Feeling Good, Happy, and Proud: A Meta-Analysis of Positive Ethnic-Racial Affect and Adjustment

Intersectional Dynamics of Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration: Examining Health Outcomes among Black Immigrant Youth through Ethnic-Racial Identity Development and Critical Consciousness

Despite the rise in racial justice and immigrant rights movements in the United States of America (USA), the experiences of Black immigrants at the intersection of these movements remain undertheorized. For Black immigrant youth, these experiences - marked by anti-Black racism and xenophobia - can significantly impact psychological well-being and physical health, particularly during adolescence, a crucial period of identity formation and sociopolitical awareness. We propose the Intersectional Dynamics of Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration (ID-REI) theoretical framework that explores how distal (e.g., structural racism, sociopolitical relations between countries) and proximal (e.g., ethnic-racial socialization, family and individual cultural practices) factors related to race, ethnicity, and immigration interact to influence health outcomes through ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development and critical consciousness. The ID-REI theoretical framework emphasizes the unique challenges faced by Black immigrant youth, while highlighting the developmental assets of ERI and critical consciousness as protective mechanisms to mitigate adverse mental and physical health outcomes.

Within-Person Fluctuations in Ethnic-Racial Affect and Discrimination-Based Stress: Moderation by Average Ethnic-Racial Affect and Stress

INTRODUCTION

Despite evidence highlighting the dynamic nature of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development and the common occurrence of discriminatory experiences, many studies treat these constructs as static and equivalent across individuals. Drawing upon the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), this study examined the within-person covariations between ethnic-racial affect (individuals' positive feelings regarding their ethnic-racial background) and discrimination-based stress, and whether these relations were moderated by average affect and average stress.

METHOD

This study employed an intensive longitudinal design with 771 observations nested within 133 participants (Mage = 16.07, SD = 0.67), 52.3% were girls and ~93.3% were African American from Chicago, Illinois.

RESULTS

Results from the multilevel model analysis revealed that within-person fluctuations in ethnic-racial affect were predicted by discrimination-based stress and that these fluctuations were person-specific. Furthermore, findings from this study also showed that the within-person fluctuations in ethnic-racial affect in relation to stress from discrimination were weaker for those with higher average affect and stronger for those with higher average stress.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the dynamic and situational nature of developmental processes by emphasizing the within-person fluctuations and person-specificity. These findings highlight the importance of developing and delivering interventions and programs that promote positive ethnic-racial affect to mitigate the negative impact of discrimination. These initiatives should be offered consistently and tailored to address individuals' specific needs to maximize their effectiveness.

Latinx Youth in Rural Settings: Understanding the Links Between Ethnic-Racial Identity, Neighborhood Risks, Perceived Discrimination, and Depressive Symptoms

INTRODUCTION

The current study examined the relationships between neighborhood risk, perceived ethnic-racial discrimination, and depressive symptoms among rural Latinx adolescents. We also tested for potential moderation effects of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and how these associations differ by gender.

METHODS

Interviewer-administered surveys were used to collect quantitative data for this cross-sectional study in 2017. The sample included 198 Latinx adolescents (Mage = 15.90, SD = 1.47; 54.4% female; 75.6% US born) recruited from rural farm areas in the Southeastern United States. Analyses were performed using hierarchical regression analyses in SPSS. Separate models were run for each ERI component.

RESULTS

Results revealed associations between neighborhood risk, perceived ethnic-racial discrimination, and depressive symptoms. ERI affirmation significantly moderated the association between neighborhood risk and depressive symptoms, demonstrating protective factors. Gender differences were identified in the hypothesized model.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the role of neighborhood context and perceived ethnic-racial discrimination in mental health outcomes among rural Latinx youth. Additionally, the findings suggest ERI may be an effective buffer against these stressors. Our results replicate findings pertaining to the influence of neighborhood risk that have been reported in extant literature and extend what is known of the protective role of ERI to Latinx adolescents from rural communities.

Colliding Identities? The Role of Multiple Identities Among Historically Underrepresented Students Pursuing Scientific Research Careers

Motivated by Identity Integration and Threat theories, this preregistered study examined associations between scientist and ethnic identities and future scientific research career intentions among African American and Hispanic STEM undergraduates (N=1,247). Scientist identity was positively correlated with junior-year ethnic identity and predicted senior-year scientific research career intentions. Neither scientist nor ethnic identities predicted senior-year self-esteem (which may influence science career decisions). However, minority science training program (MSTP) enrollment influenced the relationship between scientist identity and self-esteem, and between ethnic identity (belongingness) and scientific research career intentions. Neither ethnicity nor gender were moderators. The results indicate that different identities can relate to one another and uniquely influence scientific research career decisions among African American and Hispanic students, especially among MSTP enrollees.

Coping with ethnic-racial discrimination: Protective-reactive effects of shift-and-persist coping on internalizing symptoms among Black American adolescents

Ethnic-racial discrimination has pervasive negative effects on Black youth's mental health; therefore, it is crucial to identify factors that provide resilience against discrimination. Two promising factors to help youth cope are ethnic-racial identity (how one feels about their ethnicity/race) and shift-and-persist coping (reappraising and accepting an uncontrollable stressor while remaining optimistic about the future). While there is existing scholarship on ethnic-racial identity among Black youth, this work has not yet assessed the impacts of shift-and-persist in this population. Using a sample of 155 Black youth (ages 13-17), the current study examined the interplay between discrimination, ethnic-racial identity, shift-and-persist coping, and internalizing symptoms. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were positively associated with discrimination and negatively associated with shift-and-persist. Significant interactions between discrimination and shift-and-persist predicting both depressive and anxiety symptoms revealed significant negative associations between shift-and-persist and internalizing symptoms at low and average, but not high discrimination levels. Effects are, thus, protective-reactive; the protective effects of shift-and-persist are not significant for youth facing high levels of discrimination. Ethnic-racial identity, surprisingly, was not significantly associated with either depressive or anxiety symptoms, nor did it interact with shift-and-persist as it has in studies of Latinx youth. By understanding the protective benefits of shift-and-persist and ethnic-racial identity in Black youth, during a pivotal period for mental health, we can provide this growing population with tools to lessen the maladaptive outcomes associated with discrimination.

