Infant temperament: stability by age, gender, birth order, term status, and socioeconomic status

Temperament and executive functioning correlates of ADHD symptom severity during early versus middle childhood

BACKGROUND

This study investigated associations among temperament, executive functioning (EF), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom severity at two developmental stages.

METHODS

Participants were 61 4-year-old children and 165 8-11-year-old children (126 ADHD, 39 typically developing [TD]). Caregivers reported on temperament (effortful control [EC], negative affect, and surgency), and ADHD symptoms. Three aspects of EF (working memory, inhibitory control, and processing speed) were measured with neuropsychological tests.

RESULTS

Among 4-year-olds, variance in ADHD symptom severity was only explained by the temperament variables. EC was not significantly correlated with any of the EFs in this cohort. Among school-aged children, low EC, high surgency, high negative affect, and reduced working memory were associated with greater ADHD symptom severity. EC was significantly and positively correlated with processing speed in the school-aged children.

CONCLUSIONS

Results are consistent with a neurodevelopmental model of ADHD, wherein dysregulated temperament is associated with ADHD in young children, while both dysregulated temperament and cognitive skills are associated with ADHD in middle childhood. Results could inform the selection of clinical tools for diagnostic evaluation of pediatric ADHD symptoms and clinical follow-up.

Relations Between Paternal Child-Rearing and Child Inhibited Temperament Across Infancy and Toddlerhood

Child inhibited temperament is influenced by parenting behaviors, and vice versa. Fathers remain underrepresented in studies examining relations between parenting and temperament. The current study focused on fathers, using a three-point longitudinal design. Father-child dyads (n = 116; 56.9% Male; 88.7% White) participated in laboratory assessments at child ages 1, 2, and 3 years. Children participated in observational tasks designed to measure inhibited temperament, and fathers self-reported parenting behaviors and rated their child's temperament. Path models testing concurrent and longitudinal relations revealed that paternal nurturance, restrictiveness, and encouragement of independence were associated with observed inhibited temperament in infancy, but not with father-rated inhibited temperament. Early observed child inhibited temperament at age 1 year predicted greater levels of paternal encouragement of independence at age 2 years. Findings demonstrated evidence for both father-directed and child-directed effects, suggesting fathers and children influence each other's behavior over time. Overall, this study supports continued focus on fathers' parenting and provides insight into the nuanced impact of fathering on child temperament development.

Development of negative and positive emotionality in irritable and nonirritable neonates

OBJECTIVE

The current study compares the development of negative and positive emotionality of irritable and nonirritable neonates.

BACKGROUND

Research indicates that the first few months of life are marked by decreases in negative emotionality and increases in positive emotionality.

METHODS

The Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale (NBAS) was administered twice to 111 neonates at 3 and 4 weeks of age to select a sample of irritable neonates and a comparison group of nonirritable neonates. Mothers completed assessments of negative and positive emotionality at 1, 2, 4, and 9 months of age.

RESULTS

Both irritable and nonirritable neonates demonstrate a significant decrease in frustration and a significant increase in positive emotionality from 2 to 4 months of age. Irritable neonates also demonstrate a significant decrease in negative emotionality from 4 to 9 months of age. Both irritable and nonirritable neonates demonstrate considerable stability in negative and positive emotionality.

CONCLUSION

Implications of these results for parent education and early intervention are discussed.

The utility of multiple assessments in infancy and toddlerhood to predict middle childhood ADHD symptoms: Temperamental, behavioral, and genetic contributions

BACKGROUND

Early intervention is effective for reducing ADHD symptoms and related impairments, yet methods of identifying young children in need of services are lacking. Most early predictors of ADHD previously identified are of limited clinical utility. This study examines several theoretically relevant predictors of ADHD in infancy and toddlerhood and whether assessment at multiple time points improves prediction. We also examine whether links between early risk factors and middle childhood ADHD are driven by shared genetic and/or environmental mechanisms to identify potential early intervention targets.

METHOD

614 twins (52.12 % female, 58.50 % non-Hispanic White) participated in a larger study on genetic and environmental contributions to mental health outcomes. Caregiver-reported attention and behavior problems in infancy (M = 12.67 months) and toddlerhood (M = 32.18 months) and caregiver-reported temperament (attentional focusing, impulsivity, inhibitory control) in toddlerhood were used to predict caregiver-reported ADHD symptoms in middle childhood (M = 8.78 years).

RESULTS

Only behavior problems in infancy and toddlerhood were robust predictors of caregiver-reported ADHD symptoms in middle childhood. Using multiple timepoints did not improve predictive ability. The relationship between infant behavior problems and caregiver reported middle childhood ADHD symptoms was explained by both environmental and genetic influences, whereas environmental influences almost entirely explained the relationship between toddler behavior problems and caregiver-reported middle childhood ADHD symptoms.

IMPLICATIONS

Behavior problems in toddlerhood showed the strongest predictive utility, and links to later ADHD were largely driven by environmental factors, suggesting that psychosocial interventions modifying the child's environment may be particularly effective for reducing ADHD risk.

Is temperament associated with academic school readiness in children born very preterm?

Research Findings

Temperament, which can be assessed as early as three months, is associated with school readiness and later academic achievement in children born full term. Although children born preterm demonstrate a dysregulated temperament and are at significant risk for lower school readiness, we found no studies investigating whether early temperament is associated with school readiness in this at-risk population. Investigating whether temperament is a precursor of academic risk in preterm children can facilitate early identification and possible intervention efforts. We explored the association of negative affect, surgency, and regulation/effortful control temperament ratings collected at 3-months and 3-years corrected ages with school readiness at 3-years corrected age in children born very preterm. Participants included 297 children born very preterm (53.9% male). After controlling for key covariates, Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings at 3-months were significantly associated with the Bracken Basic Concept Scale - School Readiness composite score, and Effortful Control ratings at 3-years were associated with Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition (ABAS-3) Functional Pre-Academics ratings.

Practice or Policy

These findings may enhance the ability to identify premature children at risk for difficulties at school entry early.

Maternal antenatal depression, oxytocin, and infant temperament: The roles of ethnicity and adult attachment avoidance

This study examined the associations between maternal depression and oxytocin in pregnancy, caregiving sensitivity and adult attachment style, and infant temperament. One hundred and six women recruited from a public hospital antenatal clinic in Australia, and their infants completed assessments at three time points (Time 1: pregnancy; Time 2: 3-month postpartum; Time 3: 12-month postpartum). Mothers completed self-report questionnaires assessing maternal depression symptom severity at Time 1-3, adult attachment style at Time 2, and infant temperament at Time 3. At Time 1, they also provided a blood sample to assess peripheral oxytocin levels, and at Time 2, participated in a parent-child interaction session, which was later coded for caregiving behavior (sensitivity). Neither maternal depression nor lower levels of oxytocin during pregnancy predicted difficult infant temperament; rather, it was predicted by non-Caucasian ethnicity. When all other variables were free to vary, adult attachment avoidance mediated an association between maternal depression during pregnancy and difficult infant temperament. Results highlight the potential value of interventions focusing on adult attachment insecurity for pregnant women and raise questions about associations between culture/ethnicity and infant temperament.

