produces a reduced number of papillae and haustorial encasements in response to Bgh, indicating an additive role of the exocyst in SYP121-coordinated non-host resistance. In summary, we report cooperation between the plant exocyst and a SNARE protein in penetration resistance against non-adapted fungal pathogens.

Arabidopsis ADP-RIBOSYLATION FACTOR-A1s mediate tapetum-controlled pollen development

Propagation of angiosperms mostly relies on sexual reproduction, in which gametophytic development is a pre-requisite. Male gametophytic development requires both gametophytic and sporophytic factors, most importantly early secretion and late programmed cell death of the tapetum. In addition to transcriptional factors, proteins at endomembrane compartments, such as receptor-like kinases and vacuolar proteases, control tapetal function. The cellular machinery that regulates their distribution is beginning to be revealed. We report here that ADP-RIBOSYLATION FACTOR-A1s (ArfA1s) are critical for tapetum-controlled pollen development. All six ArfA1s in the Arabidopsis genome are expressed during anther development, among which ArfA1b is specific to the tapetum and developing microspores. Although the ArfA1b loss-of-function mutant showed no pollen defects, probably due to redundancy, interference with ArfA1s by a dominant negative approach in the tapetum resulted in tapetal dysfunction and pollen abortion. We further showed that all six ArfA1s are associated with the Golgi and the trans-Golgi network/early endosome, suggesting that they have roles in regulating post-Golgi trafficking to the plasma membrane or to vacuoles. Indeed, we demonstrated that the expression of ArfA1b^DN interfered with the targeting of proteins critical for tapetal development. The results presented here demonstrate a key role of ArfA1s in tapetum-controlled pollen development by mediating protein targeting through post-Golgi trafficking routes.

Synaptotagmin 5 Controls SYP132-VAMP721/722 Interaction for Arabidopsis Immunity to Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000

Vesicle-associated membrane proteins 721 and 722 (VAMP721/722) are secretory vesicle-localized arginine-conserved soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (R-SNAREs) to drive exocytosis in plants. They are involved in diverse physiological processes in plants by interacting with distinct plasma membrane (PM) syntaxins. Here, we show that synaptotagmin 5 (SYT5) is involved in plant defense against Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato (Pst) DC3000 by regulating SYP132-VAMP721/722 interactions. Calcium-dependent stimulation of in vitro SYP132-VAMP722 interaction by SYT5 and reduced in vivo SYP132-VAMP721/722 interaction in syt5 plants suggest that SYT5 regulates the interaction between SYP132 and VAMP721/722. We interestingly found that disease resistance to Pst DC3000 bacterium but not to Erysiphe pisi fungus is compromised in syt5 plants. Since SYP132 plays an immune function to bacteria, elevated growth of surface-inoculated Pst DC3000 in VAMP721/722-deficient plants suggests that SYT5 contributes to plant immunity to Pst DC3000 by promoting the SYP132-VAMP721/722 immune secretory pathway.

Communication is key: Extracellular vesicles as mediators of infection and defence during host-microbe interactions in animals and plants

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are now understood to be ubiquitous mediators of cellular communication. In this review, we suggest that EVs have evolved into a highly regulated system of communication with complex functions including export of wastes, toxins and nutrients, targeted delivery of immune effectors and vectors of RNA silencing. Eukaryotic EVs come in different shapes and sizes and have been classified according to their biogenesis and size distributions. Small EVs (or exosomes) are released through fusion of endosome-derived multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. Medium EVs (or microvesicles) bud off the plasma membrane as a form of exocytosis. Finally, large EVs (or apoptotic bodies) are produced as a result of the apoptotic process. This review considers EV secretion and uptake in four eukaryotic kingdoms, three of which produce cell walls. The impacts cell walls have on EVs in plants and fungi are discussed, as are roles of fungal EVs in virulence. Contributions of plant EVs to development and innate immunity are presented. Compelling cases are sporophytic self-incompatibility and cellular invasion by haustorium-forming filamentous pathogens. The involvement of EVs in all of these eukaryotic processes is reconciled considering their evolutionary history.

Exosome/Liposome-like Nanoparticles: New Carriers for CRISPR Genome Editing in Plants

Rapid developments in the field of plant genome editing using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) systems necessitate more detailed consideration of the delivery of the CRISPR system into plants. Successful and safe editing of plant genomes is partly based on efficient delivery of the CRISPR system. Along with the use of plasmids and viral vectors as cargo material for genome editing, non-viral vectors have also been considered for delivery purposes. These non-viral vectors can be made of a variety of materials, including inorganic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, liposomes, and protein- and peptide-based nanoparticles, as well as nanoscale polymeric materials. They have a decreased immune response, an advantage over viral vectors, and offer additional flexibility in their design, allowing them to be functionalized and targeted to specific sites in a biological system with low cytotoxicity. This review is dedicated to describing the delivery methods of CRISPR system into plants with emphasis on the use of non-viral vectors.

