Perceptions of Pubertal Timing and Discrimination Among African American and Caribbean Black Girls

Associations between structural stigma and earlier pubertal timing persist for 1 year among Black girls and Latinx youth

Black and Latinx youth experience earlier pubertal timing relative to their non-stigmatized peers. Research on determinants of this increased risk has largely focused on aspects of individuals (e.g., body mass index) or their proximal environment (e.g., socioeconomic status), to the exclusion of broader macro-social factors. Using 2 years of Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® data, we examined whether structural stigma (e.g., state-level policies, aggregated prejudicial attitudes) was associated with hormonal and physical markers of pubertal development. Baseline results documented earlier pubertal timing among Black girls (hormones) and Latinx girls and boys (youth and/or caregiver report) in states with higher (vs. lower) levels of structural racism and xenophobia, respectively. Observed associations were comparable in effect size to a well-established correlate of pubertal development, body mass index, and remained 1 year later among these stigmatized (vs. non-stigmatized) groups. Findings suggest the need to broaden the study of determinants of pubertal development to include macro-social factors.

Early adolescents' ethnic-racial discrimination and pubertal development: Parents' ethnic-racial identities promote adolescents' resilience

Ethnically and racially underrepresented adolescents are experiencing pubertal development earlier in life than prior cohorts and their White American peers. This early onset of puberty is partly attributable to ethnic-racial discrimination. To contribute to adolescents' resilience and posttraumatic growth in the face of ethnic-racial discrimination, parents' ethnic-racial identities may spill over into their parenting beliefs and practices. Parents who have a sense of belonging with and commitment to their ethnic-racial identities may be aware of discrimination and actively and consistently engage in practices that build supportive home environments to support their children's development in the context of ethnic-racial discrimination. To assess whether parents' ethnic-racial identity commitment predicted adolescents' resilience against ethnic-racial discrimination, we used multiple waves of survey data from adolescent siblings and their parents participating in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (N-adolescents = 1,651; N-families = 805; 35% Black, 37% Latinx, 3% Asian, 25% other ethnically and racially underrepresented youth; 49% boys, 50% girls, 1% gender nonconforming youth; Mage = 11.49, SD = 0.51). Results indicated that adolescents who experienced more frequent ethnic-racial discrimination than their siblings showed more advanced pubertal development. Parental ethnic-racial identity commitment reduced the relation between discrimination and pubertal development within a family. Results suggest that ethnic-racial identity commitment in parents can protect children when they experience ethnic-racial discrimination. Building on extant propositions related to resilience (Infurna & Luthar, 2018), the present study amplifies the depiction of resilience, yields recommendations for analysis of future research, and provides implications regarding the role of ethnicity-race in familial practices. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Experience-dependent neurodevelopment of self-regulation in adolescence

Adolescence is a period of rapid biobehavioral change, characterized in part by increased neural maturation and sensitivity to one's environment. In this review, we aim to demonstrate that self-regulation skills are tuned by adolescents' social, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. We discuss adjacent literatures that demonstrate the importance of experience-dependent learning for adolescent development: environmental contextual influences and training paradigms that aim to improve regulation skills. We first highlight changes in prominent limbic and cortical regions-like the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex-as well as structural and functional connectivity between these areas that are associated with adolescents' regulation skills. Next, we consider how puberty, the hallmark developmental milestone in adolescence, helps instantiate these biobehavioral adaptations. We then survey the existing literature demonstrating the ways in which cultural, socioeconomic, and interpersonal contexts drive behavioral and neural adaptation for self-regulation. Finally, we highlight promising results from regulation training paradigms that suggest training may be especially efficacious for adolescent samples. In our conclusion, we highlight some exciting frontiers in human self-regulation research as well as recommendations for improving the methodological implementation of developmental neuroimaging studies and training paradigms.

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the incidence of central precocious puberty; a narrative review

Central precocious puberty (CPP) is the premature activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis, resulting in the early development of secondary sexual characteristics. CPP classically occurs before the age of 8 years in girls and 9 years in boys. The aetiology of this precocious onset of puberty is governed by complex mechanistic interactions between genetic and environmental factors. The rates of CPP have been documented to have been rising before the COVID-19 pandemic; despite this, the incidence of CPP has increased exponentially since the start of the pandemic. There are multiple theories potentially explaining this change in incidence of CPP over COVID-19. These include the direct effect of SARS-coV-2 infection, increasing body mass index of adolescents over sequential lockdowns, changes in sleep patterns, increased use of electronic devices and levels of stress, and additionally potential earlier detection of signs of CPP by parents and carers. Whilst there is evidence from observational cohorts, case studies and animal models for each of these factors, it is difficult to definitively prove which has had the greatest impact due to the mainly retrospective nature of the human research that has been conducted. Moreover, studies set in diverse settings with varying population make comparison complex. Additionally, each country responded differently to the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdowns varied between locations, hence the effect of lockdown was not equal or universal. Despite this, similar trends have been identified, with various lifestyle changes that occurred over the pandemic being potentially influential factors on the development of CPP.