Ethnic-Racial Identity and Attitude Change: Assessments of Outgroup and Diversity Attitudes among Adolescents in Sweden

Outgroup and diversity attitudes are important components of intercultural understanding and well-being. Despite the potential of ethnic-racial identity development as a means to foster positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, little is known about its effectiveness in rapidly diversifying contexts such as Sweden. This pre-registered study filled this gap by examining if adolescents taking part in an intervention focused on ethnic-racial identity exploration, the Identity Project, also reported change in outgroup and diversity attitudes, and whether migration background, education type, and ethnic-racial identity development predicted such change. Twenty-three tenth-grade classes in Sweden (N = 509; Mage = 16.28; SDage = 0.80; 66% female; 51% migration background) participated in the intervention and were assessed in four waves over a period of 26 weeks. Whereas ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution increased for the intervention group, the adolescents reported no change in outgroup and diversity attitudes when compared to a control group. Increases in ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution co-varied with increases in attitudes, but only at Time 3. The results do not provide support for the link between ethnic-racial identity development and positive outgroup and diversity attitudes, and challenge the notion of attitude change as a cascading effect of the Identity Project intervention in non-US sociocultural contexts. All aspects of the study were pre-registered on the Open Science Framework platform ( https://osf.io/f5896 ).

School belonging mediates the longitudinal effects of racial/ethnic identity on academic achievement and emotional well-being among Black and Latinx adolescents

Social Identity Theory proposes that a positive in-group social identification fosters students' academic motivation and psychological well-being. The present study, grounded in Social Identity Theory, investigated the roles of racial/ethnicity identity (REI) in the development of school adjustment among Black and Latinx youth as well as the psychological mechanisms underlying these longitudinal associations. We hypothesized that REI would positively predict the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. In addition, we hypothesized that the development of school belonging would mediate the predictive effects of REI on the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms. Participants were 475 (n = 182 Black, 48.9% female; 293 Latinx, 47.8% female) students in Grades 7-9. Students self-reported their REI, school belonging, and emotional symptoms. Academic achievement was assessed using standardized achievement test scores. The longitudinal mediation models indicated that REI indirectly predicted the development of academic achievement and emotional symptoms through students' sense of school belonging. Specifically, higher REI embedded achievement and lower REI awareness of racism predicted higher school belonging in Grade 7. Higher Grade 7 school belonging in turn predicted faster academic growth in Grade 7 to Grade 9 as well as lower emotional symptoms in Grade 7. In addition, the three dimensions of REI also directly predicted the growth of academic achievement and emotional symptoms in Grades 7-9. The mediated effects were smaller in size than the direct effects. These findings highlight the importance of fostering positive REI and a strong sense of school belonging in promoting school adjustment among racial/ethnic minoritized, academically at-risk youth.

Racial stereotype and Black adolescents' math achievement: Unpacking the socio-cognitive mechanisms

Racial stereotypes are salient to Black adolescents and to the academic domain of mathematics; however, few studies have examined the socio-cognitive mechanisms through which racial stereotypes impact math achievement. This 2-year longitudinal study (N = 790 Grade 6, 8, and 10 students during Year 1; 50.7% girls and 49.3% boys) investigated (a) the extent to which the endorsement of positively and negatively biased racial stereotypes predicted Black adolescents' math performance through their cognitive engagement and ability mindset and (b) whether gender and ethnic-racial identity moderated these links. Results suggested that endorsement of negatively biased stereotypes was associated with diminished cognitive engagement and lower math scores across 2 years (p < .05). Additionally, adolescents' ethnic-racial identity commitment moderated the negative links between stereotype endorsement and math cognitive engagement in Year 2 (p < .05). When considering the mediating role of math ability mindsets, the endorsement of both positively and negatively biased racial stereotypes operated on math performance via its links to stronger fixed ability mindset beliefs in both years (p < .05). Gender also moderated the effects of racial stereotype endorsement on math mindset beliefs in Year 1 (p < .01). This study's findings advance the field's understanding of the psychosocial mechanisms through which racial stereotypes operate, thus enabling educators to develop tailored practices that facilitate equitable access to math learning opportunities.

Perception Matters: The Influence of School Ethnic Racial Context on Ethnic Racial Identity Development for Black Adolescents

In the current study, latent growth curve modeling is used to explore growth in ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment from 9th to 12th grade as a function of two aspects of the school ethnic-racial environment-perceived representation among peers and perceived discrimination from peers. The participants included 237 students that self-identified as African American (Mage = 14.7; 50% female). The results showed that perceiving more Black peers at school buffered the negative impact of racial discrimination from peers on ERI commitment. Further, the positive impact of perceived representation remained significant even after controlling for other markers of school ethnic-racial context including objective representation and school ethnic-racial diversity. The findings have implications for the environmental factors that support ERI development as well as how we study and conceptualize the influence of the school ethnic-racial environment.

Racism, Identity-Based Discrimination, and Intersectionality in Adolescence

Adolescence is a critical developmental stage for young people as they transition into adulthood. Several important developmental tasks that must be completed during this transition include exploring one's identity, developing and applying abstract thinking, adjusting to a new physical sense of self, and fostering stable and productive peer relationships while striving for autonomy and independence from parents. Young people begin to adopt a personal value system and form their racial and ethnic, social, sexual, and moral identity within a society that may provide conflicting and nonaffirming messages. Adolescent development strives toward an affirmed sense of self and self-esteem, which is best accomplished within a nurturing psychosocial context that fosters positive youth development. Youth-focused interventions should intentionally promote affirmation of ancestry and cultural identity, intersections with other historically marginalized identities, and critical consciousness. Fostering healing environments that affirm and address the radical need for change, coaching parents and guardians as critical agents in the creation of affirmative environments for development, and conducting research using anti-oppressive approaches are additional strategies to promote positive youth development. Simultaneously, structural transformations that address underlying social inequities are needed. Health care systems should continue to diversify the workforce and train staff and clinicians in integrative, identity-based, and healing-centered approaches. Organizations should consider training in diversity and competencies related to belonging while safeguarding inclusion with policies, procedures, and practices. Public health and policymakers can embed intersectional approaches within structural and systemic processes, particularly in all policies.