Fluid-phase and membrane markers reveal spatio-temporal dynamics of membrane traffic and repair in the green alga Chara australis

We investigated the mechanisms and the spatio-temporal dynamics of fluid-phase and membrane internalization in the green alga Chara australis using fluorescent hydrazides markers alone, or in conjunction with styryl dyes. Using live-cell imaging, immunofluorescence and inhibitor studies we revealed that both fluid-phase and membrane dyes were actively taken up into the cytoplasm by clathrin-mediated endocytosis and stained various classes of endosomes including brefeldin A- and wortmannin-sensitive organelles (trans-Golgi network and multivesicular bodies). Uptake of fluorescent hydrazides was poorly sensitive to cytochalasin D, suggesting that actin plays a minor role in constitutive endocytosis in Chara internodal cells. Sequential pulse-labelling experiments revealed novel aspects of the temporal progression of endosomes in Chara internodal cells. The internalized fluid-phase marker distributed to early compartments within 10 min from dye exposure and after about 30 min, it was found almost exclusively in late endocytic compartments. Notably, fluid cargo consecutively internalized at time intervals of more than 1h, was not targeted to the same vesicular structures, but was sorted into distinct late compartments. We further found that fluorescent hydrazide dyes distributed not only to rapidly recycling endosomes but also to long-lived compartments that participated in plasma membrane repair after local laser injury. Our approach highlights the benefits of combining different fluid-phase markers in conjunction with membrane dyes in simultaneous and sequential application modus for investigating vesicle traffic, especially in organisms, which are still refractory to genetic transformation like characean algae.

Regulation and Function of Defense-Related Callose Deposition in Plants

Plants are constantly exposed to a wide range of potential pathogens and to protect themselves, have developed a variety of chemical and physical defense mechanisms. Callose is a β-(1,3)-D-glucan that is widely distributed in higher plants. In addition to its role in normal growth and development, callose plays an important role in plant defense. Callose is deposited between the plasma membrane and the cell wall at the site of pathogen attack, at the plasmodesmata, and on other plant tissues to slow pathogen invasion and spread. Since it was first reported more than a century ago, defense-related callose deposition has been extensively studied in a wide-spectrum of plant-pathogen systems. Over the past 20 years or so, a large number of studies have been published that address the dynamic nature of pathogen-induced callose deposition, the complex regulation of synthesis and transport of defense-related callose and associated callose synthases, and its important roles in plant defense responses. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the regulation and function of defense-related callose deposition in plants and discuss both the progresses and future challenges in addressing this complex defense mechanism as a critical component of a plant immune system.

Recognition and defence of plant-infecting fungal pathogens

Attempted infections of plants with fungi result in diverse outcomes ranging from symptom-less resistance to severe disease and even death of infected plants. The deleterious effect on crop yield have led to intense focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that explain the difference between resistance and susceptibility. This research has uncovered plant resistance or susceptibility genes that explain either dominant or recessive inheritance of plant resistance with many of them coding for receptors that recognize pathogen invasion. Approaches based on cell biology and phytochemistry have contributed to identifying factors that halt an invading fungal pathogen from further invasion into or between plant cells. Plant chemical defence compounds, antifungal proteins and structural reinforcement of cell walls appear to slow down fungal growth or even prevent fungal penetration in resistant plants. Additionally, the hypersensitive response, in which a few cells undergo a strong local immune reaction, including programmed cell death at the site of infection, stops in particular biotrophic fungi from spreading into surrounding tissue. In this review, we give a general overview of plant recognition and defence of fungal parasites tracing back to the early 20th century with a special focus on Triticeae and on the progress that was made in the last 30 years.

Identification of salicylic acid-independent responses in an Arabidopsis phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase beta double mutant

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

We have recently shown that an Arabidopsis thaliana double mutant of type III phosphatidylinositol-4-kinases (PI4Ks), pi4kβ1β2, constitutively accumulated a high level of salicylic acid (SA). By crossing this pi4kβ1β2 double mutant with mutants impaired in SA synthesis (such as sid2 impaired in isochorismate synthase) or transduction, we demonstrated that the high SA level was responsible for the dwarfism phenotype of the double mutant. Here we aimed to distinguish between the SA-dependent and SA-independent effects triggered by the deficiency in PI4Kβ1 and PI4Kβ2.

METHODS

To achieve this we used the sid2pi4kβ1β2 triple mutant. High-throughput analyses of phytohormones were performed on this mutant together with pi4kβ1β2 and sid2 mutants and wild-type plants. Responses to pathogens, namely Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis, Pseudomonas syringae and Botrytis cinerea, and also to the non-host fungus Blumeria graminis, were also determined. Callose accumulation was monitored in response to flagellin.

KEY RESULTS

We show here the prominent role of high SA levels in influencing the concentration of many other tested phytohormones, including abscisic acid and its derivatives, the aspartate-conjugated form of indole-3-acetic acid and some cytokinins such as cis-zeatin. We show that the increased resistance of pi4kβ1β2 plants to the host pathogens H. arabidopsidis, P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and Bothrytis cinerea is dependent on accumulation of high SA levels. In contrast, accumulation of callose in pi4kβ1β2 after flagellin treatment was independent of SA. Concerning the response to Blumeria graminis, both callose accumulation and fungal penetration were enhanced in the pi4kβ1β2 double mutant compared to wild-type plants. Both of these processes occurred in an SA-independent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data extensively illustrate the influence of SA on other phytohormone levels. The sid2pi4kβ1β2 triple mutant revealed the role of PI4Kβ1/β2 per se, thus showing the importance of these enzymes in plant defence responses.

