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Lin HHH, Wang YH, Liu JIWW, Hsieh MC, Huang SJ, Lien E, Huang LW, Lin AYC. Evaluation of spatial and temporal changes in illicit drug use in the Taipei metropolitan area via wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 934:173313. [PMID: 38761952 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Taiwan, identified as pivotal in the Asian drug trafficking chain, has been experiencing a surge in illicit drug-related issues. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as a promising approach for comprehensive evaluation of actual illicit drug usage. This study presents the first WBE investigation of illicit drug consumption in Taiwan based on the analysis of wastewater from four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Taipei metropolitan area. Additionally, it demonstrates a high correlation between the amounts of illicit drugs seized and influent concentrations over an extended period of time. The reliability of solid-phase extraction and analysis via high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was validated for 16 illicit drugs (methamphetamine, ketamine, cocaine, codeine, methadone, morphine, meperidine, fentanyl, sufentanil, para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA), para-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cathinone, methcathinone, mephedrone (MEPH), and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC)). Methamphetamine, ketamine, and 4-MEC were consistently detected in all wastewater samples, underscoring their prevalence in the Taipei metropolitan area. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and ammonia nitrogen (ammonia N) were employed to reduce uncertainty in estimations of population size during back-calculation of illicit drug consumption. The results indicate that methamphetamine was the most consumed drug (175-740 mg day-1 1000 people-1), followed by ketamine (22-280 mg day-1 1000 people-1). In addition, urban-related WWTPs exhibited higher consumption of methamphetamine and ketamine than did the suburban-related WWTP, indicating distinct illicit drug usage patterns between suburban and urban regions. Moreover, an examination of temporal trends in wastewater from the Dihua WWTP revealed a persistent predominance of ketamine and methamphetamine, consistent with statistical data pertaining to seizure quantities and urine test results. The study provides encouraging insight into spatial and temporal variations in illicit drug usage in the Taipei metropolitan area, emphasizing the complementary role of WBE in understanding trends in illicit drug abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hank Hui-Hsiang Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsiang Wang
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Jennifer Ia Wen Wen Liu
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chi Hsieh
- Department of Occupational Safety and Health, China Medical University, Taichung 406040, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Jie Huang
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - En Lien
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Li-Wei Huang
- New Taipei Branch, Administrative Enforcement Agency, Ministry of Justice, New Taipei City 242030, Taiwan
| | - Angela Yu-Chen Lin
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, 71, Chou-Shan Rd., Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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Whitehead HD, Hayes KL, Swartz JA, Lieberman M. Development and validation of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the analysis of 53 benzodiazepines in illicit drug samples. Forensic Chem 2023; 35:100512. [PMID: 37483533 PMCID: PMC10358349 DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
An LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of 53 benzodiazepines, including various designer benzodiazepines, was developed. The developed method was applied to a total of 79 illicit street drug samples collected in Chicago, IL. Of these samples, 68 (84%) had detectable amounts of at least one benzodiazepine. Further, of the 53 benzodiazepines included in the developed method just 14 were measured in samples. Clonazolam, a potent designer benzodiazepine and derivative of clonazepam, was the most frequently measured benzodiazepine in 63% of samples and was measured in the highest concentrations. Other benzodiazepines measured in more than 10% of samples included clonazepam, alprazolam, flualprazolam, and oxazepam. Mixtures of benzodiazepines were frequently measured in samples, with just 24% of samples containing just one benzodiazepine. To determine the response of benzodiazepines on a rapid, point-of-use drug checking tool, all 53 benzodiazepine standards were screened on a lateral flow immunoassay benzodiazepine test strip. Sixty eight percent of standards gave a positive BTS response at a concentration of 20 μg/mL, demonstrating BTS have response to a wide variety of benzodiazepines, including many designer benzodiazepines. A comparison of this data to previous data reported for the same samples demonstrated all samples containing a benzodiazepine also had an opioid present, with fentanyl being present in 94% of benzodiazepine samples. These results highlight high rates of polysubstance drug presence in Chicago, IL illicit drug samples, posing an increased risk of drug overdoses in people who use drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather D. Whitehead
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame. Notre Dame, IN, 46556, United States
| | - Kathleen L. Hayes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame. Notre Dame, IN, 46556, United States
| | - James A. Swartz
- Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinois Chicago. 1040 W. Harrison Street MC (309) Chicago, IL 60607, United States
| | - Marya Lieberman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame. Notre Dame, IN, 46556, United States
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3
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Massano M, Salomone A, Gerace E, Alladio E, Vincenti M, Minella M. Wastewater surveillance of 105 pharmaceutical drugs and metabolites by means of ultra-high-performance liquid-chromatography-tandem high resolution mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1693:463896. [PMID: 36868084 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.463896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Water pollution from pharmaceutical drugs is becoming an environmental issue of increasing concern, making water quality monitoring a crucial priority to safeguard public health. In particular, the presence of antidepressants, benzodiazepines, antiepileptics, and antipsychotics require specific attention as they are known to be harmful to aquatic biota. In this study, a multi-class comprehensive method for the detection of 105 pharmaceutical residues in small (30 mL) water samples was developed according to fit-for-purpose criteria and then applied to provide wide screening of samples obtained from four Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) in northern Italy. The filtered samples (0.22 µm filters) were extracted by SPE, and then eluted. 5 µL of the concentrated samples were analyzed by a UHPLC-QTOF-HRMS method validated for screening purposes. Adequate sensitivity was recorded for all target analytes, with limits of detection below 5 ng/L for 76 out of 105 analytes. A total of 23 out of the 105 targeted pharmaceutical drugs was detected in all samples. Several further compounds were detected over wide concentration intervals, ranging from ng/L to µg/L. In addition, the retrospective analysis of full-scan QTOF-HRMS data was exploited to carry out an untargeted screening of some drugs' metabolites. As a proof of concept, it was investigated the presence of the carbamazepine metabolites, which is among the most frequently detected contaminants of emerging concern in wastewater. Thanks to this approach, 10,11-dihydro-10-hydroxycarbamazepine, 10,11-dihydro-10,11-dihydroxycarbamazepine and carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide were identified, the latter requiring particular attention, since it exhibits antiepileptic properties similar to carbamazepine and potential neurotoxic effects in living organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Massano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Italy; Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, TO, Italy.
| | - Alberto Salomone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Italy; Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, TO, Italy
| | | | - Eugenio Alladio
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Italy; Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, TO, Italy
| | - Marco Vincenti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turin, Italy; Centro Regionale Antidoping, Orbassano, TO, Italy
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4
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Luo J, Bello D, Pagsuyoin S. Long-term wastewater-based surveillance and impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on drug use trends in a U.S. Northeast rural town. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 877:162806. [PMID: 36931526 PMCID: PMC10015086 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Herein we discuss the findings of a two-year wastewater-based drug use surveillance from September 2018 to August 2020 and present objective evidence on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on drug use in a rural community. 24-h composite wastewater samples were collected twice each month from a university town in Northeastern United States and were analyzed for ten priority opioids and stimulants: morphine, codeine, hydrocodone, methadone, fentanyl cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA). All target drugs were detected at 100 % frequency in wastewater samples. On a mass basis, the average estimated per capita drug consumption were highest for cocaine, morphine, and amphetamine, and lowest for MDMA, MDEA, and hydrocodone. Furthermore, the estimated per capita consumption of fentanyl was higher than previous reports from rural and university settings in the U.S. Generally, drug consumption was higher during the spring semesters, with year-on-year semester increases also noted over the 2-y study period. Except for methadone and cocaine, the estimated average per capita consumption of drugs increased over the pandemic period, with the highest increase noted for MDMA (286 % increase compared to baseline, p = 0.016). Estimated average consumption of methadone and cocaine decreased slightly by 6 % and 7 %, respectively. These results demonstrate the utility and strength of wastewater-based approaches in capturing long-term and evolving trends in drug use within communities. Our study findings reflect the regionwide problem with opioid-related overdoses and increasing stimulant prescription rates. Our findings also provide objective data and insights for health policymakers on the effects of the pandemic period on community drug use in a rural U.S. town.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayue Luo
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering and Geography Science, Ningbo University, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Dhimiter Bello
- Department of Biomedical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA 01854, USA
| | - Sheree Pagsuyoin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA 01854, USA.
