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Elvin OM, Modecki KL, Waters AM. An Expanded Conceptual Framework for Understanding Irritability in Childhood: The Role of Cognitive Control Processes. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2024:10.1007/s10567-024-00489-0. [PMID: 38856946 DOI: 10.1007/s10567-024-00489-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Children prone to irritability experience significant functional impairments and internalising and externalising problems. Contemporary models have sought to elucidate the underlying mechanisms in irritability, such as aberrant threat and reward biases to improve interventions. However, the cognitive control processes that underlie threat (e.g., attention towards threats) and reward (e.g., attention towards reward-related cues) biases and the factors which influence the differential activation of positive and negative valence systems and thus leading to maladaptive activation of cognitive control processes (i.e., proactive and reactive control) are unclear. Thus, we aim to integrate extant theoretical and empirical research to elucidate the cognitive control processes underlying threat and reward processing that contribute to irritability in middle childhood and provide a guiding framework for future research and treatment. We propose an expanded conceptual framework of irritability that includes broad intraindividual and environmental vulnerability factors and propose proximal 'setting' factors that activate the negative valence and positive valence systems and proactive and reactive cognitive control processes which underpin the expression and progression of irritability. We consider the implications of this expanded conceptualisation of irritability and provide suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia M Elvin
- School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Mount Gravatt Campus, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
| | - Kathryn L Modecki
- Centre for Mental Health and School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Mount Gravatt Campus, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia & Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, Australia
| | - Allison M Waters
- Centre for Mental Health and School of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Mount Gravatt Campus, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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2
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Dumont É, Parent S, Castellanos-Ryan N, Jacques S, Freeston MH, Zelazo PD, Séguin JR. The Role of Executive Function at 6 Years in the Association between Behavioral Inhibition at 5 Years and Anxiety at 7 Years. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 2024; 52:919-931. [PMID: 38329683 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-024-01175-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
EF skills play a central role in the etiology and maintenance of anxiety, but it is unclear whether they act as moderators or mediators in the relation between early behavioral inhibition (BI) and later anxiety. The current study tested two models by examining whether two executive functions (EF) skills (cognitive flexibility and working memory) assessed at age 6 acted as moderators or mediators in the relation between BI at 5 years and anxiety symptoms at 7 years. The sample consisted of 422 children from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development. We tested the moderation model, main and interaction effects using hierarchical multiple regression analyses and the mediation model with the product of coefficients test. Results showed that higher BI at 5 years predicted high anxiety at 7 years only at low levels of cognitive flexibility or working memory at 6 years. This suggests that high levels of cognitive flexibility or working memory at 6 years may act as protective factors. In contrast, neither cognitive flexibility nor working memory at age 6 acted as mediators in the association between BI at 5 years and anxiety at 7 years. Results support the hypothesis that goal-driven cognitive control processes act as moderators and promote adaptive functioning by dampening the effect of early BI on later anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Émilie Dumont
- School of Psychoeducation, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- CHU Ste-Justine Research Center, Bureau B17.107; 3175 chemin Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Sophie Parent
- School of Psychoeducation, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- CHU Ste-Justine Research Center, Bureau B17.107; 3175 chemin Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Natalie Castellanos-Ryan
- School of Psychoeducation, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
- CHU Ste-Justine Research Center, Bureau B17.107; 3175 chemin Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Sophie Jacques
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Mark H Freeston
- School of Psychology and Affiliated to the Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Philip David Zelazo
- Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jean R Séguin
- CHU Ste-Justine Research Center, Bureau B17.107; 3175 chemin Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1C5, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
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3
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Zhai S, Cheng S, Moskowitz N, Shen M, Gao T. The development of commitment: Attention for intention. Child Dev 2024; 95:7-15. [PMID: 37337790 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Adhering to a partially defined plan requires an intentional commitment that curbs distracting desires conflicting with the planned course of action, enabling humans to act coherently over time. Two studies (N = 50, 27 girls, ages 5-6, Han Chinese, in Hangzhou, China, 2022.02-2022.03) explored the development of commitment to partial plans in a sequential decision-making task and the underlying cognitive capacity focusing on its correlation to attentional control. Results suggest that only 6-year-olds committed to partial plans (d = .51), and children's commitment ratio was positively correlated with the use of proactive control (r = .40). These findings indicate that intentional commitment does not develop simultaneously with intention understanding, but rather matures gradually with the development of attentional control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyi Zhai
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Shaozhe Cheng
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Naomi Moskowitz
- Department of Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Tao Gao
- Department of Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Statistics, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Communication, UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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4
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Gredebäck G, Lindskog M, Hall J. Poor maternal mental health is associated with a low degree of proactive control in refugee children. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023:17470218231211573. [PMID: 37897067 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231211573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
This study assesses the development of proactive control strategies in 100 Syrian refugee families (394 individuals) with 6- to 18-year-old children currently living in Turkish communities. The results demonstrate that children's age and their mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with the degree of proactive control in their children, with worse mental health being associated with a larger reliance on reactive control and lesser reliance on proactive, future-oriented, control (measured via d' in the AX-CPT task). None of the following factors contributed to children's performance: fathers' experience with post-traumatic stress, parents' exposure to potentially traumatic war-related events, perceived discrimination, a decline in socio-economic status, religious beliefs, parents' proactive control strategies, or the education or gender of the children themselves. The association between mothers' mental health and proactive control strategies in children was large (in terms of effect size), suggesting that supporting mothers' mental health might have clear effects on the development of their children.