Plant Cells under Attack: Unconventional Endomembrane Trafficking during Plant Defense

Since plants lack specialized immune cells, each cell has to defend itself independently against a plethora of different pathogens. Therefore, successful plant defense strongly relies on precise and efficient regulation of intracellular processes in every single cell. Smooth trafficking within the plant endomembrane is a prerequisite for a diverse set of immune responses. Pathogen recognition, signaling into the nucleus, cell wall enforcement, secretion of antimicrobial proteins and compounds, as well as generation of reactive oxygen species, all heavily depend on vesicle transport. In contrast, pathogens have developed a variety of different means to manipulate vesicle trafficking to prevent detection or to inhibit specific plant responses. Intriguingly, the plant endomembrane system exhibits remarkable plasticity upon pathogen attack. Unconventional trafficking pathways such as the formation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) bodies or fusion of the vacuole with the plasma membrane are initiated and enforced as the counteraction. Here, we review the recent findings on unconventional and defense-induced trafficking pathways as the plant´s measures in response to pathogen attack. In addition, we describe the endomembrane system manipulations by different pathogens, with a focus on tethering and fusion events during vesicle trafficking.

Coordination and Crosstalk between Autophagosome and Multivesicular Body Pathways in Plant Stress Responses

In eukaryotic cells, autophagosomes and multivesicular bodies (MVBs) are two closely related partners in the lysosomal/vacuolar protein degradation system. Autophagosomes are double membrane-bound organelles that transport cytoplasmic components, including proteins and organelles for autophagic degradation in the lysosomes/vacuoles. MVBs are single-membrane organelles in the endocytic pathway that contain intraluminal vesicles whose content is either degraded in the lysosomes/vacuoles or recycled to the cell surface. In plants, both autophagosome and MVB pathways play important roles in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. More recent studies have revealed that autophagosomes and MVBs also act together in plant stress responses in a variety of processes, including deployment of defense-related molecules, regulation of cell death, trafficking and degradation of membrane and soluble constituents, and modulation of plant hormone metabolism and signaling. In this review, we discuss these recent findings on the coordination and crosstalk between autophagosome and MVB pathways that contribute to the complex network of plant stress responses.

Association mapping of wheat Fusarium head blight resistance-related regions using a candidate-gene approach and their verification in a biparental population

Markers, located in Dicer1 and Ara6 genes, which are likely involved in cross-kingdom RNA trafficking, are associated with FHB resistance in GABI wheat population and were validated in biparental population. Association studies are a common approach to detect marker-trait associations for Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance in wheat (Triticum aestivum), although verification of detected associations is exceptional. In the present study, candidate-gene association mapping (CG) of genes from silencing and secretory pathways, which may be involved in wheat resistance against FHB and cross-kingdom RNA trafficking, was performed. Fourteen markers, located in nine genes, were tested for association with FHB resistance in 356 lines from the GABI (genome analysis of the biological system of plants) wheat population. Three markers located in the genes Dicer1 and Ara6 were shown to be significantly associated with the studied trait. Verification of this finding was performed using the recombinant inbred lines (RILs) population 'Apache × Biscay', segregating for four of our 14 selected markers. We could show association of the Ara6 marker with plant height as well as association with FHB resistance for three markers located in Rab5-like GTPase gene Ara6 and Dicer1. These results confirmed the trait-marker associations detected also in the CG approach. Gene products of the associated genes are involved in response of the plant to pathogens, plant metabolism and may be involved in cross-kingdom RNA trafficking efficiency. The markers detected in the GABI wheat population, which were also validated in the biparental population, can potentially be used in wheat breeding.

Small RNA Functions as a Trafficking Effector in Plant Immunity

Small RNAs represent a class of small but powerful agents that regulate development and abiotic and biotic stress responses during plant adaptation to a constantly challenging environment. Previous findings have revealed the important roles of small RNAs in diverse cellular processes. The recent discovery of bidirectional trafficking of small RNAs between different kingdoms has raised many interesting questions. The subsequent demonstration of exosome-mediated small RNA export provided a possible tool for further investigating how plants use small RNAs as a weapon during the arms race between plant hosts and pathogens. This review will focus on discussing the roles of small RNAs in plant immunity in terms of three aspects: the biogenesis of extracellular small RNAs and the transportation and trafficking small RNA-mediated gene silencing in pathogens.

Extracellular Vesicles From the Cotton Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Induce a Phytotoxic Response in Plants

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent a system for the coordinated secretion of a variety of molecular cargo including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites. They have an essential role in intercellular communication in multicellular organisms and have more recently been implicated in host-pathogen interactions. Study of the role for EVs in fungal biology has focused on pathogenic yeasts that are major pathogens in humans. In this study we have expanded the investigation of fungal EVs to plant pathogens, specifically the major cotton pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum. EVs isolated from F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum culture medium have a morphology and size distribution similar to EVs from yeasts such as Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. A unique feature of the EVs from F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum is their purple color, which is predicted to arise from a napthoquinone pigment being packaged into the EVs. Proteomic analysis of F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum EVs revealed that they are enriched in proteins that function in synthesis of polyketides as well as proteases and proteins that function in basic cellular processes. Infiltration of F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum EVs into the leaves of cotton or N. benthamiana plants led to a phytotoxic response. These observations lead to the hypothesis that F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum EVs are likely to play a crucial role in the infection process.