Infants' salivary oxytocin and positive affective reactions to people

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide positively associated with prosociality in adults. Here, we studied whether infants' salivary oxytocin can be reliably measured, is developmentally stable, and is linked to social behavior. We longitudinally collected saliva from 62 U.S. infants (44 % female, 56 % Hispanic/Latino, 24 % Black, 18 % non-Hispanic White, 11 % multiracial) at 4, 8, and 14 months of age and offline-video-coded the valence of their facial affect in response to a video of a smiling woman. We also captured infants' affective reactions in terms of excitement/joyfulness during a live, structured interaction with a singing woman in the Early Social Communication Scales at 14 months. We detected stable individual differences in infants' oxytocin levels over time (over minutes and months) and in infants' positive affect over months and across contexts (video-based and in live interactions). We detected no statistically significant changes in oxytocin levels between 4 and 8 months but found an increase from 8 to 14 months. Infants with higher oxytocin levels showed more positive facial affect to a smiling person video at 4 months; however, this association disappeared at 8 months, and reversed at 14 months (i.e., higher oxytocin was associated with less positive facial affect). Infant salivary oxytocin may be a reliable physiological measure of individual differences related to socio-emotional development.

A systematic review of the concept of self-regulation in infants between 0 and 36 months in Latin America

This paper aims to identify how cognitive and emotional self-regulation (SR) processes in infants from 0 to 36 months are defined within the Latin American academic context. A systematic review based on the PRISMA methodology was implemented to review the conceptual and operational definition of SR, the type of study, the country of origin of the authors, and the reference to the adequacy of the research to the specific cultural context of Latin America. Twenty-two papers that met the selection criteria were selected. The study identified four types of conceptual definitions for SR, each associated with different constructs or sets of constructs: executive functions, temperament, the integration of executive functions and temperament, and physiological homeostasis. These definitions were based on mainstream approaches to SR rather than being specific to the Latin American region. The study also found compatibility between the sample and some observed trends. On one hand, there was an underrepresentation of the Latin American population in high-impact publications on the subject. However, from 2010 to the present, there is evidence of growth in publications on SR in the analyzed sample. On the other hand, the sample also indicates a disparate representation of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean in existing publications. Finally, concerning the adaptation to the cultural context of the research, a small number of studies addressed this variable in a specific and significant way. However, even in these cases, the approach is based on models and hypotheses that are limited to understanding the Latin American region's cultural, socioeconomic, and demographic diversity.

Evaluating the impact of sling provision and training upon maternal mental health, wellbeing and parenting: A randomised feasibility trial

BACKGROUND

Close body contact interventions such as Kangaroo Mother Care have been shown to improve maternal mental health following birth. Infant carriers ('slings') facilitate hands-free close body contact. No studies have specifically examined whether sling use improves maternal mental health. A full-scale efficacy study is needed to examine whether sling use is beneficial to maternal mental health. The current study is a feasibility study designed to gather information to support the design of a future RCT, such as acceptability and study parameters, including recruitment rates, consent rate and attrition.

METHOD

Mothers of infants aged 0-6 weeks were randomised to one of two conditions: intervention (n = 35) vs. waitlist control (n = 32). Intervention participants received sling training, support, and free sling hire for 12 weeks. Participants completed self-report measures of mood, wellbeing and parenting at baseline (Time 1), and 6- (Time 2) and 12- (Time 3) weeks post-baseline.

RESULTS

Eligibility and consent rates met feasibility objectives, though there were some difficulties with retention of participants in the study. Preliminary effectiveness analyses showed a non-significant improvement with a small effect size in postnatal depression from T1 to T3, and a significant improvement with a medium effect size in maternal self-efficacy from T1 to T3. Qualitative feedback indicated acceptability of the intervention and study participation. Intervention participants attributed greater autonomy, bonding with their baby, and parental self-confidence, to the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate a randomised study of the impact of a sling and related support intervention upon maternal mental health is feasible. These findings should be interpreted within the context of sampling bias (due to the use of volunteer sampling methods), an absence of feedback from those who discontinued participation in the study, and the study not being adequately powered.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Registration number ISRCTN88575352.

A dynamic perspective on depressive symptoms during the first year postpartum

The current study used novel methodology to characterize intraindividual variability in the experience of dynamic, within-person changes in postpartum depressive (PPD) symptoms across the first year postpartum and evaluated maternal and infant characteristics as predictors of between-person differences in intraindividual variability in PPD symptoms over time. With a sample of 322 low-income Mexican-origin mothers (Mage = 27.79; SD = 6.48), PPD symptoms were assessed at 11 time points from 3 weeks to 1 year postpartum (Edinburgh Perinatal Depression Scale; Cox & Holden, 2003). A prenatal cumulative risk index was calculated from individual psychosocial risk factors. Infant temperamental negativity was assessed via a maternal report at the infant age of 6 weeks (Infant Behavior Questionnaire; Putnam et al., 2014). Multilevel location scale analyses in a dynamic structural equation modeling (Asparouhov et al., 2018) framework were conducted. Covariates included prenatal depressive symptoms. On average, within-mother change in depressive symptoms at one time point was found to carry over to the next time point. Nonnull within-mother volatility in PPD symptoms reflected substantial ebbs and flows in PPD symptoms over the first year postpartum. Results of the between-level model demonstrated that mothers differed in their equilibriums, carryover, and volatility of their PPD symptoms. Mothers with more negative infants and those with higher prenatal cumulative risk exhibited higher equilibriums of PPD symptoms and more volatility in symptoms but did not differ in their carryover of PPD symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Infants' responses to masked and unmasked smiling faces: A longitudinal investigation of social interaction during Covid-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic, face masks became an effective hygienic measure to reduce infection rates. Given the relevance of facial expressions for social interactions, the question arises how face masks affect early social interactions. The current longitudinal study investigated how covering parts of the face might impact infants' responses to others' emotional expressions. Infants who were born during the pandemic were examined at three measurement points at the age of 6, 10 and 14 months. After displaying a neutral facial expression an experimenter smiled at infants while either wearing a mask (mask condition) or not wearing a mask (no mask condition). Infants' change in affect (i.e., negative, neutral, positive) from the neutral to the test phase (i.e., smiling experimenter) was evaluated. Results showed that at 6 and at 10 months infants' behavior did not differ between conditions, whereas at 14 months infants were more likely to show a change from neutral/negative affect to positive affect in the no mask condition than in the mask condition. Moreover, at 14 months infants were less likely to respond positively to the experimenter's smile (across conditions) than at 6 and at 10 months. These findings broaden our understanding of potential effects of mask wearing on the development of face processing and affective communication. Overall, they indicate a developmental trend according to which infants' processing and response to others' positive emotions becomes more selective and differentiated with increasing age.