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Pan Y, Xu C, He T, Wei Z, Seger CA, Chen Q, Peng Z. A network perspective on cognitive function and obsessive-compulsive related symptoms. J Affect Disord 2023; 329:428-437. [PMID: 36863477 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The relationship between cognitive function and psychopathological symptoms has been an important research field in recent years. Previous studies have typically applied case-control designs to explore differences in certain cognitive variables. Multivariate analyses are needed to deepen our understanding of the intercorrelations among cognitive and symptom phenotypes in OCD. METHODS The present study used network analysis to construct networks of cognitive variables and OCD-related symptoms in patients with OCD and healthy controls (N = 226), aiming to explore the relationship among numerous cognitive function variables and OCD-related symptoms in detail and compare the network features between the two groups. RESULTS In the network of cognitive function and OCD-related symptoms, nodes representing IQ, letter/number span test, accuracy of task switching test and obsession were much important in the network in terms of their larger strengths and edges. By constructing the networks of these two groups respectively, there was a strong similarity except that the symptom's network in healthy group had a higher degree of overall connectivity. LIMITATIONS Due to the small sample size, the stability of the network cannot be guaranteed. Due to the cross-sectional nature of the data, we were unable to determine how the cognitive-symptom network would change with disease deterioration or treatment. CONCLUSIONS The present study highlights the important role of variables such as obsession and IQ from a network perspective. These results deepen our understanding of the multivariate relationship between cognitive dysfunction and OCD symptoms, and may promote the prediction and diagnosis of OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng Pan
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, China; School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, 510631 Guangzhou, China
| | - Chuanyong Xu
- Department of Child Psychiatry and Rehabilitation, Institute of Maternity and Child Medical Research, Affiliated Shenzhen Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, 518017 Shenzhen, China
| | - Tingxin He
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, China; School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, 510631 Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhen Wei
- Department of Child Psychiatry and Rehabilitation, Institute of Maternity and Child Medical Research, Affiliated Shenzhen Maternity & Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, 518017 Shenzhen, China
| | - Carol A Seger
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, China; School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, 510631 Guangzhou, China
| | - Qi Chen
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, 518061 Shenzhen, China.
| | - Ziwen Peng
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, China; School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Psychological Application, and Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, 510631 Guangzhou, China.