Characterization of Callose Deposition and Analysis of the Callose Synthase Gene Family of Brassica napus in Response to Leptosphaeria maculans

Callose plays a critical role in different biological processes including development as well as in the response to multiple biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, we characterized the callose deposition in cotyledons of different Brassica napus varieties post-inoculated with different Leptosphaeria maculans isolates. Further, members of the callose synthase gene were identified from the whole genome of B. napus using the 12 Arabidopsis thaniana callose synthase protein sequences, and were then classified into three groups based on their phylogenetic relationships. Chromosomal location and duplication patterns indicated uneven distribution and segmental duplication patterns of BnCalS genes in the B. napus genome. Subsequently, gene structures, conserved domains analysis, and protein properties were analyzed for BnCalS genes. In addition, 12 B. napus orthologs of the AtCalS were selected for investigating the tissue expression pattern, indicating diverse expression patterns for these BnCalS genes. Responses of the selected 12 orthologs and all the BnCalS genes were characterized in the different types (AvrLm1-Rlm1, AvrLm4-Rlm4, AvrLepR1-LepR1) of B. napus–L. maculans interactions and B. napus-Leptosphaeria biglobosa interactions, implying their potential roles in response to Leptosphaeria infection.

Is callose required for silicification in plants?

The cell wall polymer callose catalyses the formation of silica in vitro and is heavily implicated in biological silicification in Equisetum (horsetail) and Arabidopsis (thale cress) in vivo. Callose, a β-1,3-glucan, is an ideal partner for silicification, because its amorphous structure and ephemeral nature provide suitable microenvironments to support the condensation of silicic acid into silica. Herein, using scanning electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry and fluorescence, we provide further evidence of the cooperative nature of callose and silica in biological silicification in rice, an important crop plant and known silica accumulator. These new data along with recently published research enable us to propose a model to describe the intracellular events that together determine callose-driven biological silicification.

Post-Golgi Trafficking and Transport of Cell Wall Components

The cell wall, a complex macromolecular composite structure surrounding and protecting plant cells, is essential for development, signal transduction, and disease resistance. This structure is also integral to cell expansion, as its tensile resistance is the primary balancing mechanism against internal turgor pressure. Throughout these processes, the biosynthesis, transport, deposition, and assembly of cell wall polymers are tightly regulated. The plant endomembrane system facilitates transport of polysaccharides, polysaccharide biosynthetic and modifying enzymes and glycoproteins through vesicle trafficking pathways. Although a number of enzymes involved in cell wall biosynthesis have been identified, comparatively little is known about the transport of cell wall polysaccharides and glycoproteins by the endomembrane system. This review summarizes our current understanding of trafficking of cell wall components during cell growth and cell division. Emerging technologies, such as vesicle glycomics, are also discussed as promising avenues to gain insights into the trafficking of structural polysaccharides to the apoplast.

3-Aminobenzamide Blocks MAMP-Induced Callose Deposition Independently of Its Poly(ADPribosyl)ation Inhibiting Activity

Cell wall reinforcement with callose is a frequent plant response to infection. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a protein post-translational modification mediated by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation has well-known roles in DNA damage repair and has more recently been shown to contribute to plant immune responses. 3-aminobenzamide (3AB) is an established PARP inhibitor and it blocks the callose deposition elicited by flg22 or elf18, two microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). However, we report that an Arabidopsis parp1parp2parp3 triple mutant does not exhibit loss of flg22-induced callose deposition. Additionally, the more specific PARP inhibitors PJ-34 and INH₂BP inhibit PARP activity in Arabidopsis but do not block MAMP-induced callose deposition. These data demonstrate off-target activity of 3AB and indicate that 3AB inhibits callose deposition through a mechanism other than poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. POWDERY MILDEW RESISTANT 4 (PMR4) is the callose synthase responsible for the majority of MAMP- and wound-induced callose deposition in Arabidopsis. 3AB does not block wound-induced callose deposition, and 3AB does not reduce the PMR4 mRNA abundance increase in response to flg22. Levels of PMR4-HA protein increase in response to flg22, and increase even more in flg22 + 3AB despite no callose being produced. The callose synthase inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose does not cause similar impacts on PMR4-HA protein levels. Beyond MAMPs, we find that 3AB also reduces callose deposition induced by powdery mildew (Golovinomyces cichoracearum) and impairs the penetration resistance of a PMR4 overexpression line. 3AB thus reveals pathogenesis-associated pathways that activate callose synthase enzymatic activity distinct from those that elevate PMR4 mRNA and protein abundance.