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5
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Henriques TB, Cassini ST, de Pinho Keller R. Contribution of wastewater-based epidemiology to SARS-CoV-2 screening in Brazil and the United States. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2023; 21:343-353. [PMID: 37338314 PMCID: wh_2023_260 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2023.260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a valuable tool for investigating the existence, prevalence, and spread of pathogens, such as SARS-CoV-2, in a given population. WBE, proposed as part of the SARS-CoV-2 surveillance strategy for monitoring virus circulation, may complement clinical data and contribute to reducing the spread of the disease through early detection. In developing countries such as Brazil, where clinical data are scarce, information obtained from wastewater monitoring can be crucial for designing public health interventions. In the United States, the country with the largest number of confirmed SARS-CoV-2 cases worldwide, WBE programs have begun to be carried out to investigate correlations with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) clinical data and support health agencies in decision-making to prevent the spread of the disease. This systematic review aimed to assess the contribution of WBE to SARS-CoV-2 screening in Brazil and the United States and compare studies conducted in a developed and developing country. Studies in Brazil and the United States showed WBE to be an important epidemiological surveillance strategy in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. WBE approaches are useful for early detection of COVID-19 outbreaks, estimation of clinical cases, and assessment of the effectiveness of vaccination program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taciane Barbosa Henriques
- Sanitation Laboratory, Department of Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espirito Santo, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Servio Túlio Cassini
- Sanitation Laboratory, Department of Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espirito Santo, Brazil E-mail:
| | - Regina de Pinho Keller
- Sanitation Laboratory, Department of Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, Espirito Santo, Brazil E-mail:
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6
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Adhikari S, Kumar R, Driver EM, Bowes DA, Ng KT, Sosa-Hernandez JE, Oyervides-Muñoz MA, Melchor-Martínez EM, Martínez-Ruiz M, Coronado-Apodaca KG, Smith T, Bhatnagar A, Piper BJ, McCall KL, Parra-Saldivar R, Barron LP, Halden RU. Occurrence of Z-drugs, benzodiazepines, and ketamine in wastewater in the United States and Mexico during the Covid-19 pandemic. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159351. [PMID: 36243065 PMCID: PMC9595400 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Z-drugs, benzodiazepines and ketamine are classes of psychotropic drugs prescribed for treating anxiety, sleep disorders and depression with known side effects including an elevated risk of addiction and substance misuse. These drugs have a strong potential for misuse, which has escalated over the years and was hypothesized here to have been exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) constitutes a fast, easy, and relatively inexpensive approach to epidemiological surveys for understanding the incidence and frequency of uses of these drugs. In this study, we analyzed wastewater (n = 376) from 50 cities across the United States and Mexico from July to October 2020 to estimate drug use rates during a pandemic event. Both time and flow proportional composite and grab samples of untreated municipal wastewater were analyzed using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to determine loadings of alprazolam, clonazepam, diazepam, ketamine, lorazepam, nordiazepam, temazepam, zolpidem, and zaleplon in raw wastewater. Simultaneously, prescription data of the aforementioned drugs were extracted from the Medicaid database from 2019 to 2021. Results showed high detection frequencies of ketamine (90 %), lorazepam (87 %), clonazepam (76 %) and temazepam (73 %) across both Mexico and United States and comparatively lower detection frequencies for zaleplon (22 %), zolpidem (9 %), nordiazepam (<1 %), diazepam (<1 %), and alprazolam (<1 %) during the pandemic. Average mass consumption rates, estimated using WBE and reported in units of mg/day/1000 persons, ranged between 62 (temazepam) and 1100 (clonazepam) in the United States. Results obtained from the Medicaid database also showed a significant change (p < 0.05) in the prescription volume between the first quarter of 2019 (before the pandemic) and the first quarter of 2021 (pandemic event) for alprazolam, clonazepam and lorazepam. Study results include the first detections of zaleplon and zolpidem in wastewater from North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeet Adhikari
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA; Biodesign Center for the Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA
| | - Rahul Kumar
- Biodesign Center for the Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA
| | - Erin M Driver
- Biodesign Center for the Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA
| | - Devin A Bowes
- Biodesign Center for the Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA
| | - Keng Tiong Ng
- Environmental Research Group, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernandez
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Mariel Araceli Oyervides-Muñoz
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; MARTEC, Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Elda M Melchor-Martínez
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; MARTEC, Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Manuel Martínez-Ruiz
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; MARTEC, Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Karina G Coronado-Apodaca
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; MARTEC, Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Ted Smith
- Christina Lee Brown Envirome Institute, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Aruni Bhatnagar
- Christina Lee Brown Envirome Institute, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Brian J Piper
- Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, PA 18509, USA; Center for Pharmacy Innovation and Outcomes, Forty Fort, PA 18704, USA
| | | | - Roberto Parra-Saldivar
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Monterrey 64849, Mexico; MARTEC, Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Leon P Barron
- Environmental Research Group, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rolf U Halden
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA; Biodesign Center for the Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe 85281, AZ, USA; OneWaterOneHealth, Nonprofit Project of the Arizona State University Foundation, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Global Futures Laboratory, Arizona State University, 800 S. Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA.
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7
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Hsu SY, Bayati M, Li C, Hsieh HY, Belenchia A, Klutts J, Zemmer SA, Reynolds M, Semkiw E, Johnson HY, Foley T, Wieberg CG, Wenzel J, Johnson MC, Lin CH. Biomarkers selection for population normalization in SARS-CoV-2 wastewater-based epidemiology. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 223:118985. [PMID: 36030667 PMCID: PMC9376872 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been one of the most cost-effective approaches to track the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) levels in the communities since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in 2020. Normalizing SARS-CoV-2 concentrations by the population biomarkers in wastewater is critical for interpreting the viral loads, comparing the epidemiological trends among the sewersheds, and identifying the vulnerable communities. In this study, five population biomarkers, pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), creatinine (CRE), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), caffeine (CAF) and its metabolite paraxanthine (PARA) were investigated and validated for their utility in normalizing the SARS-CoV-2 loads through two normalizing approaches using the data from 64 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Missouri. Their utility in assessing the real-time population contributing to the wastewater was also evaluated. The best performing candidate was further tested for its capacity for improving correlation between normalized SARS-CoV-2 loads and the clinical cases reported in the City of Columbia, Missouri, a university town with a constantly fluctuating population. Our results showed that, except CRE, the direct and indirect normalization approaches using biomarkers allow accounting for the changes in wastewater dilution and differences in relative human waste input over time regardless flow volume and population of the given WWTP. Among selected biomarkers, PARA is the most reliable population biomarker in determining the SARS-CoV-2 load per capita due to its high accuracy, low variability, and high temporal consistency to reflect the change in population dynamics and dilution in wastewater. It also demonstrated its excellent utility for real-time assessment of the population contributing to the wastewater. In addition, the viral loads normalized by the PARA-estimated population significantly improved the correlation (rho=0.5878, p < 0.05) between SARS-CoV-2 load per capita and case numbers per capita. This chemical biomarker complements the current normalization scheme recommended by CDC and helps us understand the size, distribution, and dynamics of local populations for forecasting the prevalence of SARS-CoV2 within each sewershed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Yu Hsu
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA; Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Mohamed Bayati
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Chenhui Li
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Hsin-Yeh Hsieh
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Anthony Belenchia
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Jessica Klutts
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Sally A Zemmer
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Melissa Reynolds
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Elizabeth Semkiw
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Hwei-Yiing Johnson
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Trevor Foley
- Missouri Department of Corrections, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Chris G Wieberg
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Jeff Wenzel
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Marc C Johnson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, School of Medicine and the Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Chung-Ho Lin
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA; Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA.
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8
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Hsu SY, Bayati MB, Li C, Hsieh HY, Belenchia A, Klutts J, Zemmer SA, Reynolds M, Semkiw E, Johnson HY, Foley T, Wieberg CG, Wenzel J, Johnson MC, Lin CH. Biomarkers Selection for Population Normalization in SARS-CoV-2 Wastewater-based Epidemiology. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2022:2022.03.14.22272359. [PMID: 35313587 PMCID: PMC8936110 DOI: 10.1101/2022.03.14.22272359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been one of the most cost-effective approaches to track the SARS-CoV-2 levels in the communities since the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020. Normalizing SARS-CoV-2 concentrations by the population biomarkers in wastewater can be critical for interpreting the viral loads, comparing the epidemiological trends among the sewersheds, and identifying the vulnerable communities. In this study, five population biomarkers, pepper mild mottle virus (pMMoV), creatinine (CRE), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), caffeine (CAF) and its metabolite paraxanthine (PARA) were investigated for their utility in normalizing the SARS-CoV-2 loads through developed direct and indirect approaches. Their utility in assessing the real-time population contributing to the wastewater was also evaluated. The best performed candidate was further tested for its capacity for improving correlation between normalized SARS-CoV-2 loads and the clinical cases reported in the City of Columbia, Missouri, a university town with a constantly fluctuated population. Our results showed that, except CRE, the direct and indirect normalization approaches using biomarkers allow accounting for the changes in wastewater dilution and differences in relative human waste input over time regardless flow volume and population at any given WWTP. Among selected biomarkers, PARA is the most reliable population biomarker in determining the SARS-CoV-2 load per capita due to its high accuracy, low variability, and high temporal consistency to reflect the change in population dynamics and dilution in wastewater. It also demonstrated its excellent utility for real-time assessment of the population contributing to the wastewater. In addition, the viral loads normalized by the PARA-estimated population significantly improved the correlation ( rho =0.5878, p <0.05) between SARS-CoV-2 load per capita and case numbers per capita. This chemical biomarker offers an excellent alternative to the currently CDC-recommended pMMoV genetic biomarker to help us understand the size, distribution, and dynamics of local populations for forecasting the prevalence of SARS-CoV2 within each sewershed. HIGHLIGHT bullet points The paraxanthine (PARA), the metabolite of the caffeine, is a more reliable population biomarker in SARS-CoV-2 wastewater-based epidemiology studies than the currently recommended pMMoV genetic marker.SARS-CoV-2 load per capita could be directly normalized using the regression functions derived from correlation between paraxanthine and population without flowrate and population data.Normalizing SARS-CoV-2 levels with the chemical marker PARA significantly improved the correlation between viral loads per capita and case numbers per capita.The chemical marker PARA demonstrated its excellent utility for real-time assessment of the population contributing to the wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Yu Hsu
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Mohamed B Bayati
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Chenhui Li
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Hsin-Yeh Hsieh
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Anthony Belenchia
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Jessica Klutts
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Sally A Zemmer
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Melissa Reynolds
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Elizabeth Semkiw