Family Functioning, Identity Commitments, and School Value among Ethnic Minority and Ethnic Majority Adolescents

Ethnic minority youth show worse school adjustment than their ethnic majority peers. Yet, it remains unclear whether this gap can be explained by differences in family functioning and consequent identity commitments. This study examined (1) whether family functioning relates to identity commitments over time and (2) whether identity commitments impact later school value (3) among minority and majority adolescents. Minority (N = 205, Mage = 16.25 years, 31.1% girls) and majority adolescents (N = 480, Mage = 15.73 years, 47.9% girls) participated in this preregistered three-wave longitudinal study (T1: March-April 2012; T2: October 2012; T3: March-April 2013). Dynamic Panel Models revealed that most within-person cross-lagged associations were not significant in the total sample. Yet, multigroup analyses revealed differences between groups: Stronger identity commitments related to lower school value among minority adolescents, but were unrelated to school value among majority adolescents over time. Additionally, higher school value increased identity commitments among minority youth, yet it decreased identity commitments among majority youth over time. The findings highlight the differential interplay between identity commitments and school adjustment for minority and majority adolescents, with important implications for their future life chances.

Long-term impact of familismo and ethnic identity on latinx college student drinking and high-risk consequences

Familismo, ethnic pride, and ethnic shame were examined as longitudinal predictors of Latinx college student alcohol use and high-risk alcohol-related consequences. Latinx students completed measures during the fall of their first (T1), second (T2), and fourth (T4) year of college. T1 familismo was positively associated with T2 ethnic pride and negatively associated with T2 ethnic shame. T2 ethnic pride was negatively associated with T4 drinking, while T2 ethnic shame was positively associated with T4 drinking. T4 drinking was positively associated with T4 consequences. Results suggest that Latinx ethnic pride and ethnic shame during the second-year of college act as mediators between first-year familismo and fourth-year drinking and consequences.

Mexican-Origin Children's Trajectories of Ethnic-Racial Pride from Childhood through Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Mothers and Fathers' Trajectories

Ethnic-racial pride (positive feelings about one's ethnic-racial group) is critical to healthy identity development across the lifespan. Research on ethnic-racial pride development among Latinx populations has focused exclusively on youth, without regard to pride development amongst parents and relations between pride within family units. Using multivariate Latent Growth Curve Modelling among 674 Mexican-origin youth and their parents (673 mothers; 437 fathers), the trajectory of youth's pride from 5th grade through emerging adulthood (14 years/12 waves of data) as well as relations with parental pride trajectories were examined. Respondents' pride generally decreased from waves 1 to 7 (~age 11-17 in youth) and increased after wave 7. Youth's and mothers' trajectories were unrelated, but complex associations emerged between youth's and fathers' trajectories. This study supports the dynamic nature of ethnic-racial pride across distinct life stages and underscores the complex interplay of youth and parental pride trajectories, emphasizing the pivotal role parents may play in co-shaping identity development alongside their children.

Cultural Identity and the Academic, Social, and Psychological Adjustment of Adolescents with Immigration Background

As Western societies become more ethnically and culturally diverse, understanding the acculturation of immigrant youth is essential for fostering social cohesion. How the cultural identity formation of ethnic minority adolescents relates to their academic, social, and psychological adjustment is an important and as yet unresolved research question. This study examined to what extent identifying with the heritage and/or host culture is an individual resource or risk factor for the adjustment of immigrant youth in Germany. A random sample of 15-17-year-olds (N = 1992; Mage_w1 = 15.3 years, SD = 0.64; 44.5% girls; 44.7% students with immigrant background) was assessed twice: at the end of 9th and 10th grade. Academic performance and three dimensions of social/psychological adjustment (school attachment, self-esteem, and life satisfaction) were examined. Results showed that biculturalism was the modal identification pattern. Contrary to expectations, cultural identification did not differ systematically with perceived distance from the majority culture. Multivariate structural equation modeling revealed that both heritage and host identification can be developmental resources, but that their effects are dependent on the dimension of adjustment; biculturalism only proved to be a cumulative resource for school attachment. The domain specificity of the findings challenges the generalization claims of predominant acculturation theories.

Research hotspots and frontiers of ethnic cultural identity--based on analysis of "web of science" database

Cultural identity is of great significance to the formation of group consensus and the establishment of cultural self-confidence. In order to understand the history, current situation and trend, and provide theoretical support for future research, this paper makes a quantitative analysis of knowledge map including annual publication volume, trend, distribution of authors and institutions, co-occurrence, clustering and timeline of keywords as well as emergent keywords on the literature concerning ethnic cultural identity published in "Web of Science" database for a period from 2012 to 2022, with CiteSpace software as a tool. The results show an overall upward trend with diversified ethnic and regional characteristics; major institutions including universities of the U.S., the U.K., Australia, China and other countries and regions engage in their research from different disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnology and education; the researchers have not formed a core group of authors despite their accumulating number; research hotspots are indicated by keywords such as national identity, identity, ethnic identity and attitude; specifically, keyword clusters fall into three categories: emotional perception, multicultural identity process and ethnic cultural adaptability; researchers probe into various issues at different stages with direct relation to international situations and regional cultures. This study has positive implications for understanding and mastering the current research hotspots and development trends of ethnic cultural identity in the world.

The Role of Ethnic-Racial Identity and Self-Esteem in Intergroup Contact Attitudes

Adolescents' ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation inform their approach and avoidance attitudes toward intergroup contact, but the potential mechanisms through which this occurs have been underexplored. Given the evidence that adolescents with higher ERI exploration, resolution, and affirmation also report higher self-esteem, and self-esteem is theorized to facilitate openness to intergroup contact, the current study explored the role of self-esteem as a mediator of the relation between adolescents' ERI and their intergroup contact attitudes. Participants were 4606 adolescents (Mage = 16.35, SD = 1.16; 37.5% White, 27.1% Black, 20.7% Latinx, 11.7% Asian American, 3% Native American) from the U.S. Southwest and Midwest. The three waves of data were collected between March 2017 and March 2018. Results from longitudinal multigroup path models indicated that across all ethnic-racial groups there were positive direct relations between Wave 1 (W1) ERI resolution and W2 self-esteem (7 months later). In turn, W2 self-esteem was positively related to W3 approach attitudes (12 months later) and negatively related to W3 avoidance attitudes. The relations between ERI resolution and both approach and avoidance attitudes were fully mediated by self-esteem across all ethnic-racial groups. Notably the baseline values (W1) of all mediation and outcome variables (W2, W3) were included, suggesting that ERI resolution at baseline predicted increases in self-esteem, which predicted subsequent increases in approach attitudes and decreases in avoidance attitudes. ERI exploration and affirmation were not significant predictors of later self-esteem or contact attitudes. These findings suggest that of the three dimensions of ERI examined, resolution is the primary driver of the increases in self-esteem that inform adolescents' attitudes towards interaction with ethnic-racial outgroup members.