Biogenesis and Function of Multivesicular Bodies in Plant Immunity

Multivesicular bodies (MVBs) are specialized endosomes that contain intraluminal vesicles generated from invagination and budding of the limiting membrane. In the endocytic pathway, MVBs are late endosomes whose content can be degraded through fusion with lysosomes/vacuoles or released into the extracellular space after fusion with the plasma membrane (PM). The proteins retained on the limiting membrane of MVBs are translocated to the membrane of lysosomes/vacuoles or delivered back to the PM. It has been long suspected that MVBs might fuse with the PM to form paramural bodies in plant cells, possibly leading to release of building blocks for deposition of papillae and antimicrobial molecules against invading pathogens. Over the past decade or so, major progress has been made in establishing the critical roles of MVBs and associated membrane trafficking in pathogen recognition, defense signaling, and deployment of defense-related molecules during plant immune responses. Regulatory proteins and signaling pathways associated with induced biogenesis and trafficking of MVBs during plant immune responses have also been identified and characterized. Recent successful isolation of plant extracellular vesicles and proteomic profiling of their content have provided additional support for the roles of MVBs in plant-pathogen interactions. In this review, we summarize the important progress and discuss how MVBs, particularly through routing of cellular components to different destinations, contribute to the complex network of plant immune system.

Plant exosomes: using an unconventional exit to prevent pathogen entry?

The ability to ward off filamentous pathogens, such as powdery mildew fungi, is one of the best studied examples of membrane trafficking-dependent disease resistance in plants. Here, papilla formation at the site of attack is essential for the pre-invasive immunity, whereas the encasement can hamper disease post-invasively. Exosomes containing antifungal peptides and small RNAs are thought to play a vital role in forming papillae and encasements that block fungal growth. While exosomes are well described in mammals, and have been shown to play important roles in cell-cell communication regulating development and disease, their function is not well-known in plants. In this review, we focus on some of the recent discoveries on plant exosomes and try to link this information with our current understanding of how plants use this form of unconventional secretion to acquire this durable and effective form of resistance.

The plant membrane surrounding powdery mildew haustoria shares properties with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane

Many filamentous plant pathogens place specialized feeding structures, called haustoria, inside living host cells. As haustoria grow, they are believed to manipulate plant cells to generate a specialized, still enigmatic extrahaustorial membrane (EHM) around them. Here, we focused on revealing properties of the EHM. With the help of membrane-specific dyes and transient expression of membrane-associated proteins fused to fluorescent tags, we studied the nature of the EHM generated by barley leaf epidermal cells around powdery mildew haustoria. Observations suggesting that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane-specific dyes labelled the EHM led us to find that Sar1 and RabD2a GTPases bind this membrane. These proteins are usually associated with the ER and the ER/cis-Golgi membrane, respectively. In contrast, transmembrane and luminal ER and Golgi markers failed to label the EHM, suggesting that it is not a continuum of the ER. Furthermore, GDP-locked Sar1 and a nucleotide-free RabD2a, which block ER to Golgi exit, did not hamper haustorium formation. These results indicated that the EHM shares features with the plant ER membrane, but that the EHM membrane is not dependent on conventional secretion. This raises the prospect that an unconventional secretory pathway from the ER may provide this membrane's material. Understanding these processes will assist future approaches to providing resistance by preventing EHM generation.

Trans-Golgi network/early endosome: a central sorting station for cargo proteins in plant immunity

In plants, the trans-Golgi network (TGN) functionally overlaps with the early endosome (EE), serving as a central sorting hub to direct newly synthesized and endocytosed cargo to the cell surface or vacuole. Here, we focus on the emerging role of the TGN/EE in sorting of immune cargo proteins for effective plant immunity against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Specific vesicle coat and regulatory components at the TGN/EE ensure that immune cargoes are correctly sorted and transported to the location of their cellular functions. Our understanding of the identity of immune cargoes and the underlying cellular mechanisms regulating their sorting are still rudimentary, but this knowledge is essential to understanding the physiological contribution of the TGN/EE to effective immune responses.

Membrane Trafficking in Plant Immunity

Plants employ sophisticated mechanisms to interact with pathogenic as well as beneficial microbes. Of those, membrane trafficking is key in establishing a rapid and precise response. Upon interaction with pathogenic microbes, surface-localized immune receptors undergo endocytosis for signal transduction and activity regulation while cell wall components, antimicrobial compounds, and defense proteins are delivered to pathogen invasion sites through polarized secretion. To sustain mutualistic associations, host cells also reprogram the membrane trafficking system to accommodate invasive structures of symbiotic microbes. Here, we provide an analysis of recent advances in understanding the roles of secretory and endocytic membrane trafficking pathways in plant immune activation. We also discuss strategies deployed by adapted microbes to manipulate these pathways to subvert or inhibit plant defense.

Small GTPases in plant biotic interactions

The superfamily of small monomeric GTPases originated in a common ancestor of eukaryotic multicellular organisms and, since then, it has evolved independently in each lineage to cope with the environmental challenges imposed by their different life styles. Members of the small GTPase family function in the control of vesicle trafficking, cytoskeleton rearrangements and signaling during crucial biological processes, such as cell growth and responses to environmental cues. In this review, we discuss the emerging roles of these small GTPases in the pathogenic and symbiotic interactions established by plants with microorganisms present in their nearest environment, in which membrane trafficking is crucial along the different steps of the interaction, from recognition and signal transduction to nutrient exchange.