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Hwei-Yiing Johnson
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Trevor Foley
- Missouri Department of Corrections, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Chris G Wieberg
- Water Protection Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Jeff Wenzel
- Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Division of Community and Public Health, Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, Jefferson City, MO, USA
| | - Marc C Johnson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri, School of Medicine and the Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
| | - Chung-Ho Lin
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
- Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65201, USA
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Huizer M, Ter Laak TL, de Voogt P, van Wezel AP. Wastewater-based epidemiology for illicit drugs: A critical review on global data. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 207:117789. [PMID: 34731667 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use is complex, hidden and often highly stigmatized behaviour, which brings a vast challenge for drug surveillance systems. Drug consumption can be estimated by measuring human excretion products in untreated wastewater, known as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Over the last decade, the application of wastewater-based epidemiology to monitor illicit drug loads increased and WBE is currently applied on a global scale. Studies from over the globe are evaluated with regard to their sampling method, analytical accuracy and consumption calculation, aiming to further reduce relevant uncertainties in order to make reliable comparisons on a global level. Only a limited number is identified as high-quality studies, so further standardization of the WBE approach for illicit drugs is desired especially with regard to the sampling methodology. Only a fraction of the reviewed papers explicitly reports uncertainty ranges for their consumption data. Studies which had the highest reliability are recently published, indicating an improvement in reporting WBE data. Until now, WBE has not been used in large parts of Africa, nor in the Middle East and Russia. An overview of consumption data across the continents on commonly studied drugs (cocaine, MDMA, amphetamine and methamphetamine) is provided. Overall, high consumption rates are confirmed in the US, especially for cocaine and methamphetamine, while relatively low illicit drug consumption is reported in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit Huizer
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Thomas L Ter Laak
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; KWR, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Pim de Voogt
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; KWR, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarie P van Wezel
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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10
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Boogaerts T, Ahmed F, Choi PM, Tscharke B, O'Brien J, De Loof H, Gao J, Thai P, Thomas K, Mueller JF, Hall W, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Current and future perspectives for wastewater-based epidemiology as a monitoring tool for pharmaceutical use. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 789:148047. [PMID: 34323839 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The medical and societal consequences of the misuse of pharmaceuticals clearly justify the need for comprehensive drug utilization research (DUR). Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) employs the analysis of human metabolic excretion products in wastewater to monitor consumption patterns of xenobiotics at the population level. Recently, WBE has demonstrated its potential to evaluate lifestyle factors such as illicit drug, alcohol and tobacco consumption at the population level, in near real-time and with high spatial and temporal resolution. Up until now there have been fewer WBE studies investigating health biomarkers such as pharmaceuticals. WBE publications monitoring the consumption of pharmaceuticals were systematically reviewed from three databases (PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar). 64 publications that reported population-normalised mass loads or defined daily doses of pharmaceuticals were selected. We document that WBE could be employed as a complementary information source for DUR. Interest in using WBE approaches for monitoring pharmaceutical use is growing but more foundation research (e.g. compound-specific uncertainties) is required to link WBE data to routine pharmacoepidemiologic information sources and workflows. WBE offers the possibility of i) estimating consumption of pharmaceuticals through the analysis of human metabolic excretion products in wastewater; ii) monitoring spatial and temporal consumption patterns of pharmaceuticals continuously and in near real-time; and iii) triangulating data with other DUR information sources to assess the impacts of strategies or interventions to reduce inappropriate use of pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Belgium, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Fahad Ahmed
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Phil M Choi
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; Water Unit, Health Protection Branch, Prevention Division, Queensland Health, GPO Box 48, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Benjamin Tscharke
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jake O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Hans De Loof
- Laboratory of Physiopharmacology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jianfa Gao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 1066 Xueyuan Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Phong Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall St, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; Centre for Youth Substance Abuse, University of Queensland, 17 Upland Road, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Belgium, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Belgium, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.
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11
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Boogaerts T, Jurgelaitiene L, Dumitrascu C, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Kannan A, Been F, Emke E, de Voogt P, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Application of wastewater-based epidemiology to investigate stimulant drug, alcohol and tobacco use in Lithuanian communities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 777:145914. [PMID: 33677284 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
WBE was applied to evaluate illicit drug (i.e. amphetamine, cocaine, MDMA and methamphetamine), alcohol and tobacco use in three Lithuanian cities in 2018 and 2019. Considerable concentrations of methamphetamine and MDMA were found in the three locations, suggesting a specific Lithuanian consumption pattern. Yet, unexpected high concentrations of amphetamine (>4 μg/L) were detected in two samples of Kaunas in 2018. Through the use of chiral analysis and non-target and suspect drug precursor compound screening, these extreme values were confirmed to be the result of direct disposal of amphetamine in the sewers. Furthermore, substantial alcohol use was measured in the three investigated catchment populations of Lithuania with almost 4 standard drinks/day/inhabitant aged 15+ on average in 2019. For tobacco, an average of 5.6 cigarettes/day/inhabitant aged 15+ in 2019 was reported with large discrepancies between WBE figures and sales data, potentially highlighting illegal trade of tobacco products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Catalina Dumitrascu
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern
- Environmental Chemistry and Public Health research group, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Kannan
- Environmental Chemistry and Public Health research group, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Frederic Been
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Erik Emke
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Pim de Voogt
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands; Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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12
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Bijlsma L, Picó Y, Andreu V, Celma A, Estévez-Danta A, González-Mariño I, Hernández F, López de Alda M, López-García E, Marcé RM, Miró M, Montes R, Pérez de San Román-Landa U, Pitarch E, Pocurull E, Postigo C, Prieto A, Rico A, Rodil R, Valcárcel Y, Ventura M, Quintana JB. The embodiment of wastewater data for the estimation of illicit drug consumption in Spain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 772:144794. [PMID: 33770873 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Data obtained from wastewater analysis can provide rapid and complementary insights in illicit drug consumption at community level. Within Europe, Spain is an important country of transit of both cocaine and cannabis. The quantity of seized drugs and prevalence of their use rank Spain at the top of Europe. Hence, the implementation of a wastewater monitoring program at national level would help to get better understanding of spatial differences and trends in use of illicit drugs. In this study, a national wastewater campaign was performed for the first time to get more insight on the consumption of illicit drugs within Spain. The 13 Spanish cities monitored cover approximately 6 million inhabitants (12.8% of the Spanish population). Untreated wastewater samples were analyzed for urinary biomarkers of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, cocaine, and cannabis. In addition, weekend samples were monitored for 17 new psychoactive substances. Cannabis and cocaine are the most consumed drugs in Spain, but geographical variations showed, for instance, comparatively higher levels of methamphetamine in Barcelona and amphetamine in Bilbao, with about 1-fold higher consumption of these two substances in such metropolitan areas. For amphetamine, an enantiomeric profiling was performed in order to assure the results were due to consumption and not to illegal dumping of production residues. Furthermore, different correction factors for the excretion of cannabis were used to compare consumption estimations. All wastewater results were compared with previously reported data, national seizure data and general population survey data, were a reasonable agreement was found. Daily and yearly drug consumption were extrapolated to the entire Spanish population with due precautions because of the uncertainty associated. These data was further used to estimate the retail drug market, where for instance cocaine illicit consumption alone was calculated to contribute to 0.2-0.5% of the Spanish gross domestic product (ca. 3000-6000 million Euro/year).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubertus Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain.
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE) joint Research Centre Universitat de Valencia-CSIC-Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
| | - Vicente Andreu
- Food and Environmental Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV), Desertification Research Centre (CIDE) joint Research Centre Universitat de Valencia-CSIC-Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Celma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Andrea Estévez-Danta
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Félix Hernández
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Miren López de Alda
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ester López-García
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa María Marcé
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Manuel Miró
- FI-TRACE Group, Department of Chemistry, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
| | - Rosa Montes
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | - Elena Pitarch
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Eva Pocurull
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic Chemistry, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Cristina Postigo
- Water, Environmental and Food Chemistry Unit (ENFOCHEM), Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ailette Prieto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Andreu Rico
- IMDEA Water Institute, Science and Technology Campus of the University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Rosario Rodil
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Yolanda Valcárcel
- Grupo de Evaluación de Riesgos en Salud y Medio Ambiente (RiSaMA), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute of Research in Chemical and Biological Analysis (IAQBUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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Cong ZX, Shao XT, Liu SY, Pei W, Wang DG. Wastewater analysis reveals urban, suburban, and rural spatial patterns of illicit drug use in Dalian, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:25503-25513. [PMID: 33459987 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-12371-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use in rural and suburban areas of China has not been studied extensively, as most studies have focused on illicit drug use in urban areas. To compare the differences between urban, suburban, and rural drug use, we collected influent samples from 19 urban, 9 suburban, and 18 rural wastewater treatment plants in Dalian, respectively. A method using solid-phase extraction combined with derivatization for gas chromatography -mass spectrometry analysis was applied to detect biomarker concentrations. The concentrations of methamphetamine and morphine ranged from 3.12 to 605 ng/L and < 2.35 to 198 ng/L, respectively. Norketamine was found in only four samples (5.56 to 14.5 ng/L), while 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and benzoylecgonine were not detected in any samples. Methamphetamine use in rural areas (16.3 mg/day/1000 inhabitant (inh), prevalence: 0.06%) was significantly lower than those in urban (77.1 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.23%) and suburban (234 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.70%) areas. Heroin use in suburban areas (57.6 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.10%) was significantly higher than that in urban (13.9 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.02%) and rural (8.68 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.02%) areas. The results indicate relatively low levels of illicit drug use in rural areas of Dalian, related to low incomes and outflow of the working-age population. Illicit drug use was most prevalent in suburban areas of Dalian, which may be influenced by large floating populations and few anti-drug efforts in suburban areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Xiang Cong
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Wei Pei
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China.