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6
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Valadez EA, Morales S, Buzzell GA, Troller-Renfree SV, Henderson HA, Chronis-Tuscano A, Pine DS, Fox NA. Development of Proactive Control and Anxiety Among Behaviorally Inhibited Adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2022; 61:1466-1475. [PMID: 35490841 PMCID: PMC9613813 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2022.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Behavioral inhibition (BI) is an infant temperament characterized by heightened reactivity and negative affect in response to novel people and situations. BI is among the earliest and strongest predictors of future anxiety problems. However, not all children with a history of BI will manifest anxiety problems. A growing body of evidence suggests that proactive control skills may help buffer youth with BI from future anxiety difficulties; yet, it remains unclear how temperament may interact with the development of cognitive control to influence anxiety risk. The present study tested whether enhancements in proactive control occurring during adolescence may reduce risk for anxiety among youth with a history of BI. METHOD Participants included 185 adolescents (56% female) whose temperament was assessed during toddlerhood. In adolescence, participants completed anxiety assessments and an AX Continuous Performance Test (AX-CPT) to assess cognitive control strategy. Both assessments were administered at age 13 years and again at 15 years. RESULTS Latent change score modeling revealed that, on average, participants increasingly used proactive control strategies and experienced worsening anxiety from age 13-15 years. Early BI was associated with a smaller anxiety increase from 13-15 years, but only among participants whose proactive control skills improved at mean or greater rates. CONCLUSION The present findings suggest that greater proactive control development during adolescence protects youth with high BI from age-related increases in anxiety. Results support a framework that highlights cognitive control as a key moderator of anxiety risk among children with a history of high BI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Daniel S Pine
- National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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7
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Volkmer S, Wetzel N, Widmann A, Scharf F. Attentional control in middle childhood is highly dynamic-Strong initial distraction is followed by advanced attention control. Dev Sci 2022; 25:e13275. [PMID: 35538048 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The ability to shield against distraction while focusing on a task requires the operation of executive functions and is essential for successful learning. We investigated the short-term dynamics of distraction control in a data set of 269 children aged 4-10 years and 51 adults pooled from three studies using multilevel models. Participants performed a visual categorization task while a task-irrelevant sequence of sounds was presented which consisted of frequently repeated standard sounds and rarely interspersed novel sounds. On average, participants responded slower in the categorization task after novel sounds. This distraction effect was more pronounced in children. Throughout the experiment, the initially strong distraction effects declined to the level of adults in the groups of 6- to 10-year-olds. Such a decline was neither observed in the groups of the 4- and 5-year-olds, who consistently showed a high level of distraction, nor in adults, who showed a constantly low level of distraction throughout the experimental session. Results indicate that distraction control is a highly dynamic process that qualitatively and quantitatively differs between age groups. We conclude that the analysis of short-term dynamics provides valuable insights into the development of attention control and might explain inconsistent findings regarding distraction control in middle childhood. In addition, models of attention control need to be refined to account for age-dependent rapid learning mechanisms. Our findings have implications for the design of learning situations and provide an additional source of information for the diagnosis and treatment of children with attention deficit disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindram Volkmer
- Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Nicole Wetzel
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,University of Applied Sciences Magdeburg-Stendal, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Widmann
- Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Florian Scharf
- Institute of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Institute of Psychology, Kassel University, Kassel, Germany
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8
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Proactive cognitive control, mathematical cognition and functional activity in the frontal and parietal cortex in primary school children: An fNIRS study. Trends Neurosci Educ 2022; 28:100180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2022.100180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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9
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Zhou H, Li Z, Wang C. Development of proactive control in school-age children and its relationship with working memory. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03260-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Filippi CA, Subar A, Ravi S, Haas S, Troller-Renfree SV, Fox NA, Leibenluft E, Pine DS. Developmental Changes in the Association Between Cognitive Control and Anxiety. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2022; 53:599-609. [PMID: 33738691 PMCID: PMC9107422 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-021-01150-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety has been associated with reliance on reactive (stimulus-driven/reflexive) control strategies in response to conflict. However, this conclusion rests primarily on indirect evidence. Few studies utilize tasks that dissociate the use of reactive ('just in time') vs. proactive (anticipatory/preparatory) cognitive control strategies in response to conflict, and none examine children diagnosed with anxiety. The current study utilizes the AX-CPT, which dissociates these two types of cognitive control, to examine cognitive control in youth (ages 8-18) with and without an anxiety diagnosis (n = 56). Results illustrate that planful behavior, consistent with using a proactive strategy, varies by both age and anxiety symptoms. Young children (ages 8-12 years) with high anxiety exhibit significantly less planful behavior than similarly-aged children with low anxiety. These findings highlight the importance of considering how maturation influences relations between anxiety and performance on cognitive-control tasks and have implications for understanding the pathophysiology of anxiety in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Filippi
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA.