Pubertal timing moderates the same-day coupling between family hassles and negative affect in girls and boys

This study examined the association between pubertal timing, daily affect, conduct problems, and the exposure to hassles across family, peer, and school contexts. Adolescents (M age = 12.27; 49.7% female; 62.6% White) completed ecological momentary assessments across 14 consecutive days (N = 388). Earlier maturing girls reported lower daily averages of positive affect compared to their same-sex, same-age peers. We did not find evidence for a relationship between pubertal timing and daily negative affect or conduct problems in girls, nor for daily negative and positive affect or conduct problems in boys. However, pubertal timing did moderate the day-level association between average negative affect and family hassles for both girls and boys. When experiencing more family hassles, earlier maturing girls reported greater negative affect relative to later maturing girls who experienced family hassles. In contrast, later maturing boys, relative to earlier maturing boys, reported higher levels of negative affect in the context of family hassles.

The Effects of Pubertal Timing on Academic Performance in Adolescence and Career Success in Adulthood: Evidence from a 16-year Longitudinal Study

Previous research showed inconsistent effects of pubertal timing on adolescent academic performance and adult career success. Moreover, the relative importance of biological vs. perceived pubertal timing has not been examined. This study examined effects of biological and perceived pubertal timing on academic performance throughout adolescence and career success in adulthood together with sex differences in an understudied population of pre-dominantly Black youth from lower income families. The sample included 704 youth (52% male, 76% Black, 22% White) interviewed at four time points (Mean ages: 11.8, 13.2, 17.6, and 27.7 years). The results from a mediation path model showed that among males, perceived off-time pubertal timing uniquely predicted lower concurrent academic performance as well as lower objective career success in adulthood; this effect was mediated by lower academic performance throughout adolescence. Additionally, results from bivariate correlation analyses showed associations between early biological pubertal timing and lower concurrent academic performance in males and early perceived pubertal timing and lower concurrent academic performance among females. These findings contribute to the understanding of more nuanced links between pubertal timing, academic performance and subsequent career success in an understudied population of pre-dominantly Black youth from lower income families.

Neighborhood Racial and Economic Privilege and Timing of Pubertal Onset in Girls

PURPOSE

Early puberty is associated with adverse health outcomes over the life course, and Black and Hispanic girls experience puberty earlier than girls of other racial/ethnic backgrounds. Neighborhood racial and economic privilege may contribute to these disparities by conferring differential exposure to mechanisms (e.g., stress, obesity, endocrine disruptors) underlying early puberty. We examined associations between neighborhood privilege, measured by the Index of Concentration at the Extremes (ICE), and age at pubic hair onset (pubarche) and breast development onset (thelarche) in a large multiethnic cohort.

METHODS

A cohort of 46,299 girls born 2005-2011 at Kaiser Permanente Northern California medical facilities were followed until 2021. Pubertal development was assessed routinely by pediatricians using the Sexual Maturity Rating scale. ICE quintiles for race/ethnicity, income, and income + race/ethnicity were calculated using American Community Survey 2010 5-year estimates and linked to census tract at birth. We fit multilevel Weibull regression models accommodating left, right, and interval censoring for all analyses.

RESULTS

ICE measures were monotonically associated with pubertal onset, with the strongest associations observed for ICE-race/ethnicity. Adjusting for maternal education, age at delivery, and parity, girls from the least versus most privileged ICE-race/ethnicity quintiles were at increased risk for earlier pubarche (hazard ratio: 1.30, 95% confidence interval: 1.21, 1.38) and thelarche (hazard ratio: 1.45, 95% confidence interval: 1.36, 1.54). These associations remained significant after adjusting for girls' race/ethnicity and childhood body mass index. Additionally, adjustment for ICE partially attenuated Black-White and Hispanic-White disparities in pubertal onset.

DISCUSSION

Neighborhood privilege may contribute to pubertal timing and related disparities.

Maturation-dependent vulnerability of emotion regulation as a response to COVID-19 related stress in adolescents

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic created unpredictable circumstances resulting in increased psychological strain. Here we investigate pandemic-related alterations in emotion regulation in adolescents assessed before and during the pandemic. We also take biological age into account in the response to the pandemic.

METHODS

Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to compare baseline data on the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) total scores of a pre-pandemic adolescent cohort (n = 241) with those obtained during the second wave of the pandemic (n = 266). We estimated biological age based on an ultrasonic boneage assessment procedure in a subgroup of males, including grammar school and vocational school students in the 9th and 10th grades, and analyzed their data independently.

FINDINGS

There is a gender difference in the timing of vulnerability for pandemic-related stress in grammar school students: females are affected a year earlier than males. Vocational school male students mature faster than grammar school male students, and the timing of emotional vulnerability also precedes that of the grammar school students'.

DISCUSSION

We interpret our findings within a developmental model suggesting that there might be a window of highest vulnerability in adolescent emotion regulation. The timing of the window is determined by both chronological and biological age, and it is different for females and males.