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14
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Saawarn B, Hait S. Occurrence, fate and removal of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater: Current knowledge and future perspectives. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2021; 9:104870. [PMID: 33282675 PMCID: PMC7706426 DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.104870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a pandemic of global concern, is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Recently, many studies have documented the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in human excreta and wastewater. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 in human excreta and wastewater poses serious implications for wastewater treatment. Thus, this review aims to understand the fate of SARS-CoV-2 in the urban water cycle and its inactivation in different stages of treatment in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for effective control to prevent any recurrence of the outbreak. The viral load of SARS-CoV-2 in feces of individuals tested positive has been reported to be in the range of 104-108 copies/L depending on the infection stages. In the wastewater, dilution of feces results in the decrease of the viral load in the range of 102-106.5 copies/L. Monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in WWTP samples following the wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can complement real epidemiological data from clinical testing to help to monitor disease outbreaks in a community. Though promising, high uncertainty involved with the WBE technique warrants further research for reliable and quantitative information. Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 in WWTPs depends on the operational parameters and is generally enhanced by the tertiary treatment and disinfection techniques with a higher dosage. However, the risk of SARS-CoV-2 dissemination by the treated effluent intended to be disposed of or reused in the urban water cycle needs to be assessed with respect to the extent of viral infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavini Saawarn
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar 801 106, India
| | - Subrata Hait
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar 801 106, India
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15
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Bishop N, Jones-Lepp T, Margetts M, Sykes J, Alvarez D, Keil DE. Wastewater-based epidemiology pilot study to examine drug use in the Western United States. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 745:140697. [PMID: 32758738 PMCID: PMC7361084 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The extent of prescription and illicit drug abuse in geographically isolated rural and micropolitan communities in the intermountain western United States (US) has not been well tracked. The goal of this pilot study was to accurately measure drug dose consumption rates (DCR) between two select populations, normalize the data and compare the DCRs to similar communities. To learn about patterns of drug abuse between the two disparate communities, we used the emergent field of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). A rapid, quantitative and systematic process for the determination of multiple classes of prescribed and illicit drugs was applied to influent wastewater samples. Influent samples were collected over the course of three months (April to June 2019) at two wastewater treatment plants representing a small urban and a rural community. Collection of sewage influent included 24-h composite samples and the use of polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS), time-weighted samplers. Using the results from the composite sampling data, DCRs per 1000 population could be calculated from the concentration data and the use of excretion correction factors. The following 18 compounds: amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA, MDMA, morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, methadone, EDDP, codeine, benzoylecgonine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, noroxycodone, ketamine, fluoxetine, tramadol, and ritalinic acid; represent a subset of the targeted analytes that were consistently measured at detectable concentration levels, and present at both sites. Following normalization of the drug measurements to influent flow rates and per capita, the small urban community demonstrated greater collective excretion rates (CER) than the rural community, with the exceptions of amphetamine and methamphetamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Bishop
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | | | - Miranda Margetts
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Jordan Sykes
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - David Alvarez
- Columbia Environmental Research Center, United States Geological Survey, Columbia, MO, USA
| | - Deborah E Keil
- Montana State University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Bozeman, MT, USA
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16
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Comparing ecstasy users and non-users in a population-based and co-twin control design across multiple traits. Addict Behav 2020; 108:106421. [PMID: 32497976 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ecstasy is one of the most commonly used illicit substances in Western countries. The aim of this study is to identify characteristics of ecstasy users in a large population-based sample of adults aged 18-45 years. METHOD With generalized estimating equation models we explored the association between self-reported lifetime ecstasy use and urbanicity, educational attainment, health, wellbeing, stress, other substance use, personality traits and psychopathology in a Dutch twin sample (N = 9578, 66.8% female, 18-45 years). We also explored the nature of the association (underlying genetic factors, shared environmental factors or a causal relationship) with the co-twin control method. RESULTS Lifetime ecstasy users (N = 945, 9.9%) were more often male, younger, living more often in urban areas, higher educated, less satisfied with life and more stressed than non-users. Ecstasy users scored differently on most personality and psychopathology scales compared to non-users and were more likely to have used every other substance we investigated. Whereas smoking tobacco and alcohol use often preceded first use of ecstasy, first ecstasy use often preceded first use of other illicit substances. A combination of scenarios (both causal and environmental/genetic) explained the strong associations between ecstasy and substance use. CONCLUSIONS Ecstasy users differ on many characteristics from non-users, and especially on illicit substance use. Our results indicate that causal effects may play a role in explaining the relationship between ecstasy use and other illicit substance use.
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17
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Shao XT, Liu YS, Tan DQ, Wang Z, Zheng XY, Wang DG. Methamphetamine use in typical Chinese cities evaluated by wastewater-based epidemiology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:8157-8165. [PMID: 31900768 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-07504-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine has become one of the most widely used illicit drugs in China. To understand the current situation in China, the prevalence and consumption of methamphetamine were estimated through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) in the present study. Methamphetamine concentrations ranged from 42.6 ng/L (Harbin) to 700 ng/L (Xi'an) in influent wastewater samples collected from 27 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 22 Chinese cities. The estimated consumption of methamphetamine was 23.0 (Dingxi) to 376 (Xi'an) mg/day/1000 inhabitants with a mean value of 157 mg/day/1000 inhabitants. The annual consumption in 2018 was estimated to be 84 tons (95% confidence interval, 44-136), which was 26% lower than that in 2014. The prevalence of methamphetamine use was 0.64% (95% confidence interval, 0.18-1.25), indicating that more than five million people used methamphetamine in 2018. Although drug abuse is common in the country, the consumption showed a different spatial pattern, with the highest values in Central China and the lowest use in Northeast China, so drug use is still considered a geographic and culture-dependent behaviour. The results indicated that WBE can not only be used to assess the trends of illicit drug use, but also to analyse the spatial differences in the whole country, which will provide complementary evidence for the prevention and control of methamphetamine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Yue-Shan Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Zhuang Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, No. 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Xiao-Yu Zheng
- Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China.
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18
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Tian Z, Peter KT, Gipe AD, Zhao H, Hou F, Wark DA, Khangaonkar T, Kolodziej EP, James CA. Suspect and Nontarget Screening for Contaminants of Emerging Concern in an Urban Estuary. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:889-901. [PMID: 31887037 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study used suspect and nontarget screening with high-resolution mass spectrometry to characterize the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in the nearshore marine environment of Puget Sound (WA). In total, 87 non-polymeric CECs were identified; those confirmed with reference standards (45) included pharmaceuticals, herbicides, vehicle-related compounds, plasticizers, and flame retardants. Eight polyfluoroalkyl substances were detected; perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) concentrations were as high as 72-140 ng/L at one location. Low levels of methamphetamine were detected in 41% of the samples. Transformation products of pesticides were tentatively identified, including two novel transformation products of tebuthiuron. While a hydrodynamic simulation, analytical results, and dilution calculations demonstrated the prevalence of wastewater effluent to nearshore marine environments, the identity and abundance of selected CECs revealed the additional contributions from stormwater and localized urban and industrial sources. For the confirmed CECs, risk quotients were calculated based on concentrations and predicted toxicities, and eight CECs had risk quotients >1. Dilution in the marine estuarine environment lowered the risks of most wastewater-derived CECs, but dilution alone is insufficient to mitigate risks of localized inputs. These findings highlighted the necessity of suspect and nontarget screening and revealed the importance of localized contamination sources in urban marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyu Tian
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
| | - Katherine T Peter
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
| | - Alex D Gipe
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
| | - Haoqi Zhao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
| | - Fan Hou
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
| | - David A Wark
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
| | - Tarang Khangaonkar
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratories , 1100 Dexter Avenue N , Seattle , Washington 98011 , United States
| | - Edward P Kolodziej
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
| | - C Andrew James
- Center for Urban Waters , 326 East D Street , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
- Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences , University of Washington Tacoma , Tacoma , Washington 98421 , United States
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19