Natural mentoring among college students of color: Considerations for their ethnic-racial identity and psychological well-being

This study examined: (a) the roles of ethnic-racial similarity between mentors and mentees and mentors' support for ethnic-racial identity (ERI) in mentees' ERI private regard, (b) the roles of ethnic-racial similarity and ERI support in mentees' psychological well-being, and (c) the indirect effects of ethnic-racial similarity and ERI support on psychological well-being via private regard. Participants were 231 college students of color who completed a survey and reported having a natural mentor. Path analyses were conducted to test the hypothesized model. More support for ERI was significantly associated with higher private regard and higher self-esteem. Higher ethnic-racial similarity was significantly related to higher psychological distress and higher self-esteem. An indirect effect was found between ERI support and ethnic-racial similarity and psychological well-being via private regard. The findings fill a gap in the literature on ethnic-racial processes in mentoring critical to the development of college students of color.

Investigating the Role of Suicidality and Ethnic Identity among Black Adolescents: A Latent Profile Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Suicide among Black adolescent youth has steadily increased in recent years, yet few studies describe how facets of social identity shape suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) during this critical stage of development. Ethnic identity represents an underexplored, yet important element of social identity among Black youth that may contribute to differential associations with STBs. This study examined the association between ethnic identity and self-reported suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts.

METHODS

Data were drawn from 1,170 African American (n = 810) and Caribbean Black (n = 368) adolescents aged 13-17 (Mean age = 15) that participated in the National Survey of American Life Adolescent supplement study.

RESULTS

Using latent profile analyses, three patterns of ethnic identity were identified: Undifferentiated, Low Ethnic Identification, and Alienated. Caribbean Black adolescents were more likely to be in the Low Ethnic Identification class relative to the Undifferentiated class. Adolescents in the Undifferentiated group reported higher proportions of suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts compared to the remaining latent profile groups.

CONCLUSION

Findings demonstrate that ethnic identity is an important aspect of social identity that can influence STBs among Black adolescents. Considering increased suicide attempts and death rates among Black youth, findings underscore the importance of examining culturally relevant developmental processes that may shape suicidal beliefs and behaviors.

A Longitudinal Mediation Analysis of the Interrelations among Exclusionary Immigration Policy, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem of Latinx Early Adolescents

Little is known about how exclusionary immigration laws affect ethnic identity and self-esteem among Latinx middle school students. Arizona's SB 1070, which required local officers to verify the legal status of detained individuals, garnered national attention for its impact on immigrant and Latinx communities. This study tested a longitudinal parallel multiple mediation model where perceptions of the effects of an exclusionary immigration law (Arizona's SB 1070) on self-esteem were mediated by dimensions of ethnic identity (ethnic centrality, ethnic private regard, ethnic public regard). Data were collected from a two-wave survey of 891 early adolescents ranging in age from 10 to 14 years (M = 12.09 years; SD = 0.99), a majority (71%) of whom were of Mexican descent. Analyses revealed an indirect effect of T1 perceptions of this law on T2 self-esteem (7 months later), holding T1 measures constant, with T2 ethnic centrality, private regard, and public regard acting as mediators. Perceived effects of this exclusionary law led to increased self-esteem through increased dimensions of ethnic identity. Results reveal how ethnic identity functions as a multidimensional construct in the process through which exclusionary immigration policy may impact the self-esteem of Latinx early adolescents.

Measure of Socialization of American Indian Children (MOSAIC): Understanding the roots of ethnic-racial identity

OBJECTIVES

The Measure of Socialization of American Indian Children (MOSAIC) was created as part of a larger study developing a family-based and culturally grounded substance use prevention program for young American Indian (AI) adolescents. The MOSAIC was designed to measure ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) for use with AI families to support better understanding of the roots of ethnic-racial identity among AI youth and their relationship to risk for substance use in early adolescence.

METHOD

This study was conducted in partnership with a Lakota reservation community. Community partners and advisors provided guidance on the creation of an item pool, which also drew extensively from the existing literature on ERS in other populations. The MOSAIC was pilot tested with a small sample of parents (N = 19) and then tested with a development sample of participants (N = 197) taking part in the larger study. A series of factor analyses were conducted with data from this development sample to explore associations among items and alignment with proposed dimensions.

RESULTS

Four dimensions emerged, related to socialization practices to support spirituality, language, pride, and preparation for bias. The original MOSIAC measure was refined based on these analyses and prepared for testing in an independent sample.

CONCLUSIONS

Dimensions of ERS common to measures developed for other populations emerged as relevant for AI families, with adaptations to reflect the unique context of this population. Further work is needed to confirm the structure of the MOSAIC in both this AI community and with other diverse indigenous populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Assessing Invariance of Universal Ethnic-Racial Identity Measures Among Black Adolescents in the United States

Black immigrants and their children represent a significant and growing share of the U.S. Black population; however, their experiences of their multifaceted identities are often collapsed into the experiences of multigenerational Black youth. The current study investigates whether generalized ethnic-racial identity measures are equivalent for Black youth with an immigrant parent and Black youth with only U.S.-born parents. Participants were 767 Black adolescents (16.6% immigrant-origin; Mage = 16.28, SD = 1.12) attending diverse high schools in two regions of the U.S. Participants completed the affirmation, exploration, and resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (EIS-B), along with the centrality and public regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (MIBI-T). The results indicated that, whereas the EIS-B demonstrated scalar invariance, the MIBI-T demonstrated partial scalar invariance. Accounting for measurement error, immigrant-origin youth reported lower affirmation than multigenerational U.S.-origin youth. Across groups, ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution scores were positively associated with family ethnic socialization; ethnic-racial identity affirmation was positively associated with self-esteem; and ethnic-racial identity public regard was negatively associated with ethnic-racial discrimination, supporting convergent validity. Conversely, centrality was positively associated with discrimination among multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth, but the relation was not significant among immigrant-origin Black youth. These results fill a methodological gap in the literature, providing researchers with empirical support for considering whether to pool immigrant-origin and multigenerational U.S.-origin Black youth in analyses regarding ethnic-racial identity.