Transactional associations between infant negative emotionality and maternal sensitivity: Maternal emotion dysregulation as a moderator

The relations between maternal sensitivity and infant negative emotionality have been tested extensively in the previous literature. However, the extent to which these associations reflect unidirectional or bidirectional effects over time remains somewhat uncertain. Further, the possibility that maternal characteristics moderate the extent to which infant negative emotionality predicts maternal sensitivity over time has yet to be tested in cross-lag models. The goal of the present study is to address these gaps. First time mothers (N = 259; 50% White; 50% Black) and their infants participated when infants were 6, 14, and 26 months of age. Infant negative emotionality was assessed via maternal report and direct observation during standardized laboratory tasks, which were subsequently combined to yield a multimethod measure at each wave. Maternal sensitivity was observationally coded at each wave and mothers self-reported emotion dysregulation at 6 and 14 months. A random intercepts cross-lagged model with maternal emotion dysregulation specified as a moderator revealed that infant negative emotionality at 6 months was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity at 14 months, but only among mothers higher in emotion dysregulation. Higher maternal sensitivity was in turn associated with lower infant negative emotionality when infants were 26 months of age. The indirect pathway was significant, lending support for the transactional model. Implications for future research and prevention/intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's eating behaviours and related constructs: conceptual and theoretical foundations and their implications

BACKGROUND

There is a substantial body of research on children's eating behaviours (e.g., food responsiveness and fussiness) and related constructs (e.g., eating in the absence of hunger, appetite self-regulation). This research provides a foundation for understanding children's dietary intakes and healthy eating behaviours, as well as efforts at intervention, whether in relation to food avoidance, overeating and/or trajectories to excess weight gain. The success of these efforts and their associated outcomes is dependent on the theoretical foundation and conceptual clarity of the behaviours and constructs. This, in turn contributes to the coherence and precision of the definitions and measurement of these behaviours and constructs. Limited clarity in these areas ultimately creates uncertainty around the interpretation of findings from research studies and intervention programs. At present there does not appear to be an overarching theoretical framework of children's eating behaviours and associated constructs, or for separate domains of children's eating behaviours/constructs. The main purpose of the present review was to examine the possible theoretical foundations of some of the main current questionnaire and behavioural measures of children's eating behaviours and related constructs.

METHODS

We reviewed the literature on the most prominent measures of children's eating behaviours for use with children aged ~ 0-12 years. We focused on the explanations and justifications for the original design of the measures and whether these included theoretical perspectives, as well as current theoretical interpretations (and difficulties) of the behaviours and constructs.

RESULTS

We found that the most commonly used measures had their foundations in relatively applied or practical concerns rather than theoretical perspectives.

CONCLUSIONS

We concluded, consistent with Lumeng & Fisher (1), that although existing measures have served the field well, to advance the field as a science, and better contribute to knowledge development, increased attention should be directed to the conceptual and theoretical foundations of children's eating behaviours and related constructs. Suggestions for future directions are outlined.

Impact of Maternal-Newborn Separation in Italian Women with Suspected COVID-19 Infection on Psychopathological Symptoms and Quality of Interactions during Breastfeeding

INTRODUCTION

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, proximity between mothers and their newborn infants was at the core of sanitary guidelines. With the aim of stopping the virus transmission from mothers to infants and possible physical dangers due to the infection, some hospitals discouraged or even prohibited skin-to-skin contact and breastfeeding.

METHOD

This study recruited 180 dyads in private and public hospitals in Italy with the aim of verifying whether mother-infant separation after delivery is associated with higher maternal psychopathological distress (assessed through the SCL-90-R) and poorer quality of dyadic interactions during breastfeeding (evaluated through the SVIA).

RESULTS

Our results showed that mothers separated from their infants displayed more anxiety, depression, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms and a lower quality of feeding interactions on all the subscales of the SVIA (mother's affective state; interactive conflict; food refusal behavior; dyad's affective state).

CONCLUSION

In light of these results, our study suggests that separating mothers from their newborns is associated with increased psychopathological symptoms in mothers and poorer feeding interactions. These issues have been posited as key predictors of maladaptive outcomes in infants' later lives; therefore, health services must fully consider the short- and long-term consequences of separating mothers and infants in their policies in the event of future pandemics.

Lability of prenatal stress during the COVID-19 pandemic links to negative affect in infancy

The association between prenatal stress and children's socioemotional development is well established. The COVID-19 pandemic has been a particularly stressful period, which may impact the gestational environment. However, most studies to-date have examined prenatal stress at a single time point, potentially masking the natural variation in stress that occurs over time, especially during a time as uncertain as the pandemic. This study leveraged dense ecological momentary assessments from a prenatal randomized control trial to examine patterns of prenatal stress over a 14-week period (up to four assessments/day) in a U.S. sample of 72 mothers and infants. We first examined whether varied features of stress exposure (lability, mean, and baseline stress) differed depending on whether mothers reported on their stress before or during the pandemic. We next examined which features of stress were associated with 3-month-old infants' negative affect. We did not find differences in stress patterns before and during the pandemic. However, greater stress lability, accounting for baseline and mean stress, was associated with higher infant negative affect. These findings suggest that pathways from prenatal stress exposure to infant socioemotional development are complex, and close attention to stress patterns over time will be important for explicating these pathways.

Strategies to promote responsive bottle-feeding in WIC predict less frequent use of food to soothe and healthier weight status for infants with negative temperaments

BACKGROUND

Infants with greater temperamental negative affectivity are at higher risk for overfeeding and excess weight gain.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether strategies to promote responsive bottle-feeding within WIC promoted healthier maternal feeding practices and infant weight status among infants with greater negative affectivity.

METHODS

Secondary analysis of data from a matched-pair cluster randomized trial. Policy, systems and environmental change (PSE) strategies to promote responsive bottle-feeding were implemented at three WIC clinics; these clinics were compared with three matched control clinics. Linear mixed models tested whether infant negative affectivity interacted with PSE strategies to predict feeding and weight outcomes when infants were 4-6 months old.

RESULTS

Significant interactions between infant negative affectivity and PSE strategies were noted. Among infants with high negative affectivity, mothers in PSE clinics reported less frequent use of food to soothe (p = 0.009) compared with mothers in control clinics. Among infants with moderate (p = 0.008) or high (p = 0.029) negative affectivity, infants in PSE clinics had healthier weight status compared with infants in control clinics.

CONCLUSIONS

Promotion of responsive bottle-feeding is an effective way to support WIC mothers and reduce risk for overfeeding and excess weight gain, particularly for mothers of infants with greater negative affectivity.

Behavioral Inhibition in the Second Year of Life Is Predicted by Prenatal Maternal Anxiety, Overprotective Parenting and Infant Temperament in Early Infancy

Background

Behavioral inhibition, characterized by shyness, fear and avoidance of novel stimuli, has been linked with internalizing personality traits in childhood, adolescence and early adulthood, and particularly later social anxiety disorder. Little is known about the relevance of potential prenatal precursors and early predictors for the development of inhibited behavior, such as infant vulnerability and family risk factors like parental anxiety and overprotection. Pregnancy-related anxiety has been associated with both infant temperament and maternal overprotective parenting. Thus, the aim of this study was investigating the predictive relevance of prenatal pregnancy-related anxiety for behavioral inhibition in toddlerhood, by considering the mediating role of maternal overprotection and infant distress to novelty.

Materials and Methods

As part of a longitudinal pregnancy cohort, behavioral inhibition at 24 months postpartum was assessed in N = 170 mother-child pairs. Maternal pregnancy-related anxiety was examined in the third trimester of pregnancy, and maternal overprotection and infant distress to novelty at 12 months postpartum.

Results

Mediation analysis with two parallel mediators showed that the significant direct effect of pregnancy-related anxiety on child behavioral inhibition was fully mediated by infant distress to novelty p < 0.001 and maternal overprotection (p < 0.05). The included variables explained 26% of variance in behavioral inhibition. A subsequent explorative mediation analysis with serial mediators further showed a significant positive association between distress to novelty and maternal overprotective parenting (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Results indicate a predictive relevance of both infant and maternal factors for the development of behavioral inhibition in toddlerhood. Mothers who perceived more pregnancy-related anxiety showed more overprotective parenting and had infants with more distress to novelty. Further, mothers being more overprotective reported their child to be more inhibited in toddlerhood. Our findings also indicate the stability of reported infant distress to novelty as one aspect of later behavioral inhibition. Addressing specific forms of parental anxiety from pregnancy on and in interaction with child-related variables seems to be a promising approach for future studies and clinical interventions.