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Fallati L, Castiglioni S, Galli P, Riva F, Gracia-Lor E, González-Mariño I, Rousis NI, Shifah M, Messa MC, Strepparava MG, Vai M, Zuccato E. Use of legal and illegal substances in Malé (Republic of Maldives) assessed by wastewater analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 698:134207. [PMID: 31499350 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This study used wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) to investigate the lifestyle of the inhabitants of Malé, the capital of the Republic of Maldives. Raw wastewater 12-h composite samples were collected from nine pumping stations serving the city area - thus representative of the whole Malé population. Samples were analysed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry for estimating the profile of use of a large number of substances including illicit drugs, alcohol, caffeine, tobacco and pharmaceuticals. The illicit drugs most used were cannabis (THC) and heroin (700 and 18 g/day), with lower consumption of cocaine and amphetamines (0.1-1.2 g/day). It is important to note that the consumption of cannabis in Malé was comparable to that measured in other countries, while the consumption of heroin was higher. Among cathinones, mephedrone was detected at the highest levels similar to other countries. Consumption of alcohol, which is not allowed in Maldives, was found (1.3 L/day/1000 inhabitants), but at a low level compared with other countries (6-44 L/day/1000 inhabitants), while the consumption of caffeine and tobacco was generally in line with reports from other countries. Unique information on pharmaceuticals use was also provided, since no official data were available. Human lifestyle was evaluated by applying for the first time the full set of WBE methodologies available in our laboratory. Results provided valuable epidemiological information, which may be useful for national and international agencies to understand population lifestyles better, including illicit drug issues, and for planning and evaluation of drug prevention programs in Malé.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Fallati
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan - Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milan, Italy; MaRHE Center (Marine Research and High Education Center), Magoodhoo Island, Faafu Atoll, Maldives
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - Paolo Galli
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan - Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milan, Italy; MaRHE Center (Marine Research and High Education Center), Magoodhoo Island, Faafu Atoll, Maldives
| | - Francesco Riva
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Avenida Complutense s/n, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Iria González-Mariño
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute for Food Analysis and Research, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nikolaos I Rousis
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Mohamed Shifah
- MaRHE Center (Marine Research and High Education Center), Magoodhoo Island, Faafu Atoll, Maldives
| | - Maria Cristina Messa
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, via Cadore 48, 20052 Monza, MB, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Strepparava
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, via Cadore 48, 20052 Monza, MB, Italy
| | - Marina Vai
- Department of Biotechnologies and Biosciences, University of Milan-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
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20
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Yadav MK, Short MD, Gerber C, van den Akker B, Aryal R, Saint CP. Occurrence, removal and environmental risk of markers of five drugs of abuse in urban wastewater systems in South Australia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:33816-33826. [PMID: 29948683 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2464-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and fate of five drugs of abuse in raw influent and treated effluent wastewater were investigated over a period of 1 year in the Adelaide region of South Australia. Four wastewater treatment plants were chosen for this study and monitored for five drugs which included cocaine in the form of its metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE), methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and two opioids (codeine and morphine) during the period April 2016 to February 2017. Alongside concentrations in raw sewage, the levels of drugs in the treated effluent were assessed and removal efficiencies were calculated. Drug concentrations were measured by mixed-mode solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole mass spectrometer. Drug concentrations detected in the raw wastewater ranged from 7 to 6510 ng/L and < LOD to 4264 ng/L in treated effluent samples. Drug removal rates varied seasonally and spatially. The mass loads of drugs discharged into the environment were in descending order: codeine > methamphetamine > morphine > MDMA > BE. Results showed that all the targeted drugs were on average incompletely removed by wastewater treatment, with removal performance highest for morphine (94%) and lowest for MDMA (58%). A screening-level environmental risk assessment was subsequently performed for the drugs based on effluent wastewater concentrations. Based on calculated risk quotients, overall environmental risk for these compounds appears low, with codeine and methamphetamine likely to pose the greatest potential risk to receiving environments. Given the recognised limitations of current ecotoxicological models and risk assessment methods for these and other pharmaceutical drugs, the potential for environmental impacts associated with the continuous discharge of these compounds in wastewater effluents should not be overlooked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meena K Yadav
- Natural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Michael D Short
- Natural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Cobus Gerber
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, City East Campus, North Terrace, Playford Building, Level 4, Room 47, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | - Ben van den Akker
- Natural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
- Australian Water Quality Centre, SA Water, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide SA 5000; GPO Box 1751, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Rupak Aryal
- Natural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia
| | - Christopher P Saint
- Natural and Built Environments Research Centre, School of Natural and Built Environments, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia.
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia.
- Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the Environment, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia.
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21
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Salgueiro-González N, Castiglioni S, Gracia-Lor E, Bijlsma L, Celma A, Bagnati R, Hernández F, Zuccato E. Flexible high resolution-mass spectrometry approach for screening new psychoactive substances in urban wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 689:679-690. [PMID: 31279214 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) on the recreational drug market has increased rapidly in the last years, creating serious challenges for public health agencies and law enforcement authorities. Epidemiological surveys and forensic analyses to monitor the consumption of these substances face some limitations for investigating their use on a large scale in a shifting market. The aim of this work was to develop a comprehensive and flexible screening approach for assessing the presence of NPS in urban wastewater by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Almost 200 substances were selected as "priority NPS" among those most frequently and recently reported by the Early Warning Systems (EWS) of different agencies and were included in the screening. Wastewater samples were collected from several cities all over Europe in 2016 and 2017, extracted using different solid-phase cartridges and analysed by LC-HRMS. The screening workflow comprised three successive analytical steps and compounds were identified and confirmed following specific criteria from the current guidelines. Thirteen NPS were identified at different confidence levels by using analytical standards or information from libraries and literature, and about half of them were phenethylamines. As far as we know, this is the first time that four of them (i.e. 3,4-dimethoxy-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, para-methoxyamphetamine, 2-phenethylamine and α-methyltryptamine) have been found in urban wastewater. The proposed screening approach was successfully applied in the largest NPS European wastewater monitoring, providing an innovative and easily adapted procedure for investigating NPS. In the light of current challenges and specific future research issues, this approach may complement epidemiological information and help in establishing measures for public health protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Salgueiro-González
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Giuseppe La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy; Grupo Química Analítica Aplicada (QANAP), Instituto Universitario de Medio Ambiente (IUMA), Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), Departamento de Química, Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade da Coruña, Campus de A Coruña, E-15071 A Coruña, Spain.
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Giuseppe La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Giuseppe La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Avenida Complutense s/n, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat, s/n., E-12071 Castellon, Spain
| | - Alberto Celma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat, s/n., E-12071 Castellon, Spain
| | - Renzo Bagnati
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Giuseppe La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Félix Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Avda Sos Baynat, s/n., E-12071 Castellon, Spain
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri - IRCCS, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via Giuseppe La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
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22
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Gushgari AJ, Venkatesan AK, Chen J, Steele JC, Halden RU. Long-term tracking of opioid consumption in two United States cities using wastewater-based epidemiology approach. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:171-180. [PMID: 31195333 PMCID: PMC6613989 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Access to near-real time opioid use data is essential to the effective management of the U.S. opioid crisis. Current narcotic data collection methods are limited by time delay and would be complimented by a rapid data acquisition technique. Use of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) analysis may offer access to near real-time data on opioid consumption but application in the United States has been limited. From 2015 to 2017, monthly 24-h time-weighted composite samples of municipal raw wastewater from two Midwestern U.S. cities were routinely analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for morphine, codeine, oxycodone, heroin, fentanyl, and select opioid metabolites. Concentrations of opioids (ng/L) in raw wastewater from City 1 and 2, respectively, were: morphine (713 ± 38; 306 ± 29; detection frequency (DF): 100%), oxycodone (17.8 ± 1.1; 78 ± 6; DF: 100%), codeine (332 ± 37; 100 ± 27; DF: 93%), heroin (41 ± 16; 9 ± 11; DF: 81%), and fentanyl (1.7 ± 0.2; 1.0 ± 0.5; DF: 62%). Average opioid consumption rates estimated using WBE ranged between 9 and 2590 mg/day/1000 persons. Anticipated overdoses and overdose-deaths calculated from analyte concentrations in wastewater forecasted 200 opioid-related overdoses/year and 39 opioid related overdose-deaths/year across the two cities during the year 2016, which aligned well with observed coroner-reported opioid deaths. This long-term U.S. screening study of opioids in wastewater was the first to utilize wastewater epidemiological data to estimate the number of expected overdose and overdose-deaths, and to identify detectable levels of the powerful synthetic opioid fentanyl in community wastewater consistently over the course of one whole year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Gushgari
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, The Biodesign Institute, and School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85287-8101, USA
| | - Arjun K Venkatesan
- Center for Clean Water Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Jing Chen
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, The Biodesign Institute, and School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85287-8101, USA
| | - Joshua C Steele
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, The Biodesign Institute, and School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85287-8101, USA
| | - Rolf U Halden
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, The Biodesign Institute, and School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, 1001 S. McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ, 85287-8101, USA.