| | - Anni Subar
- Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Denver, CO, 80208, USA
| | - Sanjana Ravi
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA
| | - Sara Haas
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sonya V Troller-Renfree
- Department of Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Nathan A Fox
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA
| | - Ellen Leibenluft
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Daniel S Pine
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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Rosales K, Snijder JP, Conway A, Gonthier C. EXPRESS: Working Memory Capacity and Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control: An Experimental-Correlational Approach. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 75:1793-1809. [PMID: 34844467 DOI: 10.1177/17470218211066410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Working memory is thought to be strongly related to cognitive control. Recent studies have sought to understand this relationship under the prism of the dual mechanisms of control (DMC) framework, in which cognitive control is thought to operate in two distinct modes: proactive and reactive. Several authors have concluded that a high working memory capacity is associated with a tendency to engage the more effective mechanism of proactive control. However, the predicted pattern of proactive control use has never been observed; correlational evidence is made difficult to interpret by the overall superiority of participants with a high working memory capacity: they tend to perform better even when proactive control should be detrimental. In two experiments, we used an experimental-correlational approach to experimentally induce the use of reactive or proactive control in the AX-CPT. The relation between working memory capacity and performance was unaffected, incompatible with the hypothesis that the better performance of participants with a high working memory capacity in the task is due to their use of proactive control. It remains unclear how individual differences in working memory capacity relate to cognitive control under the DMC framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Rosales
- Division of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences, Claremont Graduate University 2524
| | - Jean-Paul Snijder
- Division of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences, Claremont Graduate University 2524
| | - Andrew Conway
- Division of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences, Claremont Graduate University 2524
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13
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Yanaoka K, Van't Wout F, Saito S, Jarrold C. Prior task experience increases 5-year-old children's use of proactive control: Behavioral and pupillometric evidence. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13181. [PMID: 34623719 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Children engage cognitive control reactively when they encounter conflicts; however, they can also resolve conflicts proactively. Recent studies have begun to clarify the mechanisms that support the use of proactive control in children; nonetheless, sufficient knowledge has not been accumulated regarding these mechanisms. Using behavioral and pupillometric measures, we tested the novel possibility that 5-year-old children (N = 58) learn to use proactive control via the acquisition of abstract task knowledge that captures regularities of the task. Participants were assigned to either a proactive training group or a control training group. In the proactive training group, participants engaged in a training phase where using proactive control was encouraged, followed by a test phase using different stimuli where both proactive and reactive control could be used. In the control training group, participants engaged in a training phase where both cognitive control strategies could be used, followed by a similarly-structured test phase using different stimuli. We demonstrated children in the control training group responded more quickly and accurately and showed greater cue-related pupil dilation in the test phase than in the training phase. However, there were no differences in response times, accuracies, and pupil dilation between the proactive and control training groups in the training and test phases. These findings suggest that prior task experience, that goes beyond specific knowledge about the timing of task goal activation, can lead children to engage more proactive control endogenously, even if they are not directly encouraged to do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaichi Yanaoka
- Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Satoru Saito
- Graduate School of Education, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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14
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Valadez EA, Troller-Renfree SV, Buzzell GA, Henderson HA, Chronis-Tuscano A, Pine DS, Fox NA. Behavioral inhibition and dual mechanisms of anxiety risk: Disentangling neural correlates of proactive and reactive control. JCPP ADVANCES 2021; 1. [PMID: 34595482 PMCID: PMC8477434 DOI: 10.1002/jcv2.12022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a temperament style characterized by heightened reactivity and negative affect in response to novel people and situations, and it predicts anxiety problems later in life. However, not all BI children develop anxiety problems, and mounting evidence suggests that how one manages their cognitive resources (cognitive control) influences anxiety risk. The present study tests whether more (proactive control) or less (reactive control) planful cognitive strategies moderate relations between early BI and later anxiety. Methods: Participants included 112 adolescents (55% female; Mage = 15.4 years) whose temperament was assessed during toddlerhood. In adolescence, participants completed an AX Continuous Performance Test while electroencephalography was recorded to disentangle neural activity related to proactive (cue-locked P3b) and reactive (probe-locked N2) control. Results: Greater BI was associated with greater total anxiety scores only among adolescents with smaller ΔP3bs and larger ΔN2s—a pattern consistent with decreased reliance on proactive strategies and increased reliance on reactive strategies. Additionally, a larger ΔP3b was associated with greater total anxiety scores; however, this effect was largely explained by the fact that females tended to have larger ΔP3bs and greater anxiety than males. Conclusions: Early BI relates to risk for later anxiety specifically among adolescents who rely less on proactive strategies and more on reactive control strategies. Thus, cognitive control strategy moderates the association between developmental context (i.e., temperament) and later anxiety. The present study is the first to characterize how proactive and reactive control uniquely relate to pathways toward anxiety risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilio A Valadez
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Sonya V Troller-Renfree
- Department of Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - George A Buzzell
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
| | | | | | - Daniel S Pine
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Nathan A Fox
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
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15
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Traut HJ, Chevalier N, Guild RM, Munakata Y. Understanding and Supporting Inhibitory Control: Unique Contributions From Proactive Monitoring and Motoric Stopping to Children's Improvements With Practice. Child Dev 2021; 92:e1290-e1307. [PMID: 34339051 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Children struggle to stop inappropriate behaviors. What interventions improve inhibitory control, for whom, and why? Prior work suggested that practice proactively monitoring for relevant signals improved children's inhibitory control more than practice with motoric stopping. However, these processes were not clearly dissociated. This study tested 162 seven- to nine-year-old children (89 female, 72 male, 1 unreported; 82% White) on the stop-signal task, following monitoring or stopping-focused practice. Both methods improved inhibitory control, supported generalization, and interacted ( η p 2 = .20-.73). Practice approaches differentially impacted variability ( η p 2 = .01-.09). Only monitoring benefits showed signs of depending upon proactive control ( η p 2 = .02). These findings highlight unique contributions of attentional and stopping processes to inhibitory control, suggesting possibilities for tailored interventions.