Using machine learning to understand age and gender classification based on infant temperament

Age and gender differences are prominent in the temperament literature, with the former particularly salient in infancy and the latter noted as early as the first year of life. This study represents a meta-analysis utilizing Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) data collected across multiple laboratories (N = 4438) to overcome limitations of smaller samples in elucidating links among temperament, age, and gender in early childhood. Algorithmic modeling techniques were leveraged to discern the extent to which the 14 IBQ-R subscale scores accurately classified participating children as boys (n = 2,298) and girls (n = 2,093), and into three age groups: youngest (< 24 weeks; n = 1,102), mid-range (24 to 48 weeks; n = 2,557), and oldest (> 48 weeks; n = 779). Additionally, simultaneous classification into age and gender categories was performed, providing an opportunity to consider the extent to which gender differences in temperament are informed by infant age. Results indicated that overall age group classification was more accurate than child gender models, suggesting that age-related changes are more salient than gender differences in early childhood with respect to temperament attributes. However, gender-based classification was superior in the oldest age group, suggesting temperament differences between boys and girls are accentuated with development. Fear emerged as the subscale contributing to accurate classifications most notably overall. This study leads infancy research and meta-analytic investigations more broadly in a new direction as a methodological demonstration, and also provides most optimal comparative data for the IBQ-R based on the largest and most representative dataset to date.

Stability and structure of infant and toddler temperament in two longitudinal studies in Germany

The present study investigated the factor structure and longitudinal stability of infant and toddler temperament measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ) in two German samples. Since the few studies using the German IBQ-R failed to replicate the commonly assumed three factors of infant temperament, another exploration of its factor structure was necessary. Whereas previous stability measurements are usually based on groups with relatively large age ranges, we investigated stability between concrete ages. In Study 1, the IBQ-R was applied in 9- and 12-month-old infants. In Study 2, both questionnaires were applied in 12-, 18-, and 24-month-olds. Factor analyses of the IBQ-R in both studies revealed a two-factor solution comprising Surgency/ Extraversion and Negative Affectivity, replicating earlier findings with German infants. The Orienting/ Regulation factor was not replicated for the IBQ-R, whereas analysis of the ECBQ revealed a three-factor solution for toddlers. The results showed stability of temperament ratings within infancy (Study 1) and toddlerhood (Study 2) as well as between the developmental periods within the second year of life (Study 2). Taken together, the present findings indicate that temperament stability emerges early in life and can be reliably measured using the IBQ-R and ECBQ, whereas the factor structure of temperament in infancy requires further validation.

Multimodal assessments of preterm temperament across the first year of life: Continuity, stability, and moderation by country of origin and infant age

There is limited research regarding the continuity, stability, and role of country of origin in preterm infant temperament across the first year of life. This prospective longitudinal study examined patterns of mean-level continuity and individual-differences stability of select scales of temperament at 6 and 12 months in preterm infants from three countries, Chile (n = 47), United Kingdom (n = 44), and United States (n = 50). Temperament was assessed with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire and observed using the Bayley Behavior Rating Scale. Continuity and stability across infant age, country effects, and interactions of country and age on preterm infant temperament were examined. Chilean mothers rated infants higher in soothability, duration of orienting, and orientation/engagement compared with mothers from the United Kingdom and/or United States. Continuity of temperament from 6 to 12 months varied by country: Chilean mothers reported increasing smiling and laughter and activity level from 6 to 12 months, and mothers from the United Kingdom reported decreasing smiling and laughter and increasing fear from 6 to 12 months. Infant temperament was stable in all three countries. Correlations evidenced low concordance between maternal reports and examiner observations of infant temperament at 12 months. However, among Chilean infants, higher maternal reported activity level was associated with higher examiner observed orientation/engagement score.

Psychopathy: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

Research on psychopathy has progressed considerably in recent years against the backdrop of important advances in the broader field of clinical psychological science. My major aim in this review is to encourage integration of investigative work on dispositional, biobehavioral, and developmental aspects of psychopathy with counterpart work on general psychopathology. Using the triarchic model of psychopathy as a frame of reference, I offer perspective on long-standing debates pertaining to the conceptualization and assessment of psychopathy, discuss how dispositional facets of psychopathy relate to subdimensions of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, and summarize findings from contemporary biobehavioral and developmental research on psychopathy. I conclude by describing a systematic strategy for coordinating biobehavioral-developmental research on psychopathy that can enable it to be informed by, and help inform, ongoing research on mental health problems more broadly. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Volume 18 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Interplay between Prepregnancy Body Mass Index, Early Childhood Negative Temperament, and Slowness in Eating on Early Childhood Rapid Weight Gain

Background: Early childhood eating behaviors and temperament have been linked to excess weight gain in separate lines of research. However, the interplay among these variables along with maternal prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) in predicting rapid weight gain is poorly understood. Methods: This observational study tested superfactors of early childhood temperament using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised, and their relationships with eating behavior using the Baby Eating Behavior Questionnaire on rapid weight gain among 9-18 months children (n = 283). The bivariate relationships were evaluated using Pearson correlations. Two-way interactions assessed whether childhood temperament moderated the relationship between childhood eating behaviors and rapid weight gain, with prepregnancy BMI as a higher order moderator. Results: Food responsiveness positively correlated with Negativity [r = 0.256, adjusted (adj) p < 0.001] and inversely with Regulation (r = -0.203, adj p = 0.006). Slowness in eating positively correlated with Negativity (r = 0.196, p = 0.006) and inversely with Surgency (r = -0.188, adj p = 0.008) and Regulation (r = -0.181, p = 0.007). Slowness in eating was significantly correlated with rapid weight gain (r = -0.168, p = 0.005). Prepregnancy BMI was a moderator of slowness in eating and Negativity such that children of mothers with high prepregnancy BMI in conjunction with high Negativity and low in slowness in eating experienced the greatest rapid weight gain, whereas children of mothers with low prepregnancy BMI in conjunction with low Negativity and high in slowness in eating experienced the least rapid weight gain. Conclusions: Assessing early childhood temperament may bolster health care and parenting interventions to increase early eating regulation and to promote healthier weight trajectories.

Prenatal origins of temperament: Fetal cardiac development & infant surgency, negative affectivity, and regulation/orienting

Temperament, i.e. individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, emerges early in infancy; might temperament originate during fetal development? Mixed findings and methodological issues in the literature examining this consideration limit our understanding of the continuity between these fetal indices and infant temperament. The primary aims of the current study were to improve on published studies by (a) using standardized and well-accepted fetal cardiac (actocardiograph) and infant temperament measures (the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised; IBQ-R) (b) expanding fetal assessments to include coupling (the cross correlation of heart rate with movement), and (c) examining a diverse sample to determine if findings of associations between fetal neurobehavior and infant temperament generalize beyond cohorts that are demographically well-resourced and predominantly white. Building on theory and empirical findings, we hypothesized that (1) FHR would be positively associated with Surgency and Negative Affectivity, (2) FHRV would be positively associated with Surgency, and Regulation/Orienting and inversely associated with Negative Affectivity, and (3) fetal coupling would be positively associated with Regulation/Orienting and Surgency and inversely associated with Negative Affectivity. We collected 20 min of fetal data (m gestational age = 34.42 weeks) and mothers completed the IBQ-R (n = 90 women; 60 % non-Caucasian race; 63 % Latina ethnicity). We found that FHR was positively associated with Negative Affectivity but not associated with Surgency (or Regulation/Orienting). FHRV was inversely associated with Surgency but not associated with Negative Affectivity or Regulation/Orienting. Coupling was positively associated with Regulation/Orienting and Surgency but not associated with Negative Affectivity. Our findings, from a more diverse sample and with established measures, provide further evidence that individual differences in reactivity and regulation can be identified in the in-utero period and show theory-based continuity to specific infant temperament constructs.