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23
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Burgard DA, Williams J, Westerman D, Rushing R, Carpenter R, LaRock A, Sadetsky J, Clarke J, Fryhle H, Pellman M, Banta-Green CJ. Using wastewater-based analysis to monitor the effects of legalized retail sales on cannabis consumption in Washington State, USA. Addiction 2019; 114:1582-1590. [PMID: 31211480 PMCID: PMC6814135 DOI: 10.1111/add.14641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To perform a wastewater-based analysis to explore the impact of newly legalized retail cannabis sales on its use and to determine if this approach could estimate the size of the legal market place, which began 1 August 2014 in the study area. DESIGN Laboratory study of raw wastewater samples collected and analyzed over the 3-year period from 2014 to 2016. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Samples obtained from the two wastewater treatment plants that serviced a municipality of 200 000 people in the state of Washington, USA. MEASUREMENTS Quantitative analysis of 24-hour composite influent samples for the metabolite of the active ingredient in cannabis, 11-nor-9-Carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) were performed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. FINDINGS Wastewater estimates for THC-COOH increased by 9% per quarter, suggesting a doubling in cannabis consumption from 1 December 2013 to 31 December 2016. State-sold THC increased at nearly 70% per quarter, while stores operated from 1 August 2014 to 31 December 2016. Estimating the proportion of the total cannabis market supplied by state-regulated cannabis from these data is not currently achievable. CONCLUSION A wastewater-based measure of cannabis consumption suggests a significant increase in consumption in Washington, USA following legalization, and that legal sales appear to have displaced a large portion of the illicit market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A. Burgard
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA,Corresponding Author
| | - Jason Williams
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Rosie Rushing
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Riley Carpenter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Addison LaRock
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Jane Sadetsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Jackson Clarke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Heather Fryhle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Melissa Pellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Caleb J Banta-Green
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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24
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Application of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology in China—From Wastewater Monitoring to Drug Control Efforts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2019-1319.ch006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
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25
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Yan JH, Xiao Y, Tan DQ, Shao XT, Wang Z, Wang DG. Wastewater analysis reveals spatial pattern in consumption of anti-diabetes drug metformin in China. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 222:688-695. [PMID: 30735969 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Metformin has been widely used as an oral drug for the treatment of diabetes mellitus. However, its consumption can be influenced by many economic and social factors. In this study, we investigated the spatial consumption pattern of metformin in China through wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach. Influent wastewater samples were collected from 21 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in 19 cities of the northeast China. A method using solid-phase extraction combined with N-Methyl-bis (trifluoroacetamide) derivatization for GC-MS detection was applied for metformin analysis. In 21 days, metformin showed high stability in wastewater at 24 °C and -20 °C. The mean concentrations of metformin in all WWTPs ranged from 2.42 μg L-1 to 53.6 μg L-1. The consumption of metformin was 0.66-15.6 mg d-1 capita-1 with the mean value of 5.54 ± 4.28 mg d-1 capita-1. The prevalence of metformin ranged from 0.09% to 2.10% with an average of 0.74%. Both the consumption and prevalence of metformin displays significant spatial variations in northeast China. A statistical correlation analysis indicated that the consumption of metformin increases with the decrease of per capita disposable income of urban residents. To further predict the use of metformin in China, we developed a regress model and depicted a consumption map. The annual consumption of urban residents in Chinese provinces range from 1085-63,828 kg yr-1 with mean value of 25,347 kg yr-1, which would provide a certain reference value for public health care and diabetes control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hao Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Yang Xiao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China.
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China
| | - Zhuang Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, Liaoning, 116026, China.
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26
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Development and validation of an analytical procedure to detect spatio-temporal differences in antidepressant use through a wastewater-based approach. Talanta 2019; 200:340-349. [PMID: 31036194 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2019.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology applies the analysis of human metabolic excretion products of xenobiotics in wastewater to estimate the community-wide use of these compounds. A new bioanalytical method was developed, optimised and validated for the analysis of a broad range of antidepressants and their metabolites at trace concentrations in influent wastewater. The assay was based on solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. For most compounds, Oasis® HLB cartridges were used for sample preparation. Oasis® MCX cartridges were used for extraction of normirtazapine, moclobemide, sertraline, and melitracen in particular. The Kinetex XBC18 column with a gradient elution resulted in appropriate separation for the analytes under investigation. Validation was done according to the European Medicines Agency guidelines on bioanalytical method validation. For 27 compounds, the performance criteria met the requirements for method validation. For these analytes, the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) ranged between 1 and 25 ng/L. Furthermore, all targeted biomarkers showed high in-sample stability during 24 h, with the exception of mianserin. The validated assay was applied to influent wastewater samples collected from four wastewater treatment plants in Belgium. Among these four locations, a total of 18 out of 27 biomarkers for antidepressant use were present in the samples in concentrations above the LLOQ. Additionally, the proposed methodology proved capable of analysing high resolution spatio-temporal trends. Mann-Kendall trend analyses showed that antidepressant use is stable throughout the week, except for trazodone which increased throughout the week.
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27
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Foppe KS, Hammond-Weinberger DR, Subedi B. Estimation of the consumption of illicit drugs during special events in two communities in Western Kentucky, USA using sewage epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 633:249-256. [PMID: 29574368 PMCID: PMC5949093 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Sewage epidemiology is a cost-effective, comprehensive, and non-invasive technique capable of determining semi-real-time community usage of drugs utilizing the concentration of drug residues in wastewater, wastewater inflow, and the population size served by a wastewater treatment plant. In this study, semi-real-time consumption rates of ten illicit drugs were determined using sewage epidemiology during special events including Independence Day, the 2017 solar eclipse, and the first week of an academic semester in the Midwestern United States. The average per-capita consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, and THC were significantly different between two similar-sized communities during Independence Day observation week (p<0.046) and a typical week (p<0.001). Compared to a typical day, the consumption rate of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, morphine, and methadone was significantly higher on Independence Day (p<0.021) and during solar eclipse observation (p=0.020). The estimated percentage of the population that consumed cocaine in a community is similar to the conventionally estimated consumption of cocaine; however, the combined estimated population that consumed amphetamine and methamphetamine based on sewage epidemiology was ~2 to 4 fold higher than the conventional estimates. This study is the first to compare community use of drugs during special events in the USA using sewage epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn S Foppe
- Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, 1201 Jesse D. Jones Hall, USA
| | | | - Bikram Subedi
- Department of Chemistry, Murray State University, 1201 Jesse D. Jones Hall, USA.
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28
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Hernández F, Castiglioni S, Covaci A, de Voogt P, Emke E, Kasprzyk‐Hordern B, Ort C, Reid M, Sancho JV, Thomas KV, van Nuijs AL, Zuccato E, Bijlsma L. Mass spectrometric strategies for the investigation of biomarkers of illicit drug use in wastewater. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2018; 37:258-280. [PMID: 27750373 PMCID: PMC6191649 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of illicit drugs in urban wastewater is the basis of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), and has received much scientific attention because the concentrations measured can be used as a new non-intrusive tool to provide evidence-based and real-time estimates of community-wide drug consumption. Moreover, WBE allows monitoring patterns and spatial and temporal trends of drug use. Although information and expertise from other disciplines is required to refine and effectively apply WBE, analytical chemistry is the fundamental driver in this field. The use of advanced analytical techniques, commonly based on combined chromatography-mass spectrometry, is mandatory because the very low analyte concentration and the complexity of samples (raw wastewater) make quantification and identification/confirmation of illicit drug biomarkers (IDBs) troublesome. We review the most-recent literature available (mostly from the last 5 years) on the determination of IDBs in wastewater with particular emphasis on the different analytical strategies applied. The predominance of liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry to quantify target IDBs and the essence to produce reliable and comparable results is illustrated. Accordingly, the importance to perform inter-laboratory exercises and the need to analyze appropriate quality controls in each sample sequence is highlighted. Other crucial steps in WBE, such as sample collection and sample pre-treatment, are briefly and carefully discussed. The article further focuses on the potential of high-resolution mass spectrometry. Different approaches for target and non-target analysis are discussed, and the interest to perform experiments under laboratory-controlled conditions, as a complementary tool to investigate related compounds (e.g., minor metabolites and/or transformation products in wastewater) is treated. The article ends up with the trends and future perspectives in this field from the authors' point of view. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:258-280, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and WaterUniversity Jaume ICastellónSpain
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health SciencesIRCCS—Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario NegriMilanItaly
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological CenterUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
| | - Pim de Voogt
- KWR Watercycle Research InstituteNieuwegeinthe Netherlands
- IBED—University of AmsterdamAmsterdamthe Netherlands
| | - Erik Emke
- KWR Watercycle Research InstituteNieuwegeinthe Netherlands
| | | | - Christoph Ort
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag)DübendorfSwitzerland
| | - Malcolm Reid
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA)OsloNorway
| | - Juan V. Sancho
- Research Institute for Pesticides and WaterUniversity Jaume ICastellónSpain
| | | | | | - Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health SciencesIRCCS—Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario NegriMilanItaly
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and WaterUniversity Jaume ICastellónSpain
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Rousis NI, Gracia-Lor E, Zuccato E, Bade R, Baz-Lomba JA, Castrignanò E, Causanilles A, Covaci A, de Voogt P, Hernàndez F, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Kinyua J, McCall AK, Plósz BG, Ramin P, Ryu Y, Thomas KV, van Nuijs A, Yang Z, Castiglioni S. Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess pan-European pesticide exposure. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 121:270-279. [PMID: 28554112 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Human biomonitoring, i.e. the determination of chemicals and/or their metabolites in human specimens, is the most common and potent tool for assessing human exposure to pesticides, but it suffers from limitations such as high costs and biases in sampling. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an innovative approach based on the chemical analysis of specific human metabolic excretion products (biomarkers) in wastewater, and provides objective and real-time information on xenobiotics directly or indirectly ingested by a population. This study applied the WBE approach for the first time to evaluate human exposure to pesticides in eight cities across Europe. 24 h-composite wastewater samples were collected from the main wastewater treatment plants and analyzed for urinary metabolites of three classes of pesticides, namely triazines, organophosphates and pyrethroids, by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The mass loads (mg/day/1000 inhabitants) were highest for organophosphates and lowest for triazines. Different patterns were observed among the cities and for the various classes of pesticides. Population weighted loads of specific biomarkers indicated higher exposure in Castellon, Milan, Copenhagen and Bristol for pyrethroids, and in Castellon, Bristol and Zurich for organophosphates. The lowest mass loads (mg/day/1000 inhabitants) were found in Utrecht and Oslo. These results were in agreement with several national statistics related to pesticides exposure such as pesticides sales. The daily intake of pyrethroids was estimated in each city and it was found to exceed the acceptable daily intake (ADI) only in one city (Castellon, Spain). This was the first large-scale application of WBE to monitor population exposure to pesticides. The results indicated that WBE can give new information about the "average exposure" of the population to pesticides, and is a useful complementary biomonitoring tool to study population-wide exposure to pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos I Rousis