Primping, performing, and policing: Social media use and self-sexualization among U.S. White, Black, and Asian-American adolescent girls

Objectification theorists argue that routine sexual objectification, experienced interpersonally and via the media, encourages women and adolescent girls to value their external appearance and sexiness above other bodily experiences and competencies. Commonly, tests of this theory have linked exposure to sexualizing media content (i.e., TV, music videos, social media) to self-objectification and subsequently to consequences such as disordered eating among predominantly White samples. Do these analyses extend to U.S. girls of color and to broader well-being consequences? Using structural equation modeling, we tested theorized connections among 884 adolescent girls aged 13-18, including 391 White girls, 248 Black girls, and 245 Asian American girls. Participants completed surveys assessing their use of several social media platforms, social media engagement, self-sexualization, mental health symptoms, self-esteem, and body shame. We also examined age, racial identity, and racial composition of peer group as moderators. The model worked as expected for the full sample, with social media use and engagement predicting greater self-sexualization, which in turn was associated with diminished well-being. However, the model fit was worse for the White girls than for girls of color, and some constructs operated differently. Implications for future research with girls and possible media interventions are discussed.

Impact of ethnic identity and geographical home location on student academic performance

Situated against the backdrop of a politically fueled ethnic hate between the Northern Region and the rest, this study exposes the relationship between the students' regions of origin and their academic performance in Malawian higher education to contribute to appropriate student support and healthy study habits. Spearman's rHO indicated weak but statistically significant correlations between one's home region and academic performance. Kruskal Wallis Test (N = 20,263) revealed that no single region outperforms others. Thematic analysis of interview data (N = 15) through NVivo revealed that students believe effort matters more in academic performance irrespective of one's region of origin. Implications for education policy that harness healthy study habits to enhance student achievement, retention, and self-efficacy about success are discussed.

Avoidance Self-Efficacy: Personal Indicators of Risky Sex and Substance Use among At-Risk Youth

Adolescent substance use (SU) is associated with risky sex behavior and sexually transmitted infections and is a risk factor for subsequent risky sex decisions. Based on a sample of 1,580 youth in residential SU treatment, this study investigated how a static factor (race) and two dynamic personal factors (risk-taking, assertiveness) contributed to adolescents' perceived ability to avoid high-risk SU and sex behavior (avoidance self-efficacy). Results showed that race correlated with risk-taking and assertiveness, with White youth reporting higher ratings of assertiveness and risk-taking. Self-reported assertiveness and risk-taking also predicted SU and risky sex avoidance. This study underscores the importance of race and personal factors in relation to adolescents' confidence in avoiding high-risk situations.

Discrimination, psychotic experiences, and racial identity among Black Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life

BACKGROUND

An emerging body of evidence suggests racial and ethnic identity may buffer the effects of discrimination on psychotic experiences, though the buffering effects have not been consistent across studies. More research is needed to clarify the conditions under which aspects of racial identity modify the effects of various forms of discrimination on psychotic experiences among Black Americans.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the National Survey of American Life (2001-2003). Using multivariable logistic regression, we examined the relations between various forms of discrimination and lifetime psychotic experiences, testing the interactive effects of two aspects of racial identity (racial group identification and racial private regard), adjusted for sociodemographic covariates.

RESULTS

The relation between everyday discrimination and psychotic experiences was stronger for African Americans who reported higher levels of racial group identification. Conversely, the relation between major discriminatory events and psychotic experiences was stronger for Caribbean Black Americans who reported lower levels of racial group identification. Higher racial private regard moderated the associations between everyday discrimination and psychotic experiences, and outgroup colorism and psychotic experiences among Caribbean Black Americans.

CONCLUSION

The role of racial identity is complex and appears to moderate the relation between some (but not all) forms of discrimination and lifetime psychotic experiences, depending on ethnicity.

Longitudinal links between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic-racial discrimination, and ethnic-racial pride in Mexican American youth

This paper used cross-lagged panel models to test the longitudinal interplay between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic-racial discrimination, and ethnic-racial pride across 5th to 11th grade among Mexican American youth (N = 674, M_age  = 10.86; 72% born in the United States; 50% girls; Wave 1 collected 2006-2008). Maternal cultural socialization predicted increases in subsequent youth ethnic-racial pride, and youth ethnic-racial pride prompted greater maternal cultural socialization. However, peer ethnic-racial discrimination was associated with subsequent decreases in ethnic-racial pride. The magnitude of these associations was consistent across 5th to 11th grades suggesting that maternal cultural socialization messages are necessary to maintain ethnic-racial pride across adolescence, thus families must continually support the development of ethnic-racial pride in their youth to counter the effects of discrimination.

Comparing sexual orientation identity development in plurisexual versus monosexual latinx sexual minority youth

INTRODUCTION

Plurisexual individuals represent 50% of sexual minority adolescent communities. However, most studies of sexual minority adolescents analyze this population as a homogeneous group rather than attending to plausible differences between plurisexual and monosexual sexual minority youth. This study examined whether plurisexual Latinx youth differed from monosexual youth on three facets of sexual orientation identity (SOI) development (exploration, resolution, and affirmation). Further, we examined whether plurisexual (vs. monosexual) identity moderated the relationship between SOI development and depressive symptoms and self-esteem.

METHODS

The sample included 365 Latinx sexual minority youth (14-24 years) living in the United States or US Territory. The majority of participants identified as monosexual (84.1%); 15.9% were plurisexual. The sample was 75.6% male, 19.5% female, and 2.0% transgender. Participants were asked to complete an online, cross-sectional survey that asked questions pertaining to ethnicity and sexual orientation. This data was collected in the fall of 2014.

RESULTS

Latinx plurisexual youth had higher levels of SOI affirmation, exploration, and resolution than monosexual youth. SOI affirmation and exploration and were positively associated with self-esteem for all youth. SOI affirmation was significantly negatively associated with depressive symptoms for monosexual youth but not for plurisexual youth. SOI exploration and resolution were not significantly associated with depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that there are significant differences between plurisexual and monosexual Latinx adolescent populations in reference to identity affirmation, exploration, and resolution, and that these sexual orientations should be treated distinctly in future research. In addition, all three aspects of identity development were significantly related to higher self-esteem for all youth regardless of identity, providing evidence for the importance of developing these three factors.