The monomeric GTPase RabA2 is required for progression and maintenance of membrane integrity of infection threads during root nodule symbiosis

Progression of the infection canal that conducts rhizobia to the nodule primordium requires a functional Rab GTPase located in Golgi/trans-Golgi that also participate in root hair polar growth. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) symbiotically associates with its partner Rhizobium etli, resulting in the formation of root nitrogen-fixing nodules. Compatible bacteria can reach cortical cells in a tightly regulated infection process, in which the specific recognition of signal molecules is a key step to select the symbiotic partner. In this work, we show that RabA2, a monomeric GTPase from common bean, is required for the progression of the infection canal, referred to as the infection thread (IT), toward the cortical cells. Expression of miss-regulated mutant variants of RabA2 resulted in an increased number of abortive infection events, including bursting of ITs and a reduction in the number of nodules. Nodules formed in these plants were small and contained infected cells with disrupted symbiosome membranes, indicating either early senescence of these cells or defects in the formation of the symbiosome membrane during bacterial release. RabA2 localized to mobile vesicles around the IT, but mutations that affect GTP hydrolysis or GTP/GDP exchange modified this localization. Colocalization of RabA2 with ArfA1 and a Golgi marker indicates that RabA2 localizes in Golgi stacks and the trans-Golgi network. Our results suggest that RabA2 is part of the vesicle transport events required to maintain the integrity of the membrane during IT progression.

Components of the SNARE-containing regulon are co-regulated in root cells undergoing defense

The term regulon has been coined in the genetic model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, denoting a structural and physiological defense apparatus defined genetically through the identification of the penetration (pen) mutants. The regulon is composed partially by the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor (SNARE) syntaxin PEN1. PEN1 has homology to a Saccharomyces cerevisae gene that regulates a Secretion (Sec) protein, Suppressor of Sec 1 (Sso1p). The regulon is also composed of the β-glucosidase (PEN2) and an ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporter (PEN3). While important in inhibiting pathogen infection, limited observations have been made regarding the transcriptional regulation of regulon genes until now. Experiments made using the model agricultural Glycine max (soybean) have identified co-regulated gene expression of regulon components. The results explain the observation of hundreds of genes expressed specifically in the root cells undergoing the natural process of defense. Data regarding additional G. max genes functioning within the context of the regulon are presented here, including Sec 14, Sec 4 and Sec 23. Other examined G. max homologs of membrane fusion genes include an endosomal bromo domain-containing protein1 (Bro1), syntaxin6 (SYP6), SYP131, SYP71, SYP8, Bet1, coatomer epsilon (ϵ-COP), a coatomer zeta (ζ-COP) paralog and an ER to Golgi component (ERGIC) protein. Furthermore, the effectiveness of biochemical pathways that would function within the context of the regulon ave been examined, including xyloglucan xylosyltransferase (XXT), reticuline oxidase (RO) and galactinol synthase (GS). The experiments have unveiled the importance of the regulon during defense in the root and show how the deposition of callose relates to the process.

Extracellular Vesicles Isolated from the Leaf Apoplast Carry Stress-Response Proteins

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) that play a central role in intercellular signaling in mammals by transporting proteins and small RNAs. Plants are also known to produce EVs, particularly in response to pathogen infection. The contents of plant EVs have not been analyzed, however, and their function is unknown. Here, we describe a method for purifying EVs from the apoplastic fluids of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaves. Proteomic analyses of these EVs revealed that they are highly enriched in proteins involved in biotic and abiotic stress responses. Consistent with this finding, EV secretion was enhanced in plants infected with Pseudomonas syringae and in response to treatment with salicylic acid. These findings suggest that EVs may represent an important component of plant immune responses.

Cellulose and callose synthesis and organization in focus, what's new?

Plant growth and development are supported by plastic but strong cell walls. These walls consist largely of polysaccharides that vary in content and structure. Most of the polysaccharides are produced in the Golgi apparatus and are then secreted to the apoplast and built into the growing walls. However, the two glucan polymers cellulose and callose are synthesized at the plasma membrane by cellulose or callose synthase complexes, respectively. Cellulose is the most common cell wall polymer in land plants and provides strength to the walls to support directed cell expansion. In contrast, callose is integral to specialized cell walls, such as the cell plate that separates dividing cells and growing pollen tube walls, and maintains important functions during abiotic and biotic stress responses. The last years have seen a dramatic increase in our understanding of how cellulose and callose are manufactured, and new factors that regulate the synthases have been identified. Much of this knowledge has been amassed via various microscopy-based techniques, including various confocal techniques and super-resolution imaging. Here, we summarize and synthesize recent findings in the fields of cellulose and callose synthesis in plant biology.