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy; Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, E-12071, Castellón, Spain
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Richard Bade
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, E-12071, Castellón, Spain; School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | | | - Erika Castrignanò
- University of Bath, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Causanilles
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Chemical Water Quality and Health, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pim de Voogt
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Chemical Water Quality and Health, P.O. Box 1072, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands; IBED-University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Félix Hernàndez
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, E-12071, Castellón, Spain
| | | | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ann-Kathrin McCall
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Benedek Gy Plósz
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet, Building 115, DK-2800M, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Pedram Ramin
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet, Building 115, DK-2800M, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads, Building 229, DK-2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Yeonsuk Ryu
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, 0349, Oslo, Norway; Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD, 4108, Australia
| | - Alexander van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zhugen Yang
- University of Bath, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom; Division of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8LT, United Kingdom
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
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Zuccato E, Gracia-Lor E, Rousis NI, Parabiaghi A, Senta I, Riva F, Castiglioni S. Illicit drug consumption in school populations measured by wastewater analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 178:285-290. [PMID: 28686986 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Analysis of student consumption of illicit drugs (ID) by school population surveys (SPS) provides information useful for prevention, but the results may be influenced by subjective factors. We explored wastewater (WW) analysis to improve the information. METHODS We used WW analysis to measure ID consumption in eight secondary schools in Italy in 2010-13 (students aged 15-19). Samples were collected from the sewage pipes of the schools during lessons for one week each year. Samples were analysed by mass spectrometry to measure ID and consumption by students was compared to that of the general population. RESULTS We found THCCOOH (human metabolite of THC) concentrations in 2010 indicating significant consumption of cannabis in all the schools and benzoylecgonine (human metabolite of cocaine) suggesting a limited consumption of cocaine in all but one school. Morphine was only found in traces, and amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, ketamine and mephedrone were not detectable. Repeated analysis showed cannabis stable until 2012 with increases in 2013, low cocaine and morphine levels, and none of the other ID. DISCUSSION WW analysis suggested that students used amounts of cannabis comparable to the general population, with low, sporadic use of cocaine and opioids, but excluded the use of significant amounts of amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, ketamine and mephedrone. WW analysis was useful to confirm SPS figures and provides complementary findings for effective prevention strategies. This is the first time WW analysis has been used to investigate consumption of a large number of ID and new psychoactive substances (NPS) in schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy.
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Nikolaos I Rousis
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Parabiaghi
- Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Ivan Senta
- Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Francesco Riva
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
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González-Mariño I, Zuccato E, Santos MM, Castiglioni S. Monitoring MDMA metabolites in urban wastewater as novel biomarkers of consumption. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 115:1-8. [PMID: 28254532 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) has been always estimated by measuring the parent substance through chemical analysis of wastewater. However, this may result in an overestimation of the use if the substance is directly disposed in sinks or toilets. Using specific urinary metabolites may overcome this limitation. This study investigated for the first time the suitability of a panel of MDMA metabolites as biomarkers of consumption, considering the specific criteria recently proposed, i.e. being detectable and stable in wastewater, being excreted in a known percentage in urine, and having human excretion as the sole source. A new analytical method was developed and validated for the extraction and analysis of MDMA and three of its main metabolites in wastewater. 24-h composite raw wastewater samples from three European cities were analysed and MDMA use was back-calculated. Results from single MDMA loads, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) loads and from the sum of MDMA, HMMA and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA) loads were in line with the well-known recreational use of this drug: consumption was higher during the weekend in all cities. HMMA and HMA turned out to be suitable biomarkers of consumption; however, concentrations measured in wastewater did not resemble the expected pharmacokinetic profiles, quite likely due to the very limited information available on excretion profiles. Different options were tested to back-calculate MDMA use, including the sum of MDMA and its metabolites, to balance the biases associated with each single substance. Nevertheless, additional pharmacokinetic studies are urgently needed in order to get more accurate excretion rates and, therefore, improve the estimates of MDMA use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, IIAA - Institute for Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Miquel M Santos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Avenida General Norton de Matos, S/N, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal; FCUP - Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
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O'Brien JW, Banks APW, Novic AJ, Mueller JF, Jiang G, Ort C, Eaglesham G, Yuan Z, Thai PK. Impact of in-Sewer Degradation of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) Population Markers on a Population Model. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3816-3823. [PMID: 28244310 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A key uncertainty of wastewater-based epidemiology is the size of the population which contributed to a given wastewater sample. We previously developed and validated a Bayesian inference model to estimate population size based on 14 population markers which: (1) are easily measured and (2) have mass loads which correlate with population size. However, the potential uncertainty of the model prediction due to in-sewer degradation of these markers was not evaluated. In this study, we addressed this gap by testing their stability under sewer conditions and assessed whether degradation impacts the model estimates. Five markers, which formed the core of our model, were stable in the sewers while the others were not. Our evaluation showed that the presence of unstable population markers in the model did not decrease the precision of the population estimates providing that stable markers such as acesulfame remained in the model. However, to achieve the minimum uncertainty in population estimates, we propose that the core markers to be included in population models for other sites should meet two additional criteria: (3) negligible degradation in wastewater to ensure the stability of chemicals during collection; and (4) < 10% in-sewer degradation could occur during the mean residence time of the sewer network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake William O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Andrew Phillip William Banks
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Andrew Joseph Novic
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Guangming Jiang
- Advanced Water Management Centre (AWMC), The University of Queensland , St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology , CH 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Geoff Eaglesham
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Zhiguo Yuan
- Advanced Water Management Centre (AWMC), The University of Queensland , St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland , 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia
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Rousis NI, Zuccato E, Castiglioni S. Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess human exposure to pyrethroid pesticides. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 99:213-220. [PMID: 27908456 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides are active substances with potentially adverse effects on human health, and therefore great effort is addressed to study the relation between their widespread use and the effects on humans. To track human exposure to pesticides, novel approaches are needed to give additional information on exposure at population level. In this study, a novel application of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) was developed to measure the intake of pyrethroid pesticides in a population. Three human urinary metabolites of pyrethroids were selected and validated as biomarkers of exposure by evaluating their sources and stability in wastewater. They were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in raw urban wastewater collected from the wastewater treatment plants of six Italian cities. Their concentrations were used as biomarkers to back-calculate the intake of pyrethroid pesticides in the population. WBE results were in line with the urinary biomarker levels of biomonitoring studies considering dilution in wastewater. Significant differences in the metabolites levels were observed among different cities. Seasonal variations in human intake of pyrethroids were also seen, as expected, with higher intakes during spring/summer. Intakes in the six cities were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) and it was concluded that some of the populations examined might face significant health risks. Results confirm that this method can provide supplementary information to biomonitoring studies and can be a valuable tool for obtaining objective, direct information on the real levels of exposure to pyrethroids of different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos I Rousis
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Environmental Biomarkers Unit, Laboratory of Food Toxicology, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Environmental Biomarkers Unit, Laboratory of Food Toxicology, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Environmental Biomarkers Unit, Laboratory of Food Toxicology, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
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Gao T, Du P, Xu Z, Li X. Occurrence of new psychoactive substances in wastewater of major Chinese cities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 575:963-969. [PMID: 27678045 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances have become increasingly popular across the globe in recent years, which may cause certain public health issues. In this work, sewage-based epidemiology was applied to examine the use of two synthetic cathinones, mephedrone and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and three piperazines, benzylpiperazine (BZP), trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP), and 1-(3-Chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), across China. Influent wastewater samples were collected from 36 sewage treatment plants (STPs) in 18 major cities that cover all the geographic regions of the country. Effluent samples were also collected from selected STPs to determine removal rates. Mephedrone, TFMPP, and mCPP were below detection limits in all the wastewater samples collected, indicating negligible use of these substances in China. MDPV was detected in wastewater at 13 STPs. However, its loads were <1mg/1000inh/d at most of these STPs, indicating low use of this substance. BZP was detected at all the STPs examined, with loads typically falling within the range of 3-10mg/1000inh/d. No clear geographic pattern in BZP occurrence in wastewater was identified. Since BZP in wastewater may also come from its legal sources, whether widespread occurrence of BZP means widespread abuse is yet to be confirmed. Apparent removal of MDPV by wastewater treatment was low (<25%), whereas removal of BZP was nearly complete (typically>95%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Gao
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Peng Du
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Zeqiong Xu
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China
| | - Xiqing Li
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, PR China.