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE

Defining the exact temporal windows of vulnerability for different adolescent cohorts allows for the timely integration of preventive actions into adolescent care to protect mental health during future chronic stressful situations.

Association between racial/ethnic discrimination and pubertal development in early adolescence

Racial health disparities in the United States are a major concern, with Black or African Americans experiencing more morbidity and mortality at earlier ages compared to White Americans. More data is needed on the biological underpinnings of this phenomenon. One potential explanation for racial health disparities is that of accelerated aging, which is associated with increased stress exposure. Black Americans face disproportionate levels of environmental stress, specifically racial/ethnic discrimination. Here we investigated associations between self-reported experiences of discrimination and pubertal development (PD) in a diverse sample of young American adolescents (N = 11,235, mean age 10.9 years, 20.5% Black participants) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Compared to their non-Black counterparts, Black youth experienced more racial/ethnic discrimination in the past year (10.4% vs 3.1%) and had a greater likelihood of being in late/post-pubertal status (3.6% vs 1.5% in boys, 21.3% vs 11.4% in girls). In both sexes, multivariable regression models run in the full sample revealed a cross-sectional association of experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination with pubertal development (boys: standardized beta [β]=0.123, P < .001; girls: β = 0.110, P < .001) covarying for demographics, BMI, and dietary habits. Associations remained significant when controlling for multiple other environmental confounders including other forms of (non-racial/ethnic) discrimination and other environmental adversities including poverty and negative life events, and when using parent-reported assessment of pubertal development. Furthermore, racial/ethnic discrimination was associated with elevated estradiol levels in girls (β = 0.057, P = .002). Findings suggest an association between experiences of discrimination and pubertal development that is independent of multiple environmental stressors. Future longitudinal studies are warranted to establish causal mechanism.

Ethnic-Racial Socialization Among Mothers of Black and Black-White Biracial Daughters During the Pubertal Transition

Ethnic-racial socialization is a salient component of parenting in Black families. What is less clear is how Black families discuss ethnicity-race and social inequalities with pubescent children. We examined associations between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial socialization among mothers (M_age  = 42) of Black (n = 286) and Black-White biracial (n = 233) girls aged 9-12. Moderation by maternal stress about puberty was also examined. Results indicated mothers of Black girls who were stressed about puberty reported more preparation for bias; whereas both groups of mothers reported more cultural socialization. Early pubertal timing and high maternal stress about puberty predicted more cultural socialization among both groups and more egalitarian beliefs among only mothers of Black-White biracial girls. The findings highlight the importance of ethnic-racial socialization during puberty.

A Qualitative Study of Black College Women’s Experiences of Misogynoir and Anti-Racism with High School Educators

A growing body of literature highlights how teachers and administrators influence Black girls’ academic and social experiences in school. Yet, less of this work explores how Black undergraduate women understand their earlier school experiences, particularly in relation to whether teachers advocated for their educational success or participated in discriminatory practices that hindered their potential. Using consensual qualitative research (CQR) methods, the present semi-structured interview study explored the narratives of 50 Black undergraduate women (mean age = 20 years) who reflected on their experiences with teachers and school administrators during high school. Five discriminatory themes emerged, including body and tone policing, exceptionalism, tokenization, cultural erasure in the curriculum, and gatekeeping grades and opportunities. Three anti-racist themes emerged, including communicating high expectations and recognizing potential, challenging discrimination in the moment, and instilling racial and cultural pride. Our findings highlight the higher prevalence of discriminatory events compared to anti-racist teacher practices, as well as how the women’s high school experiences occurred at the intersection of race and gender. The Authors discuss the need to incorporate gender and sexism into discussions of anti-racist teacher practices to address Black girls’ experiences of misogynoir. We hope our findings contribute to educational initiatives that transform the learning landscape for Black girls by demonstrating how educators can eliminate pedagogical practices that harm their development.

The impact of early racial discrimination on illegal behavior, arrest, and incarceration among African Americans

The prospective relations between perceived racial discrimination (PRD), assessed at 4 different time periods from childhood through adolescence, along with assessments of PRD from the police ("hassling"), and self-reports of arrest and incarceration at a mean age of 24.5 years, were examined in a sample of 889 African Americans from the Family and Community Health Study. Multiple covariates were included in the analyses (e.g., academic orientation, socioeconomic status, self-control). Structural equation modeling revealed relations between PRD, especially that assessed in childhood, and both arrest and incarceration reported in adulthood. Mediators of these relations included deviant affiliation and self-reports of both substance use and illegal behavior. PRD from the police directly predicted subsequent illegal behavior. Racial pride moderated reactions to both types of PRD: Persons high in racial pride reported more illegal behavior after PRD from police but less illegal behavior in the absence of perceived police discrimination and less illegal behavior overall. Finally, childhood PRD, but not adolescent PRD, directly predicted incarceration that occurred up to 14 years later, and it did so when controlling for arrest, self-reported illegal behavior, and other covariates. The importance of childhood PRD experiences and possible avenues of intervention suggested by the pattern of results are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).