Map-based Cloning and Characterization of the BPH18 Gene from Wild Rice Conferring Resistance to Brown Planthopper (BPH) Insect Pest

Brown planthopper (BPH) is a phloem sap-sucking insect pest of rice which causes severe yield loss. We cloned the BPH18 gene from the BPH-resistant introgression line derived from the wild rice species Oryza australiensis. Map-based cloning and complementation test revealed that the BPH18 encodes CC-NBS-NBS-LRR protein. BPH18 has two NBS domains, unlike the typical NBS-LRR proteins. The BPH18 promoter::GUS transgenic plants exhibited strong GUS expression in the vascular bundles of the leaf sheath, especially in phloem cells where the BPH attacks. The BPH18 proteins were widely localized to the endo-membranes in a cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, trans-Golgi network, and prevacuolar compartments, suggesting that BPH18 may recognize the BPH invasion at endo-membranes in phloem cells. Whole genome sequencing of the near-isogenic lines (NILs), NIL-BPH18 and NIL-BPH26, revealed that BPH18 located at the same locus of BPH26. However, these two genes have remarkable sequence differences and the independent NILs showed differential BPH resistance with different expression patterns of plant defense-related genes, indicating that BPH18 and BPH26 are functionally different alleles. These findings would facilitate elucidation of the molecular mechanism of BPH resistance and the identified novel alleles to fast track breeding BPH resistant rice cultivars.

Synaptotagmin 1 Negatively Controls the Two Distinct Immune Secretory Pathways to Powdery Mildew Fungi in Arabidopsis

PEN1, one of the plasma membrane (PM) syntaxins, comprises an immune exocytic pathway by forming the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex with SNAP33 and VAMP721/722 in plants. Although this secretory pathway is also involved in plant growth and development, how plants control their exocytic activity is as yet poorly understood. Since constitutive PEN1 cycling between the PM and endocytosed vesicles is critical for its immune activity, we studied here the relationship of PEN1 to synaptotagmin 1 (SYT1) that is known to regulate endocytosis at the PM. Interestingly, syt1 plants showed enhanced disease resistance to the Arabidopsis-adapted Golovinomyces orontii fungus, and elevated protein but not transcript levels of PEN1 Calcium-dependent promotion of PEN1-SYT1 interaction suggests that SYT1 controls defense activities of the PEN1-associated secretory pathway by post-translationally modulating PEN1. Increased PEN1-SYT1 interaction and inhibited PEN1 SNARE complex induction by G. orontii additionally suggest that the adaption of phytopathogens to host plants might partly result from effective suppression of the PEN1-related secretory pathway. Further genetic analyses revealed that SYT1 also regulates the atypical peroxisomal myrosinase PEN2-associated secretory pathway.

Protein trafficking during plant innate immunity

Plants have evolved a sophisticated immune system to fight against pathogenic microbes. Upon detection of pathogen invasion by immune receptors, the immune system is turned on, resulting in production of antimicrobial molecules including pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. Conceivably, an efficient immune response depends on the capacity of the plant cell's protein/membrane trafficking network to deploy the right defense-associated molecules in the right place at the right time. Recent research in this area shows that while the abundance of cell surface immune receptors is regulated by endocytosis, many intracellular immune receptors, when activated, are partitioned between the cytoplasm and the nucleus for induction of defense genes and activation of programmed cell death, respectively. Vesicle transport is an essential process for secretion of PR proteins to the apoplastic space and targeting of defense-related proteins to the plasma membrane or other endomembrane compartments. In this review, we discuss the various aspects of protein trafficking during plant immunity, with a focus on the immunity proteins on the move and the major components of the trafficking machineries engaged.

Biotrophy at Its Best: Novel Findings and Unsolved Mysteries of the Arabidopsis-Powdery Mildew Pathosystem

It is generally accepted in plant-microbe interactions research that disease is the exception rather than a common outcome of pathogen attack. However, in nature, plants with symptoms that signify colonization by obligate biotrophic powdery mildew fungi are omnipresent. The pervasiveness of the disease and the fact that many economically important plants are prone to infection by powdery mildew fungi drives research on this interaction. The competence of powdery mildew fungi to establish and maintain true biotrophic relationships renders the interaction a paramount example of a pathogenic plant-microbe biotrophy. However, molecular details underlying the interaction are in many respects still a mystery. Since its introduction in 1990, the Arabidopsis-powdery mildew pathosystem has become a popular model to study molecular processes governing powdery mildew infection. Due to the many advantages that the host Arabidopsis offers in terms of molecular and genetic tools this pathosystem has great capacity to answer some of the questions of how biotrophic pathogens overcome plant defense and establish a persistent interaction that nourishes the invader while in parallel maintaining viability of the plant host.

A Critical Role of Lyst-Interacting Protein5, a Positive Regulator of Multivesicular Body Biogenesis, in Plant Responses to Heat and Salt Stresses