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16
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Wang C, Li B, Yao Y. Proactive Control Mediates the Relationship Between Working Memory and Math Ability in Early Childhood. Front Psychol 2021; 12:611429. [PMID: 34025497 PMCID: PMC8137833 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.611429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on the dual mechanisms of control (DMC) theory, there are two distinct mechanisms of cognitive control, proactive and reactive control. Importantly, accumulating evidence indicates that there is a developmental shift from predominantly using reactive control to proactive control during childhood, and the engagement of proactive control emerges as early as 5–7 years old. However, less is known about whether and how proactive control at this early age stage is associated with children’s other cognitive abilities such as working memory and math ability. To address this issue, the current study recruited 98 Chinese children under 5–7 years old. Among them, a total of 81 children (mean age = 6.29 years) contributed useable data for the assessments of cognitive control, working memory, and math ability. The results revealed that children at this age period predominantly employed a pattern of proactive control during an AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT). Moreover, the proactive control index estimated by this task was positively associated with both working memory and math performance. Further regression analysis showed that proactive control accounted for significant additional variance in predicting math performance after controlling for working memory. Most interestingly, mediation analysis showed that proactive control significantly mediated the association between working memory and math performance. This suggests that as working memory increases so does proactive control, which may in turn improve math ability in early childhood. Our findings may have important implications for educational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjie Wang
- Institute of Brain Science and Department of Psychology, School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Baoming Li
- Institute of Brain Science and Department of Psychology, School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuan Yao
- Department of Psychology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou, China
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Bowers ME, Morales S, Buzzell GA, Fox NA. The influence of monetary reward on proactive and reactive control in adolescent males. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2021; 48:100934. [PMID: 33592521 PMCID: PMC7896138 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Reward reduced RT interference during reactive control, but increased RT interference during proactive control in male adolescents. Increased reward-related cue-locked theta power was associated with increased RT interference on proactive trials. Increased reward-related stimulus-locked theta inter-channel phase synchrony was related to facilitated performance on proactive trials.
Adolescence is marked by increased reward-seeking, which can alter cognitive control abilities. Previous research found that rewards actually improve cognitive control in children, adolescents, and adults, but these studies only investigated reactive control. The goal of the current study was to elucidate reward’s influence on both proactive and reactive control during adolescence. To this end, 68 (Mean age = 13.61, SD = 2.52) male adolescents completed a rewarded cued flanker paradigm while electroencephalogram (EEG) was collected. Theta power and inter-channel phase synchrony, both implicated in cognitive control, were quantified after cues and stimuli to understand their role during reward-cognitive control interactions. The data suggest that reward reduced interference during reactive control; however, reward increased interference during proactive control in this sample of adolescent males. Reward-related increases in cue-locked theta power predicted more reward-related RT interference on proactive trials. In contrast, increases in stimulus-locked theta ICPS were associated with better performance on rewarded proactive trials. The pattern of results show that reward differentially impacted proactive and reactive control in adolescence, which may have implications for the increased risk-taking behaviors observed during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen E Bowers
- Neuroscience & Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, College Park, United States; Department of Human Development & Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, United States.