Late-Life Changes in Ethnoracial Self-identification: Evidence from Social Security Administrative Data

Researchers generally recognize that ethnoracial identification may shift over the life course. However, the prevalence of these shifts across cohorts and among older adults remains open questions. Using administrative data from Social Security applications from 1984 to 2007, we quantify the magnitude and direction of later-life shifts in ethnoracial self-identification between Black, White, Asian, American Indian, and Hispanic categories for the “Greatest Generation,” those born between 1901 and 1927. Overall, 2.3% of persons in these data changed their ethnoracial identification after the age of 57, with distinct patterns of change for ethnoracial subgroups. By linking to the 1940 Census, we find a positive and significant association between socioeconomic status in early life and a shift from non-White to non-Hispanic White identification in later life. We conclude that ethnoracial self-identification fluidity continues even among older adults, varying in response to social position, ethnoracial climate, and events in greater society.

Shining a light on cultural neuroscience: Recommendations on the use of fNIRS to study how sociocultural contexts shape the brain

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a portable neuroimaging technique that may serve as a methodological tool for studying how sociocultural contexts can shape the human brain and impact cognition and behavior. The use of fNIRS in community-based research may (a) advance theoretical knowledge in psychology and neuroscience, particularly regarding underrepresented ethnic-racial communities; (b) increase diversity in samples; and (c) provide neurobiological evidence of sociocultural factors supporting human development. The review aims to introduce the use of fNIRS, including its practicalities and limitations, to new adopters inquiring how sociocultural inputs affect the brain. The review begins with an introduction to cultural neuroscience, and a review on the use of fNIRS follows. Next, benefits and guidelines to the design of fNIRS research in naturalistic environments (in the community or in the field) using a cultural lens are discussed. Strengths-based and community-based approaches in cultural neuroscience are recommended throughout. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining Ethnic-Racial Identity Negative Affect, Centrality, and Intergroup Contact Attitudes Among White Adolescents

Given persisting systemic inequities, rising white nationalism, and an increasingly diverse ethnic-racial population, there is a need for empirical research on how White youth develop anti-racist competencies during adolescence. Indicators of adolescents' ethnic-racial identity (ERI), such as ERI negative affect and centrality may play an important role in this process and are important to examine specifically for White youth because they involve feelings and beliefs about membership in a group socially perceived to be dominant. In fact, ERI negative affect and centrality may operate as unique mechanisms through which White youth develop attitudes about interacting with different ethnic-racial groups. Accordingly, the current study used a prospective longitudinal design to test whether White youth's (N = 1243; M_age = 16.09, SD = 1.20; 47% female, 53% male) ERI negative affect and centrality predicted their ethnic-racial intergroup contact attitudes across a school year. Multivariate path analysis indicated that higher centrality at the beginning of the school year predicted greater avoidance attitudes later in the school year, adjusting for earlier avoidance attitudes. The interaction between ERI negative affect and centrality was marginally significant in predicting later avoidance and approach attitudes. The findings suggest that ERI may function as a mechanism through which White youth develop intergroup contact attitudes.

Pride-and-Prejudice Perspectives of Marginalization Can Advance Science and Society

Research that conceptualizes marginalization as tied to both pride and prejudice—or as simultaneously a source of strengths and stigma—is especially well positioned to address social problems in ways that can fuel progress for science and society. This review integrates insights from current research to highlight that leveraging pride-and-prejudice perspectives of marginalization can spark meaningful advancement toward mitigating social inequalities. Specifically, focusing on marginalization associated with race-ethnicity, social class, refugee status, and gender identity and sexual orientation, it highlights burgeoning research that harnesses pride-and-prejudice perspectives to advance psychological theory and application linked to (a) inclusion among marginalized groups and (b) intergroup attitudes among more dominant or privileged groups. The review concludes with a discussion of implications for future research and policy directions that can foster inclusion and facilitate positive intergroup attitudes amidst challenges tied to a racial reckoning (e.g., resource or economic scarcity, backlash to diversity and multiculturalism).

Freedom dreaming to STEM: A conceptual model for Black youth's racial and STEM identity development through social media

Social media use has become increasingly enmeshed in the lives of youth. Although investigations in this area have tended to focus on risk (e.g., cyberbullying) and negative outcomes (e.g., in mental health and academic functioning), a growing body of literature suggests there may be positive developmental outcomes associated with Black youths' social media use. Social media may offer Black youth a means of resisting negative experiences, expand their opportunities to create and explore, and facilitate the integration of their racial and STEM identities. Aligned with PYD perspectives and PVEST, we suggest this dynamic process occurs iteratively within youth and bidirectionally between youth and their environment (online and offline) over the course of development. In this article, we present a conceptual model to guide future investigations to address gaps in the literature and elucidate the linkages between social media use, racial identity, and STEM identity among Black youth. We begin by reviewing two frameworks that provide the theoretical foundations for our model. We then discuss our outcomes of interest: racial identity and STEM identity. Given its rapidly evolving nature, we then proceed with a discussion about how social media may be operationalized, noting limitations in the current literature and highlighting the unique ways in which social media differs from offline contexts. Subsequently, we present our conceptual model, which we situate within distal, proximal, and individual offline influences. We also propose processes that may link social media use to positive identity outcomes. We conclude this article with recommendations for future investigations.

Shift and Persist in Mexican American Youth: A Longitudinal Test of Depressive Symptoms

This paper tested whether shift-&-persist coping, or coping involving the combination of cognitive reappraisal, acceptance, and optimism (Chen & Miller, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2012, 7, 135), attenuates the risks presented by economic hardship and ethnic discrimination for change in depressive symptoms from 9th to 12th grade, in a sample of 674 Mexican American youth (Mage W1 = 10.86; 50% female; 72% US born) and whether this effect depends on ethnic pride. Structural equation modeling indicated that, when accounting for economic hardship, shift-&-persist was associated with fewer concurrent depression symptoms. Youth with lower ethnic pride who endorsed high levels of shift-&-persist were protected against the negative impacts of peer ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms. Future research on ethnic discrimination should examine patterns of coping and identity that can mitigate risk.