Birth order, stimulating environment, and maternal factors in developmental outcomes: A longitudinal Mexican study

This study longitudinally examined the interplay between birth-order and well-known risk factors in impoverished environments such as inadequate environmental stimulation, low maternal education, and young maternal age in children from birth to 36 months. In the developmental motor domain, the effect of the stimulating environment over time, favored first-borns. In the adaptive domain, maternal education privileged first-born boys. In language development, first-borns reached higher scores over time than laterborn identifying a positive impact of stimulation. In the personal-social domain, firstborns obtained higher averages overall, but stratified models revealed that later-borns reached the first-borns scores as maternal age increased.

Temperamental Shyness and Anger/Frustration in Childhood: Normative Development, Individual Differences, and the Impacts of Maternal Intrusiveness and Frontal Electroencephalogram Asymmetry

This study used latent growth curve modeling to identify normative development and individual differences in the developmental patterns of shyness and anger/frustration across childhood. This study also examined the impacts of maternal intrusiveness and frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry at age 4 on the developmental patterns of shyness and anger/frustration. 180 children (92 boys, 88 girls; M_age  = 4.07 years at baseline; 75.6% White, 18.3% Black, 6.1% multiracial/other) participated in the study. Normative development included significant linear decreases in shyness and anger/frustration. Individual variation existed in the developmental patterns. Children with left frontal EEG asymmetry showed a faster decreasing pattern of shyness. Children who experienced higher maternal intrusiveness and had left frontal EEG asymmetry showed a slower decreasing pattern of anger/frustration.

The Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised: psychometric properties at 2 weeks, 3, 6 and 12 months of life

BACKGROUND

Temperament characteristics are key elements for infants' development. The Infant Behavior Questionnaire - Revised (IBQ-R) is one of the most used measures to assess temperament in infants aged between 3 and 12 months. Its reliability and factor structure have not yet been examined in infants younger than 3 months.

AIMS

To analyze the reliability of the IBQ-R at 2 weeks and the IBQ-R factor structure from 2 weeks to 12 months of life.

METHOD

A longitudinal repeated measures design was used. Three hundred mothers completed the IBQ-R when their infants were 2 weeks, and 3, 6 and 12 months.

RESULTS

At 2 weeks the proportion of "non-applicable" responses was higher in duration of orienting, high intensity pleasure, approach and smiling and laughter scales. The Cronbach's alpha for the IBQ-R dimensions ranged between 0.62 and 0.63 and the McDonald's omega ranged between 0.67 and 0.80, all dimensions exhibited a mean-scale correlation above 0.15, and more than half of the scales revealed a scale-dimension correlation higher than 0.30. The same factor structure was found at 2 weeks, and at 3, 6, and 12 months: surgency/extraversion, p < 0.001, negative affectivity, p < 0.001, and orienting regulation, p = 0.007.

CONCLUSIONS

The IBQ-R may be applied in the first weeks of life and its factor structure remains stable when applied across different ages throughout infancy.

Latent class trajectories of infant temperament and associations with problem behavior at two years of age

Individual differences in temperament have been well-described, but individual differences in temperament trajectories require elaboration. Specifically, it is unknown if subgroups of infants display different developmental patterns and if these patterns relate to later behavioral problems. The aims were to identify distinct developmental patterns in broad dimensions of temperament among typically developing infants, to determine whether these developmental patterns differ by sex, to evaluate how developmental patterns within each dimension of temperament relate to developmental patterns within other dimensions of temperament, and to determine whether developmental patterns of infant temperament are associated with internalizing and externalizing behavior at 2 years of age. Data from the longitudinal Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition study (n = 1,819) were used to model latent class trajectories of parent-reported infant temperament at 3, 6, and 12 months. Four to five unique latent trajectories were identified within each temperament dimension. Sex was not associated with trajectory groups. Developmental coordination was observed between trajectories of negative emotionality and regulatory capacity, and between regulatory capacity and positive affect, but not between positive affect and negative emotionality. Negative emotionality and regulatory capacity predicted internalizing and externalizing behavior. Patterns of development in infant temperament, and not just intensity of temperament, contribute toward later problem behavior.

Early brain abnormalities in infants born very preterm predict under-reactive temperament

BACKGROUND

Early temperament may mediate the association between brain abnormalities following preterm birth and neurodevelopmental outcomes.

AIMS

This exploratory study investigated whether brain abnormalities in infants born very preterm predicted temperament.

STUDY DESIGN

Infants born prematurely underwent structural MRI at term. Mother self-reported depression symptoms at the scanning visit, and the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised-Short (IBQ-R-S) about their infant at 3-months corrected age.

SUBJECTS

Infants (n = 214) born at ≤32 weeks gestation (M = 29.29, SD = 2.60). Average post-menstrual age at the MRI scan was 42.72 weeks (SD = 1.30). The majority of the infants were male (n = 115), and Caucasian (n = 145) or African American (n = 58). The average birthweight in grams was 1289.75 (SD = 448.5).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised-Short (IBQ-R-S) subscales.

RESULTS

Multivariate regression showed white matter abnormalities predicted lower ratings on High Intensity Pleasure and Vocal Reactivity, grey matter abnormalities predicted lower ratings on High Intensity Pleasure and Cuddliness, and cerebellar abnormalities predicted lower ratings on Fear and Sadness IBQ-R-S subscales adjusting for gestational age and sex. The pattern of results was essentially unchanged when maternal depression and socioeconomic status were included in the model.

CONCLUSIONS

Early MRI-diagnosed brain abnormalities in infants born very preterm were associated less vocalization and engagement during cuddling, decreased ability to take pleasure in stimulating activities, and lower emotionality in fear and sadness domains. Although replication is warranted, an under-reactive temperament in infants born preterm may have a neurobiological basis.

Ecological contributions to maternal-infant functioning: Differences between rural and urban family contexts

AIMS

This study considered urban-rural differences in maternal-infant interactions (sensitivity/responsiveness and synchrony/reciprocity), infant temperament, and parenting stress, for samples similar in socioeconomic and racial composition. Higher sensitivity/responsiveness and synchrony/reciprocity were hypothesized for urban dyads, with more challenging temperament profiles predicted for rural infants. Rural mothers were expected to report more parenting-role stress.

METHODS

Urban (n = 68; San Francisco Bay) and rural (n = 120; inland Pacific Northwest) mothers of infants provided ratings of temperament and parenting stress. Parental sensitivity/responsiveness and synchrony/reciprocity were coded from mother-infant play observations. Groups were compared via analyses of covariance.