| | - Santiago Morales
- Department of Human Development & Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, United States
| | - George A Buzzell
- Department of Psychology and Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, United States
| | - Nathan A Fox
- Neuroscience & Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, College Park, United States; Department of Human Development & Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, United States
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Singh L, Moh Y, Ding X, Lee K, Quinn PC. Cognitive flexibility and parental education differentially predict implicit and explicit racial biases in bilingual children. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 204:105059. [PMID: 33387897 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.105059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Prior research has suggested that bilingual children demonstrate reduced social bias relative to their monolingual peers. In particular, they exhibit less implicit bias against racial outgroups. However, the cognitive determinants of racial bias in bilingual children remain unclear. In the current study, relationships between racial bias and three cognitive factors (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and perspective-taking ability), along with language proficiency and parental education, were investigated in a sample of bilingual preschoolers (N = 55). Children were bilingual learners of English and Mandarin. Results demonstrated that implicit bias was predicted by cognitive flexibility, independent of variation in inhibitory control, second language vocabulary, perspective taking, and parental education. In contrast, explicit bias was predicted by parental education alone and not by cognitive or linguistic factors. Findings suggest that increased cognitive flexibility, often thought to be an outgrowth of bilingual experience, may also be associated with a reduction in implicit bias. Findings are discussed in terms of specific mechanisms that may link cognitive factors, bilingualism, and racial bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leher Singh
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570, Singapore.
| | - Yvonne Moh
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570, Singapore
| | - Xiaopan Ding
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117570, Singapore
| | - Kang Lee
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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Jin X, Auyeung B, Chevalier N. External rewards and positive stimuli promote different cognitive control engagement strategies in children. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 44:100806. [PMID: 32716851 PMCID: PMC7327410 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In everyday life, children often need to engage control in emotionally or motivationally relevant contexts. This study disentangled and directly compared the respective influences of external rewards and positive stimuli on childhood cognitive control. We expected external rewards to promote proactive cognitive control and positive stimuli to impair proactive control, especially in younger age. EEG data were recorded while children (5-6 years old and 9-10 years old) and adults completed a cued task-switching paradigm in three conditions: positive-stimulus, external-reward and control conditions. Provision of reward resulted in more accurate but slower responses, and more pronounced cue-locked posterior positivity, potentially suggesting general proactive mobilisation of attention (i.e., readiness). Despite no effects on behaviour, the presentation of positive stimuli was unexpectedly associated with a greater cue-locked extended slow-wave when task cues were presented ahead of targets (i.e. proactive-control possible) in younger children, suggesting greater proactive cue preparation. In contrast to our hypothesis, both external rewards and positive stimuli seem to promote different types of proactive approaches in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Jin
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK.
| | - Bonnie Auyeung
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK; Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, 18b Trumpington Road, Cambridge, CB2 8AH, UK
| | - Nicolas Chevalier
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9JZ, UK
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Kubota M, Hadley LV, Schaeffner S, Könen T, Meaney JA, Auyeung B, Morey CC, Karbach J, Chevalier N. Consistent use of proactive control and relation with academic achievement in childhood. Cognition 2020; 203:104329. [PMID: 32526518 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
As children become older, they better maintain task-relevant information in preparation of upcoming cognitive demands. This is referred to as proactive control, which is a key component of cognitive control development. However, it is still uncertain whether children engage in proactive control consistently across different contexts and how proactive control relates to academic abilities. This study used two common tasks-the AX Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT) and the Cued Task-Switching Paradigm (CTS)-to examine whether proactive control engagement in 102 children (age range: 6.91-10.91 years) converges between the two tasks and predicts academic abilities. Proactive control indices modestly correlated between tasks in higher but not lower working-memory children, suggesting that consistency in proactive control engagement across contexts is relatively low during childhood but increases with working memory capacity. Further, working memory (but not verbal speed) predicted proactive control engagement in both tasks. While proactive control as measured by each task predicted math and reading performance, only proactive control measured by CTS additionally predicted reasoning, suggesting that proactive control can be used as a proxy for academic achievements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Kubota
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, EH8 9JZ Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Lauren V Hadley
- Hearing Sciences - Scottish Section, University of Nottingham, Glasgow Royal Infirmary, 10 16 Alexandra Parade, G31 2ER, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| | - Simone Schaeffner
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Campus Landau Fortstraße 7, D-76829 Landau, Pfalz, Germany.
| | - Tanja Könen
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Campus Landau Fortstraße 7, D-76829 Landau, Pfalz, Germany.
| | - Julie-Anne Meaney
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, EH8 9JZ Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Bonnie Auyeung
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, EH8 9JZ Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Candice C Morey
- School of Psychology, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff University, 70 Park Place, CF10 3AT Cardiff, United Kingdom.
| | - Julia Karbach
- Department of Psychology, University of Koblenz-Landau, Campus Landau Fortstraße 7, D-76829 Landau, Pfalz, Germany.
| | - Nicolas Chevalier
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, EH8 9JZ Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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