Coping with Ethnic-racial Discrimination: Short-term Longitudinal Relations Among Black and Latinx College Students

Little is known about how Black and Latinx young adults cope with experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination, particularly over short periods of time. A multigroup path model examined the relations between discrimination and five strategies for coping with ethnic-racial discrimination (talking with others, being proud, working hard, being rude, and ignoring) among Black and Latinx young adults (N = 145) at two time points over a six-week period. Experiences of discrimination were positively associated with the coping strategies of being proud of oneself and working hard to prove discriminatory people wrong. There was moderate stability in coping strategy use over time. Models did not vary by race-ethnicity, suggesting discrimination related to coping in similar ways among Black and Latinx young adults.

Flourishing Privately but Languishing Publicly: Ethnic Identity's Contribution to Understanding Eudaimonic Wellbeing

The paper probes the meaning of wellbeing by examining whether ethnic identity is related to private and public conceptualisations of eudaimonic wellbeing. Private and public eudaimonic wellbeing are assessed as positive relations with others and social integration. Ethnic identity is a type of social identity that is meaningful in contexts of enduring inter-ethnic group contact. Fiji and Trinidad and Tobago (TT), nations with contact between two major ethnic groups for over a century, are the contexts for a preliminary exploration. Young adults (Fiji N = 38, 19-26 years old; TT N = 41, 18-25 years old) completed measures of positive relations with others (private eudaimonic wellbeing), social integration (public eudaimonic wellbeing), and ethnic identity development. Across the nations, a stronger sense of ethnic identity, or commitment to the ingroup, predicted better positive relations with others but worse social integration. Ethnic identity thus seems to be a key construct in understanding positive private, but negative public eudaimonic wellbeing among young adults in contexts of ethnic diversity. Findings are discussed by considering how implications of ethnic diversity (competitive inter-group relations, inter-group contact making ethnic group membership salient) might be related to ethnic identity development, and private and public eudaimonic wellbeing.

Clinical Considerations for Immigrant, Refugee, and Asylee Youth Populations

This article will explore the psychological sequelae of forced family separation in immigration policy, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the youth migrant population, how youth migrants form an identity in their new country, and finally how politics affect the mental health of youth migrants.

Wellbeing and national identity in three generations of Czech and Slovak Holocaust survivors

Subjective wellbeing (SWB) is an important factor of global adjustment. Intergenerational satisfaction in seriously traumatized people has not been studied so far in homogenous populations of Central and Eastern Europe. This study focuses on the SWB in three generations of survivors living in the Czech Republic and Slovakia after World War II (WWII). The focal groups were Holocaust survivors (ages 71–95, n = 47), Holocaust survivors’ children (ages 30–73, n = 86), and their grandchildren (ages 15–48, n = 88), and they were compared to aged-matched groups without Holocaust history. The first and second generation of Holocaust survivors scored significantly lower than the comparison groups in wellbeing, as measured using the Schwartz Outcome Scale-10 (SOS-10). There was no significant difference in life satisfaction in any of the three generations. Within the focal group, identification as Jewish or as also Jewish was comparable in all three generations of Holocaust survivors (74% in the first, 79% in the second, and 66% in the third generation). Holocaust survivors declaring Jewish identity reported lower SWB compared to survivors declaring other than Jewish identity. The focal group generated more national identities than comparisons. The outcomes are discussed in the context of the history of Central and Eastern Europe.

Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context

As developmental scholars increasingly study ethnic and racial identity among white youth, careful reflection is needed regarding its framing, implementation, and interpretation. In this three-part conceptual paper, we offer a foundation for such reflection. First, we discuss the sociocultural context of white supremacy that shapes U.S. society, psychology, and adolescent development, and situate the study of ethnic and racial identity among white youth within this context. Second, we consider Janet Helms's White Racial Identity Development model, reviewing theory and research building on her argument that race-and whiteness, specifically-must be centered to achieve racial justice-oriented scholarship on white identity. We conclude by offering four guiding insights for conducting critical research on racial identity development among white youth.

An intersectional investigation of Asian American men's muscularity-oriented disordered eating: Associations with gendered racism and masculine norms

Grounded in an intersectional framework, the present study investigated the extent to which racism, gendered racism, and conformity to masculine norms are associated with Asian American men's muscularity-oriented disordered eating. The study also examined if ethnic identity moderated the association between both forms of racism and muscularity-oriented disordered eating. 220 Asian American men completed an online cross-sectional survey that contained the study questionnaires. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the associations between our predictor variables and muscularity-oriented disordered eating. Gendered racism, conformity to the masculine norms of playboy, heterosexual presentation and self-reliance were positively associated with muscularity-oriented disordered eating, whereas conformity to power over women was negatively associated. Racism and the remaining masculine norms were not associated with muscularity-oriented disordered eating. Ethnic identity did not moderate the association between either form of racism and muscularity-oriented disordered eating. Given that gendered racism was positively associated with muscularity-oriented disordered eating whereas racism was not, researchers and practitioners may consider prioritizing intersectionality in their understanding of Asian American men's eating pathology. Results emphasize the importance of examining both race and gender in conceptualizing Asian American men's muscularity-oriented disordered eating.Data Availability Statement: Data for this study are available upon request from the first author.

Beyond Ethnicity: Applying Helms's White Racial Identity Development Model Among White Youth

Research on racial identity among Youth of Color has expanded considerably in recent years, but a parallel examination of racial identity among white youth has not occurred, reiterating whiteness as normative. We applied Janet Helms's White Racial Identity Development (WRID) model among white U.S. youth (8-14 years old) to address this research gap. WRID centers racism and white supremacy, offering a framework to analyze white racial identity in the context of systemic inequity. Using longitudinal, qualitative analysis, we found age-related change over time, with some evidence of increasing resistance to racism. There was high participant variability, however, indicating that socio-cognitive abilities alone cannot predict anti-racist white identity development. We discuss implications for racial identity research and social justice-orientated developmental science.