RESULTS

Urban mothers demonstrated significantly more sensitivity/responsiveness and synchrony/reciprocity compared to their rural counterparts. Rural mothers rated their infants significantly higher in negative affectivity and distress in response to limitations.

CONCLUSION

Although socioeconomic status is traditionally implicated in rural and urban population differences, our results suggest other factors (e.g., isolation, access to resources) warrant further exploration. Rural ecology appears to present risk that should be examined more closely in maternal-infant interactions and child social-emotional development. The variability of risk within urban and rural classifications (e.g., suburban, inner-city) also requires consideration.

Factors that Predict Infant Temperament: A Jordanian Study

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to test the association between infant temperament and factors such as socioeconomic status, infant age, breastfeeding, and marital satisfaction.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A cross-sectional design was used to collect data from 278 Arabic speaking Jordanian women with infants in their first year of life from three health centers in Irbid, Jordan. The temperament of the infant was assessed using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ), a 20-item tool where the mothers were asked to provide a rating of infant behavior on a 5-point scale. Data were analyzed using SPSS 25.

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize characteristics of the participants. Multiple regressions showed a significant model of factors that correlate to infant temperament (F = 2.930, p = .01); having assistance to care for the infant (B = 3.058, p = .019), marital satisfaction (B = -0.127, p = .049), and infant feeding method (B = 0.147, p = .016) were the only significant predictors for infant temperament.

CONCLUSION

Marital satisfaction, feeding method, and assistance in caring for the infant are factors that predict infant temperament. Moreover, some aspects of these factors are modifiable.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Nurses should be aware of the factors that are associated with infant temperament so that they can teach the family, 'teachers' in daycare centers, and the public about potential moderators of infant temperament.

Specific relations of dimensional anxiety and manifest anxiety disorders during pregnancy with difficult early infant temperament: a longitudinal cohort study

Anxiety in the antenatal period is a common experience, associated with adverse consequences for mother and child. Specific types of prenatal anxiety may have unique associations with infant temperament. This study examines the prospective relationships between general prenatal anxiety, fear of childbirth, and specific prenatal anxiety disorders and early infant temperament 8 weeks postpartum. Data were derived from the Akershus Birth Cohort (ABC), a longitudinal cohort study which targeted all women scheduled to give birth at Akershus University Hospital, Norway. Psychometric measures pertained to general prenatal anxiety (Hopkins Symptom Checklist), fear of childbirth (Wijma delivery expectancy questionnaire), screening for manifest prenatal anxiety disorders based on questions from the mini-international neuropsychiatric interview, and difficult infant temperament (Infant Characteristics Questionnaire). The sample for the present study included 2206 women. General prenatal anxiety, fear of childbirth, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and specific phobia presented unique significant prospective contributions to difficult infant temperament 8 weeks postpartum. Separate hierarchical regression models indicated that general prenatal anxiety and fear of childbirth provided the strongest unique contributions. Considering the burden on mothers and the potential long-term effects on child development, the findings of this study highlight the importance of screening women for different types of prenatal anxiety in routine obstetric care. Clinical awareness of the condition and its consequences is warranted. Due to the complexity of infant temperament as a construct with various influences, future research should consider mechanisms and influential factors pertaining to the relationship between prenatal anxiety and infant temperament.

Infant rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) personality and subjective well-being

Infant temperament is theorized to lay the foundation for adult personality; however, many questions remain regarding personality in infancy, including the number of dimensions, extent to which they are adult-like, and their relation to other outcomes, such as mental and physical health. Here we tested whether adult-like personality dimensions are already present in infancy in a nonhuman primate species. We measured personality and subjective well-being in 7-month-old rhesus macaques (N = 55) using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire and Subjective Well-Being Questionnaire, both of which were developed for adult primates based on human measures. Multiple human raters, who provided infants with daily care since birth, independently rated each infant. We found high interrater reliability. Results from a parallel analysis and scree plot indicated a five component structure, which, using principal components analysis, we found to be comprised of dimensions relating to Openness (e.g., curiosity, inquisitive, playfulness), Assertiveness (e.g., dominance, bullying, aggressive), Anxiety (e.g., vigilance, fearful), Friendliness (e.g., sociable, affectionate, sympathetic), and Intellect (e.g., organized, not erratic). These components are largely analogous to those in adult macaques, suggesting remarkably stable structural personality components across the lifespan. Infant macaques' subjective well-being positively correlates with Openness and Assertiveness and negatively correlated with Anxiety, similar to findings in adult macaques and other primates. Together, these findings suggest that, in macaques, infant personality dimensions may be conceptually related to adult personality and challenge the view that infant temperament may be disorganized and not as meaningful as adult personality. Further research is necessary to explore the antecedents, predictive validity, and stability of these personality components across situations and with development.

Infant temperament and perinatal depressive and anxiety symptoms in Mexican women

AIM

This study explores the association between infant temperament at six months postpartum and pre- and postpartum depressive and anxiety symptoms. The association between infant temperament and stressful life events is also evaluated.

METHOD

A total of 210 Mexican women were assessed during pregnancy (gestational age 32.39 ± 4.01) and at six months postpartum. The instruments used were: Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Anxiety Subscale of the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist (SCL-90R), a short form of Stressful Life Events and The Infant Characteristics Questionnaire, when infants were six months old.

RESULTS

Although a mother's emotional state during pregnancy (depressive and anxiety symptoms and stressful life events) was not associated with difficult infant temperament, it was associated with depressive and anxious symptomatology during the postpartum period. Mothers with prenatal depressive symptoms who remained depressed and mothers who only had depression symptoms during the postpartum period reported having more difficult infants. Likewise, mothers with prenatal anxiety symptoms who maintained anxiety symptoms postpartum and mothers with anxiety symptoms during the postpartum period alone reported having more difficult infants. Comorbidity was found between depressive and anxious postnatal symptomatology in its association with difficult infant temperament.

CONCLUSION

In this study, postpartum depressive and anxiety symptoms played an important role in shaping difficult infant temperament. Comorbidity between the two conditions warrants clinical attention and additional research, since it is related to maternal perception of difficult infant temperament. Psychological interventions are required, since these women may require assistance with emotional adaptation in the transition to motherhood.

Posttraumatic stress in young children with cancer: Risk factors and comparison with healthy peers

OBJECTIVE

The most commonly occurring childhood cancers are diagnosed during the preschool years; yet limited psycho-oncology research has focused on this developmental time period. The primary objective was to examine rates of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in young children with cancer and compare these findings with those of children without a history of serious illness (comparisons). The secondary aim was to examine risk and modifiable factors associated with PTSS.

METHOD

Ninety-seven caregivers of patients (n = 50) and comparisons (n = 47) aged three to six years completed diagnostic interviews for the assessment of PTSD. They also completed a survey measure of PTSS adapted from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL-PTSD), along with measures of their child's temperament and their own current psychological functioning.

RESULTS

On the CBCL-PTSD, no differences in PTSS were observed between children with cancer and comparisons, although many in both groups appeared at risk, with approximately 34% of children with cancer and 27% of comparisons meeting threshold scores for probable PTSD. However, using a "gold-standard" clinical-interview assessment, only three children in the patient group and no children in the comparison group met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Parental distress and child temperament were significantly associated with PTSS scores.

CONCLUSION

Findings indicate PTSD is relatively infrequent in children with cancer, and survey measures may overestimate rates of PTSD in young children. However, other emotional or behavioral issues may be present. Ultimately, screening for potential emotional/behavioral concerns in young children with cancer is indicated, and interventions should continue to target caregiver distress.