Multivesicular bodies (MVBs) are unique endosomes containing vesicles in the lumen and play critical roles in many cellular processes. We have recently shown that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Lyst-Interacting Protein5 (LIP5), a positive regulator of the Suppressor of K(+) Transport Growth Defect1 (SKD1) AAA ATPase in MVB biogenesis, is a critical target of the mitogen-activated protein kinases MPK3 and MPK6 and plays an important role in the plant immune system. In this study, we report that the LIP5-regulated MVB pathway also plays a critical role in plant responses to abiotic stresses. Disruption of LIP5 causes compromised tolerance to both heat and salt stresses. The critical role of LIP5 in plant tolerance to abiotic stresses is dependent on its ability to interact with Suppressor of K(+) Transport Growth Defect1. When compared with wild-type plants, lip5 mutants accumulate increased levels of ubiquitinated protein aggregates and NaCl under heat and salt stresses, respectively. Further analysis using fluorescent dye and MVB markers reveals that abiotic stress increases the formation of endocytic vesicles and MVBs in a largely LIP5-dependent manner. LIP5 is also required for the salt-induced increase of intracellular reactive oxygen species, which have been implicated in signaling of salt stress responses. Basal levels of LIP5 phosphorylation by MPKs and the stability of LIP5 are elevated by salt stress, and mutation of MPK phosphorylation sites in LIP5 reduces the stability and compromises the ability to complement the lip5 salt-sensitive mutant phenotype. These results collectively indicate that the MVB pathway is positively regulated by pathogen/stress-responsive MPK3/6 through LIP5 phosphorylation and plays a critical role in broad plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses.

A cellular backline: specialization of host membranes for defence

In plant-pathogen interactions, the host plasma membrane serves as a defence front for pathogens that invade from the extracellular environment. As such, the lipid bilayer acts as a scaffold that targets and delivers defence responses to the site of attack. During pathogen infection, numerous changes in plasma membrane composition, organization, and structure occur. There is increasing evidence that this facilitates the execution of a variety of responses, highlighting the regulatory role membranes play in cellular responses. Membrane microdomains such as lipid rafts are hypothesized to create signalling platforms for receptor signalling in response to pathogen perception and for callose synthesis. Further, the genesis of pathogen-associated structures such as papillae and the extra-haustorial membrane necessitates polarization of membranes and membrane trafficking pathways. Unlocking the mechanisms by which this occurs will enable greater understanding of how targeted defences, some of which result in resistance, are executed. This review will survey some of the changes that occur in host membranes during pathogen attack and how these are associated with the generation of defence responses.

Different Gene Expressions of Resistant and Susceptible Hop Cultivars in Response to Infection with a Highly Aggressive Strain of Verticillium albo-atrum

Verticillium wilt has become a serious threat to hop production in Europe due to outbreaks of lethal wilt caused by a highly virulent strain of Verticillium albo-atrum. In order to enhance our understanding of resistance mechanisms, the fungal colonization patterns and interactions of resistant and susceptible hop cultivars infected with V. albo-atrum were analysed in time course experiments. Quantification of fungal DNA showed marked differences in spatial and temporal fungal colonization patterns in the two cultivars. Two differential display methods obtained 217 transcripts with altered expression, of which 84 showed similarity to plant proteins and 8 to fungal proteins. Gene ontology categorised them into cellular and metabolic processes, response to stimuli, biological regulation, biogenesis and localization. The expression patterns of 17 transcripts with possible implication in plant immunity were examined by real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Our results showed strong expression of genes encoding pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins in susceptible plants and strong upregulation of genes implicated in ubiquitination and vesicle trafficking in the incompatible interaction and their downregulation in susceptible plants, suggesting the involvement of these processes in the hop resistance reaction. In the resistant cultivar, the RT-qPCR expression patterns of most genes showed their peak at 20 dpi and declined towards 30 dpi, comparable to the gene expression pattern of in planta detected fungal protein and coinciding with the highest fungal biomass in plants at 15 dpi. These expression patterns suggest that the defence response in the resistant cultivar is strong enough at 20 dpi to restrict further fungus colonization.

A moving view: subcellular trafficking processes in pattern recognition receptor-triggered plant immunity

A significant challenge for plants is to induce localized defense responses at sites of pathogen attack. Therefore, host subcellular trafficking processes enable accumulation and exchange of defense compounds, which contributes to the plant on-site defenses in response to pathogen perception. This review summarizes our current understanding of the transport processes that facilitate immunity, the significance of which is highlighted by pathogens reprogramming membrane trafficking through host cell translocated effectors. Prominent immune-related cargos of plant trafficking pathways are the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which must be present at the plasma membrane to sense microbes in the apoplast. We focus on the dynamic localization of the FLS2 receptor and discuss the pathways that regulate receptor transport within the cell and their link to FLS2-mediated immunity. One emerging theme is that ligand-induced late endocytic trafficking is conserved across different PRR protein families as well as across different plant species.

Formation and maintenance of the Golgi apparatus in plant cells

The Golgi apparatus plays essential roles in intracellular trafficking, protein and lipid modification, and polysaccharide synthesis in eukaryotic cells. It is well known for its unique stacked structure, which is conserved among most eukaryotes. However, the mechanisms of biogenesis and maintenance of the structure, which are deeply related to ER-Golgi and intra-Golgi transport systems, have long been mysterious. Now having extremely powerful microscopic technologies developed for live-cell imaging, the plant Golgi apparatus provides an ideal system to resolve the question. The plant Golgi apparatus has unique features that are not conserved in other kingdoms, which will also give new insights into the Golgi functions in plant life. In this review, we will summarize the features of the plant Golgi apparatus and transport mechanisms around it, with a focus on recent advances in Golgi biogenesis by live imaging of plants cells.