Subjective Well-Being Among Unaccompanied Refugee Youth: Longitudinal Associations With Discrimination and Ethnic Identity Crisis

Unaccompanied refugee youth (URY), who as children fled their countries to seek asylum in a foreign country without the company of an adult legal caretaker are described as being in a vulnerable situation. Many of them struggle with mental reactions to traumatic events experienced pre-migration, and to the daily hassles they face after being granted asylum and residence. Despite continuous high levels of mental health problems URY demonstrate remarkable agency and social mobility in the years after being granted asylum in their destination countries. A sense of subjective well-being (SWB) may enable resilient outcomes in people exposed to past or ongoing adversities. To fill the gap in the research literature about positive psychological outcomes among URY, the overall aim of this study was to explore the longitudinal associations between SWB and two taxing acculturation hassles: perceived discrimination and ethnic identity crisis. Three annual waves of self-report questionnaire data were collected from a population-based sample of URY; n = 581, M_age = 20.01(SD = 2.40), M_{length of stay} = 4.63 (SD = 4.40), 82 % male, mainly from Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq, and Sri Lanka. The longitudinal associations between SWB, perceived discrimination and ethnic identity crisis across time were analyzed using auto-regressive cross-lagged modeling. The results revealed that perceived discrimination, but not ethnic identity crisis, negatively predicted subsequent levels of SWB. More importantly, high levels of SWB at one timepoint predicted decreases in both discrimination and ethnic identity crisis at subsequent timepoints. Further, increases in SWB from one timepoint to the next was associated with significant co-occurring decreases in both discrimination and ethnic identity crisis, and vice versa. Despite the negative effect of perceived discrimination on SWB, promoting SWB in URY can protect them from future hazards of acculturation hassles in complex ways. We underscore the need for more research on SWB among URY and other refugee youth. We further discuss the potential of SWB to foster resilient outcomes in young refugees and suggest that interventions to strengthen SWB among them should consider their transnational and multicultural realities and experiences.

Alcohol intoxication and sexual risk intentions: Exploring cultural factors among heavy drinking women

INTRODUCTION

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) rates are the highest of the last 20 years, with people of color and women particularly affected. Ongoing research has identified risk factors (e.g., alcohol intoxication) and protective factors (e.g., risk perception) for sexual risk behaviors, such as inconsistent condom use. Depending on behavioral norms within a group, ethnic identity (EI) - the exploration and sense of belonging to one's ethnicity - may be a risk or protective factor. This study examined the relations between EI, alcohol intoxication, and STI risk perception on sexual risk intentions among women of color (WOC) and white women (WW).

METHODS

Cisgender women (N = 390; 35% WOC; 65% WW) completed measures and were randomly assigned to an alcohol condition (0.10% BrAC vs control). They projected themselves into an eroticized scenario and self-reported two aspects of STI risk perception (personal, partner) and two sexual risk behaviors (condomless sex intentions, condom decision abdication intentions).

RESULTS

Path analysis indicated that intoxicated women endorsed higher sexual risk intentions compared to women in the control group. Personal STI risk perception was negatively associated with sexual risk intentions. Indirect effects indicated that race was indirectly associated with both indicators of sexual risk, such that WOC reported higher perceived personal STI risk and subsequently endorsed lower sexual risk intentions compared to WW. Surprisingly, EI was associated with higher perceived partner risk for WW only.

CONCLUSIONS

Prevention initiatives that address STI risk perception, condom assertion behaviors, and alcohol may be effective for mitigating women's sexual risk behaviors.

"So, like, it's all a mix of one": Intersecting contexts of adolescents' ethnic-racial socialization

Cultural-ecological theories posit that ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development is shaped by transactions between contexts of ethnic-racial socialization, yet research considering intersections among multiple contexts is limited. In this study, Black, Latino, White, and Asian American adolescents (N = 98; M_age  = 16.26, SD = 1.09; 55.1% female identifying) participated in surveys and focus group discussions (2013-2014) to share insights into ERI development in context. Using consensual qualitative research, results indicated: (a) family ethnic-racial socialization intersects with community-based, peer, media, and school socialization; (b) ethnic-racial socialization occurs outside family through intersections between peer, school, community-based, and media settings; and (c) ethnic-racial socialization is embedded within systems of racial oppression across contexts. Discussion includes implications for future research and interventions supporting youth ERI.

Deconstructing adolescent ethnicity: A longitudinal analysis of ethnic-racial identity development and self-categorization

BACKGROUND

The study of adolescent perceptions of their ethnicity/race has been investigated from an ethnic-racial identity (measurement) perspective or through an ethnic-racial classification lens.

AIMS

This study examines both, as it explores change in adolescents' ethnic-racial self-categorization; change in strength of ethnic-racial identity (ERI); and the relationship between change in self-categorization and strength of ERI. In so doing, it contributes to theorizing about the content and process of ERI formation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The longitudinal and mixed-methods study followed 732 middle and high school students biannually in a semi-rural, ethnically diverse school district. All students completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) in fall and spring each year and interviewed annually for qualitative inquiry.

RESULTS

The four waves of data demonstrated that: (1) 22% of students changed their ethnic-racial classification at least once; (2) Multiracial youth, boys, and 8th graders were significantly more likely to change self-classification compared to White youth, girls, and 10 th graders; (3) strength of ERI did not change over time, however, African American and Hispanic youth had the strongest ERI over time compared to the others; (4) change in self-classification was significantly related to change in strength of ERI, however, its direction varied by race of students.

DISCUSSION

While adolescent ethnic-racial identity development (ERI) appears to be related to ethnic-racial categorization, the direction of the relationship varies depending on ethnic self-categorization.

CONCLUSION

Results contribute to theory building of ERI in relation to: content and process, group consciousness, certainty and clarity, and public regard.

A latent profile analysis of psychological sense of community and ethnic identity among racial-ethnic minority young adults from the southwestern United States

Among young adults fof color, both sense of community and ethnic identity, as developmental processes, have been associated with wellness, empowerment, and civic action. Additional research is needed that provides empirical support for the connection between psychological sense of community and ethnic identity on outcomes that relate to human development such as intrapersonal psychological empowerment, civic engagement, and depression symptoms. The current study of young adults of color (N = 243; 70% Hispanic/Chicano(a)/Spanish and 10% American Indian/Native American; 70% female) investigates heterogeneity according to dimensions of psychological sense of community and the ethnic identity construct. Latent profile analyses (LPA) were conducted. Using LPA, five profile groups emerged. Profile group differences were present on reported levels of intrapersonal psychological empowerment, civic engagement, and depression symptoms. Majority of sample participants were classified with moderate to high psychological sense of community and ethnic identity. Findings provide insights for efforts on developing community belongingness based on ethnic group identity and engaging young adults in civic life.