Association of Infant Temperament With Subsequent Obesity in Young Children of Mothers With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

IMPORTANCE

Infant temperament is associated with excess weight gain or childhood obesity risk in samples of healthy individuals, although the evidence has been inconsistent. To our knowledge, no prior research has examined this topic among children exposed to gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in utero.

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively evaluate infant temperament in association with overweight and obesity status at ages 2 to 5 years among children born to mothers who experienced GDM.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This prospective cohort study took place at Kaiser Permanente Northern California medical centers. We studied singleton infants delivered at 35 weeks' gestational age or later to mothers who had been diagnosed with GDM. Data were collected from 2009 to 2016, and data analysis occurred from June 2017 to October 2018.

EXPOSURES

The primary exposures in the child's first year were soothability, distress to limitations, and activity aspects of temperament, as assessed by a validated questionnaire. Modifiable covariates in the child's first year included breastfeeding intensity and duration monthly ratio scores, along with the timing of the introduction of sugary beverages and complementary foods.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was child overweight and obesity status, assessed at ages 2 to 5 years. Multinomial logistic regression models estimated adjusted odds ratios and 95% CIs for infants whose temperaments were measured at 6 to 9 weeks of age and categorized as elevated (≥75th percentile) or not elevated in the 3 domains. We controlled for nonmodifiable and modifiable covariates across models.

RESULTS

A total of 382 mother-infant pairs participted, including 130 infants (34.0%) who were non-Hispanic white, 126 infants (33.0%) who were Hispanic, 96 infants (25.1%) who were Asian, 26 infants (6.8%) who were non-Hispanic black, and 4 infants (1.1%) who were of other races/ethnicities. In descriptive analyses, elevated infant soothability and activity temperaments were associated with the early introduction of 100% fruit juice and/or sugar-sweetened beverages (at ages <6 months) and shorter breastfeeding duration (from 0 to <3 months), while elevated distress to limitations was associated with early introduction of complementary foods (at ages <4 months). Elevated soothability consistently was associated with a higher odds of later childhood obesity, with adjusted odds ratios across models ranging from 2.22 (95% CI, 1.04-4.73) to 2.54 (95% CI, 1.28-5.03). Greater breastfeeding intensity and duration (12-month combined) score was associated with lower odds of obesity, independent of infant temperament and other covariates.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Among this high-risk population of infants, elevated soothability was associated with early childhood obesity risk, perhaps in part because caregivers use sugary drinks to assuage infants. Soothability temperament may be a novel screening target for early obesity prevention interventions involving responsive feeding and emotion regulation.

Longitudinal interplay of young children's negative affectivity and maternal interaction quality in the context of unequal psychosocial resources

Interaction quality and child temperament predict early and later child development. Research hints at transactional interrelations of both aspects but lacks adequate data to examine this assumption. Maternal psychosocial resources are suspected moderators in this context but rarely taken into account. Drawing on data of the German National Educational Panel Study we conducted a cross-lagged panel analysis on the longitudinal interplay of maternal interaction quality and children's negative affectivity at 6-8, 16-18, and 25-27 months and compared mothers with and without accumulated strains. Both variables showed moderate to high structural and rank order stability over time and low but increasing connections. In the case of accumulated stress factors, interaction quality is clearly impaired and high negative affectivity acts as an additional burden while low negative affectivity helps strained mothers to maintain higher interaction quality but only in the first year of life.

Interindividual differences in neonatal sociality and emotionality predict juvenile social status in rhesus monkeys

In humans, socioeconomic status (SES) has profound outcomes on socio-emotional development and health. However, while much is known about the consequences of SES, little research has examined the predictors of SES due to the longitudinal nature of such studies. We sought to explore whether interindividual differences in neonatal sociality, temperament, and early social experiences predicted juvenile social status in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), as a proxy for SES in humans. We performed neonatal imitation tests in infants' first week of life and emotional reactivity assessments at 2 and 4 weeks of age. We examined whether these traits, as well as the rearing environment in the first 8 months of life (with the mother or with same-aged peers only) and maternal social status predicted juvenile (2-3 years old) social status following the formation of peer social groups at 8 months. We found that infants who exhibited higher rates of neonatal imitation and newborn emotional reactivity achieved higher social status as juveniles, as did infants who were reared with their mothers, compared to infants reared with peers. Maternal social status was only associated with juvenile status for infant dyads reared in the same maternal group, indicating that relative social relationships were transferred through social experience. These results suggest that neonatal imitation and emotional reactivity may reflect ingrained predispositions toward sociality that predict later outcomes, and that nonnormative social experiences can alter socio-developmental trajectories. Our results indicate that neonatal characteristics and early social experiences predict later social outcomes in adolescence, including gradients of social stratification.

Association of temperament with dental anxiety and behaviour of the preschool child during the initial dental visit

The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is an association between temperament characteristics of preschool children, dental anxiety, and their dental behaviour. A total of 100 children, aged 3-5 yr, who were attending their initial dental visit accompanied by a parent, were included in this cross-sectional study. Dental anxiety of children was measured using the Facial Image Scale. The behaviour of children during the initial oral examination and oral prophylaxis was assessed using Frankl's behaviour rating scale. Temperament was assessed using Emotionality, Activity, Shyness Temperament Survey for Children (parental ratings). Statistically significant weak linear positive correlations were seen between the following: the percentage duration of definitely negative behaviour and shyness scores (r_s  = 0.28); anxiety level and emotionality scores (r_s  = 0.28); and anxiety level and shyness scores (r_s  = 0.26). Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that children with higher anxiety had higher odds of showing definitely negative behaviour, which decreased with increasing age of the child. Emotionality and shyness temperaments may be weakly associated with dental anxiety, and shyness may be weakly associated with the dental behaviour of the preschool child. Definitely negative dental behaviour is associated with dental anxiety and age of the child.

Maternal positive responses to a distressed infant simulator predict subsequent negative affect in infants

Existing evidence indicates that maternal responses to infant distress, specifically more sensitive and less inconsistent/rejecting responses, are associated with lower infant negative affect (NA). However, due to ethical and methodological constraints, most existing studies do not employ methods that guarantee each mother will be observed responding to infant distress. To address such limitations, in the current study, a distressed infant simulator (SIM), programmed to be inconsolable, was employed to ensure that mothers (N = 150; 4 months postpartum) were observed responding to infant distress. Subsequently, maternal report of infant NA and an early aspect of regulatory capacity, sootheability, were collected at eight-months postpartum, and observational assessments of infant fear and frustration, fine-grained aspects of NA, were collected at 12-months of age. After controlling for infant sex, the proportion of time mothers spent using soothing touch during the SIM task was related to less overall maternal reported NA and sadness at eight-months postpartum. Similarly, greater use of touch was associated with less fear reactivity, and greater maternal use of vocalizations was related to lower infant frustration, at 12-months postpartum. Specific maternal soothing behaviors were not related to infant soothability at 8 months postpartum. Total time spent interacting with the SIM was not related to infant temperament, suggesting that type of soothing, not quantity of interactions with distressed infants, is important for reducing infant NA. The implications of these findings and important future directions are discussed.

Developmental patterns of anger from infancy to middle childhood predict problem behaviors at age 8

Anger is a central characteristic of negative affect and is relatively stable from infancy onward. Absolute levels of anger typically peak in early childhood and diminish as children become socialized and better able to regulate emotions. From infancy to school age, however, there are also individual differences in rank-order levels of anger. For example, although decreasing in absolute levels, some children may stay the same and others may increase in rank order relative to their peers. Although change in rank order of anger over time may provide unique insight into children's social development, little is known concerning variations in developmental patterns of anger from a rank-order perspective and how these patterns are related to children's behavioral adjustment. The current study (N = 361) used group-based trajectory analysis and identified 6 distinct patterns of parent-reported child anger by rank across 9 months to 7 years: low-stable rank, average-stable rank, average-decreasing rank, average-increasing rank, high-decreasing rank, and high-stable rank. Most children (65.1%) were in low- to average-rank groups. However, 28.2% and 6.7% of the children were in average-increasing and high-stable groups, respectively. Children in the high-stable group showed elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing problems at age 8 compared to children in the average-stable, average-decreasing, and high-decreasing groups. These findings help to clarify different patterns of anger development across childhood and how they may relate to later problem behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Non-reassuring foetal status and neonatal irritability in the Japan Environment and Children's Study: A cohort study

The aim of this study was to investigate whether non-reassuring foetal status (NRFS) affected an infant's temperament, or if the temperament formed prenatally resulted in an excessive heart rate reaction that was diagnosed as NRFS. We examined the correlation between NRFS and difficulty in holding a baby, and the amount of crying in the one month after birth, which was considered an indicator of the newborn's temperament. We divided the cases with NRFS into positive NRFS and false positive NRFS. NRFS was associated with bad mood, frequent crying for a long duration, and intense crying. After adjustment for other covariates, NRFS was associated with bad mood (odds ratio, OR = 1.15, 95% confidence interval, CI = 1.00-1.33), and intense crying (1.12, 1.02-1.24). In the multi-variable model, positive and false positive NRFS were not clearly associated with neonatal irritability. When stratified by parity, NRFS and false positive NRFS were likely to be positively associated with neonatal irritability in parous women. The clear association between NRFS and intense crying was observed in parous women (multi-variable adjusted OR = 1.46, 95% CI = 1.16-1.83), but not in nulliparae (1.01, 0.91-1.12) (p for effect modification <0.01). Similarly, increased odds of intense crying associated with false positive NRFS were only found in parous women (multi-variable adjusted OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.09-1.81) (p for effect modification = 0.03). There was no association observed between positive NRFS and irritability; therefore, NRFS has no effect on an infant's temperament.

Measurement of self-regulation in early childhood: Relations between laboratory and performance-based measures of effortful control and executive functioning

Effortful control (EC) and executive functioning (EF) are two focal constructs in the study of self-regulation in early childhood.Given a number of conceptual and empirical overlaps between EC and EF, this study examined the associations between commonly used laboratory and performance-based measures of EC and EF in early childhood. Children (N =247; age 4-6 years) completed the Shape Stroop, Snack Delay and Toy Delay tasks, as well as the Conner's Kiddie-Continuous erformance Task (KCPT).Partial correlations and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted to assess the relations between performance on the EC and F tasks and the factor structure of self-regulation. Convergent and divergent validity were found amongst the performance-based measures. Inaddition, results from CFA support a one-factor model of self-regulation with "hot" EC and "cool" EF loading onto a general self-regulation factor. Study results highlight the similarities that exist between EC and EF during early childhood and the need for integrative, whole-child approaches in order to understand the neurophysiological and behavioral underpinnings of self-regulation and its development.

Positive Affectivity and Fear Trajectories in Infancy: Contributions of Mother-Child Interaction Factors

Fear and positive emotionality were considered in a growth modeling context. Mothers, primarily Caucasian (91.9%) and of middle socioeconomic status, participated in play interactions with infants at 4 months (N = 148). Infant fear and positive affectivity were evaluated at 6, 8, 10, and 12 months of age. A linear trajectory was superior in explaining growth for parent report and observation-based indicators of positive affectivity and parent report of fearfulness; a piecewise model explained the nonlinear growth of observation-based fear. Responsiveness in mother-infant interactions emerged as a significant predictor of the fear trajectory, with higher sensitivity predicting lower levels of observed fear. Reciprocity, tempo, emotional tone, and intensity of mother-infant interactions also made significant contributions to temperament development; however, analyses addressing these were exploratory.

Latent State-Trait Modeling: A New Tool to Refine Temperament Methodology

Questions concerning longitudinal stability and multi-method consistency are critical to temperament research. Latent State-Trait (LST) analyses address these directly, and were utilized in this study. Thus, our primary objective was to apply LST analyses in a temperament context, using longitudinal and multi-method data to determine the amount of trait vs. state variance, as well as convergence for measures of Distress to Limitations (DL) facets. Mothers' ratings and independent observations of DL behaviors collected on two occasions (8 months old and 12 months old) for 148 infants (49.2% female) were utilized. Single source latent state-trait (LST) analyses indicated that parent ratings of DL behavior (PDL) contained more trait (M = 61%) than state residual (M = 39%) variance, whereas independent observations (IO) of DL behavior contained substantially more state residual (75%) than trait (25%) variance. A multiple source LST analysis indicated virtually zero convergence for either trait or state residual variance between PDL and IO ratings (M = 2%). In conclusion, PDL ratings were more trait-like across the four-month interval, whereas IO ratings of DL were more state-like in nature. Also, no convergence was found between the two methods of measurement. Results are discussed with an emphasis on implications for the utility of LST analyses in temperament research.

A Person-Centered Approach to Child Temperament and Parenting

The aim of this study was to examine how variations in children's temperamental reactivity and mothers' parenting stress relate to parenting behavior. A sample of 3,001 mother-child dyads was assessed when children were 14, 24, 36, and 54 months. Latent profile analysis identified a group of temperamentally "easy" children whose mothers experienced little parenting stress, along with two groups of highly reactive children differentiated by mothers' stress levels. Maternal negative regard over time was highest in the group of reactive children with highly stressed mothers. Mothers in this group also perceived more child behavior problems and had less knowledge of child development. Results are discussed relative to Person × Environment interactions and the complex interplay between parent and child characteristics.

Temperament and behavior in toddlers born preterm with related clinical problems

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare temperament and behavior profiles among groups of preterm toddlers differentiated by level of prematurity and the presence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) or retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), controlling for neonatal clinical conditions and chronological age.

METHOD

The sample comprised 100 preterm toddlers segregated according to level of prematurity (75 very preterm and 25 moderate/late preterm) and presence of BPD (n=36) and ROP (n=63). Temperament was assessed by the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire and behavior by the Child Behavior Checklist. The MANOVA was performed with a post-hoc univariate test.

RESULTS

The level of prematurity and the presence of BPD and ROP did not affect temperament and behavioral problems in toddlers born preterm. However, the covariates age and length of stay in NICU (Neonatal Intensive Care Unit) affected temperament and behavioral problems, respectively. The older toddlers showed higher inhibitory control and lower activity levels than younger toddlers (range of 18-36months-old). Additionally, toddlers who stayed in the NICU longer showed more pervasive development and emotionally reactive problems than toddlers who stayed in NICU for less time.

CONCLUSION

The level of prematurity and the presence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and retinopathy of prematurity did not affect temperament and behavioral problems in toddlers born preterm. However, a longer stay in the NICU increased the risk for behavioral problems, and age enhanced the regulation of temperament at toddlerhood.