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Gracia-Lor E, Zuccato E, Castiglioni S. Refining correction factors for back-calculation of illicit drug use. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 573:1648-1659. [PMID: 27693156 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The estimation of illicit drugs use through wastewater analysis has become an important issue in the last few years due to their large worldwide consumption, which results in economic, social and health costs. The amounts of urinary biomarkers of illicit drugs (selected drugs or their metabolites) measured in wastewater are used to back-calculate the consumption of a particular drug by the population and to monitor temporal and spatial trends of illicit drug use in a community. The reliability of back-calculation depends on different factors, one being the accuracy of correction factors. A wide range of correction factors have been used in different studies and some biases must be expected when comparing results. Most of the correction factors were developed several years ago, so they need to be updated to include the latest information on pharmacokinetics. Moreover, new comprehensive methods to treat data should be adopted. The goal of this study is to refine current correction factors for back-calculation of the most widely used illicit drugs: amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The mean percentages of excretion of the parent drugs and their metabolites were calculated for each route of administration, utilizing all accessible pharmacokinetic studies in the literature. This allowed to select the most suitable drug target residue and a refined correction factor was obtained for each substance considering the most frequent route of administration. The refined correction factors we propose can be used in wastewater based epidemiology to standardize the back-calculation of these drugs. These results can be included in the best practice protocol currently adopted in EU studies in order to reduce uncertainty and improve the comparability of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Gracia-Lor
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy.
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Salvatore S, Røislien J, Baz-Lomba JA, Bramness JG. Assessing prescription drug abuse using functional principal component analysis (FPCA) of wastewater data. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2016; 26:320-326. [PMID: 27862608 DOI: 10.1002/pds.4127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wastewater-based epidemiology is an alternative method for estimating the collective drug use in a community. We applied functional data analysis, a statistical framework developed for analysing curve data, to investigate weekly temporal patterns in wastewater measurements of three prescription drugs with known abuse potential: methadone, oxazepam and methylphenidate, comparing them to positive and negative control drugs. METHODS Sewage samples were collected in February 2014 from a wastewater treatment plant in Oslo, Norway. The weekly pattern of each drug was extracted by fitting of generalized additive models, using trigonometric functions to model the cyclic behaviour. From the weekly component, the main temporal features were then extracted using functional principal component analysis. Results are presented through the functional principal components (FPCs) and corresponding FPC scores. RESULTS Clinically, the most important weekly feature of the wastewater-based epidemiology data was the second FPC, representing the difference between average midweek level and a peak during the weekend, representing possible recreational use of a drug in the weekend. Estimated scores on this FPC indicated recreational use of methylphenidate, with a high weekend peak, but not for methadone and oxazepam. CONCLUSION The functional principal component analysis uncovered clinically important temporal features of the weekly patterns of the use of prescription drugs detected from wastewater analysis. This may be used as a post-marketing surveillance method to monitor prescription drugs with abuse potential. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Salvatore
- Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jo Røislien
- Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Health Studies, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Jose A Baz-Lomba
- Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jørgen G Bramness
- Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Lai FY, O'Brien J, Bruno R, Hall W, Prichard J, Kirkbride P, Gartner C, Thai P, Carter S, Lloyd B, Burns L, Mueller J. Spatial variations in the consumption of illicit stimulant drugs across Australia: A nationwide application of wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 568:810-818. [PMID: 27267725 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Obtaining representative information on illicit drug use and patterns across a country remains difficult using surveys because of low response rates and response biases. A range of studies have used wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) as a complementary approach to monitor community-wide illicit drug use. In Australia, no large-scale WBE studies have been conducted to date to reveal illicit drug use profiles in a national context. In this study, we performed the first Australia-wide WBE monitoring to examine spatial patterns in the use of three illicit stimulants (cocaine, as its human metabolite benzoylecgonine; methamphetamine; and 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)). A total of 112 daily composite wastewater samples were collected from 14 wastewater treatment plants across four states and two territories. These covered approximately 40% of the Australian population. We identified and quantified illicit drug residues using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. There were distinctive spatial patterns of illicit stimulant use in Australia. Multivariate analyses showed that consumption of cocaine and MDMA was higher in the large cities than in rural areas. Also, cocaine consumption differed significantly between different jurisdictions. Methamphetamine consumption was more similar between urban and rural locations. Only a few cities had elevated levels of use. Extrapolation of the WBE estimates suggested that the annual consumption was 3tonnes for cocaine and 9tonnes combined for methamphetamine and MDMA, which outweighed the annual seizure amount by 25 times and 45 times, respectively. These ratios imply the difficulty of detecting the trafficking of these stimulants in Australia, possibly more so for methamphetamine than cocaine. The obtained spatial pattern of use was compared with that in the most recent national household survey. Together both WBE and survey methods provide a more comprehensive evaluation of drug use that can assist governments in developing policies to reduce drug use and harm in the communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Foon Yin Lai
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - Jake O'Brien
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 30, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- The University of Queensland, Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | | | - Paul Kirkbride
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Coral Gartner
- The University of Queensland, Centre for Clinical Research, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Phong Thai
- International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Steve Carter
- Queensland Health Forensic Scientific Services, Queensland Government, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Belinda Lloyd
- Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; Turning Point, Eastern Health, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Lucy Burns
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Jochen Mueller
- The University of Queensland, The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Banta-Green CJ, Brewer AJ, Ort C, Helsel DR, Williams JR, Field JA. Using wastewater-based epidemiology to estimate drug consumption-Statistical analyses and data presentation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 568:856-863. [PMID: 27338844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM Analysis of wastewater samples can be used to assess population drug use, but reporting and statistical issues have limited the utility of the approach for epidemiology due to analytical results that are below the limit of quantification or detection. Unobserved or non-quantifiable-censored-data are common and likely to persist as the methodology is applied to more municipalities and a broader array of substances. We demonstrate the use of censored data techniques and account for measurement errors to explore distributions and annual estimates of the daily mean level of drugs excreted per capita. MEASUREMENTS Daily 24-hour composite wastewater samples for 56days in 2009 were obtained using a random sample stratified by day of week and season for 19 municipalities in the Northwest region of the U.S. METHODS Methamphetamine, benzoylecgonine (cocaine metabolite), 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methadone, oxycodone and hydrocodone were identified and quantified in wastewater samples. Four statistical approaches (reporting censoring, Maximum Likelihood Estimation, Kaplan-Meier estimates, or complete data calculations) were used to estimate an annual average, including confidence bounds where appropriate, dependent upon the amount of censoring in the data. FINDINGS The proportion of days within a year with censored data varied greatly by drug across the 19 municipalities, with MDMA varying the most (4% to 94% of observations censored). The different statistical approaches each needed to be used given the levels of censoring of measured drug concentrations. Figures incorporating confidence bounds allow visualization of the data that facilitates appropriate comparisons across municipalities. CONCLUSIONS Results from wastewater sampling that are below detection or quantification limits contain important information and can be incorporated to create a more complete and valid estimate of drug excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb J Banta-Green
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, United States.
| | - Alex J Brewer
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States; Department of Chemistry, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926, United States
| | - Christoph Ort
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Jason R Williams
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, United States
| | - Jennifer A Field
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States
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Krizman I, Senta I, Ahel M, Terzic S. Wastewater-based assessment of regional and temporal consumption patterns of illicit drugs and therapeutic opioids in Croatia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 566-567:454-462. [PMID: 27232972 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive study of spatial and temporal consumption patterns of the selected illicit drugs (heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, MDMA, methamphetamine, cannabis) and therapeutic opioids (codeine, methadone) has been performed in six Croatian cities by applying wastewater-based epidemiology. The investigated cities (Bjelovar, Vinkovci, Varazdin, Karlovac, Zadar and Zagreb) varied widely in the population size (27,000-688,000 inhabitants) as well as in the number of registered drug consumers included in compulsory and voluntary medical treatment and rehabilitation programs (30-513 persons/100,000 inhabitants of age 15-64). The most consumed illicit drugs were cannabis (10-70doses/day/1000 inhabitants), heroin (<0.2-10doses/day/1000 inhabitants) and cocaine (0.2-8.7doses/day/1000 inhabitants), while the consumption of amphetamine-type drugs was much lower (<0.01-4.4doses/day/1000 inhabitants). Enhanced consumption of illegal drugs was generally associated with larger urban centers (Zagreb and Zadar) however comparatively high consumption rate of cocaine, MDMA and methadone was determined in some smaller cities as well. The overall average dose number of 3 major illegal stimulants (cocaine, MDMA, amphetamine) was rather similar to the number of corresponding heroin doses, which is in disagreement with a comparatively much higher proportion of heroin users in the total number of registered drug users in Croatia. Furthermore, the illicit drug consumption pattern in the large continental city (Zagreb) was characterized by a significant enhancement of the consumption of all stimulants during the weekend, which could not be confirmed neither for the coastal city of Zadar nor for the remaining small continental cities. On the other hand, the city of Zadar exhibited a significant increase of stimulant drug usage during summer vacation period, as a result of pronounced seasonal changes of the population composition and lifestyle in coastal tourist centers. The obtained results represent a valuable complementary data source for the optimisation and implementation of strategies to combat drug abuse in Croatia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivona Krizman
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivan Senta
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Marijan Ahel
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Senka Terzic
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka c. 54, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia.
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40
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González-Mariño I, Gracia-Lor E, Rousis NI, Castrignanò E, Thomas KV, Quintana JB, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Zuccato E, Castiglioni S. Wastewater-Based Epidemiology To Monitor Synthetic Cathinones Use in Different European Countries. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:10089-96. [PMID: 27491628 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are among the most consumed new psychoactive substances (NPS), but their increasing number and interchangeable market make it difficult to estimate the real size of their consumption. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) through the analysis of metabolic residues of these substances in urban wastewater can provide this information. This study applied WBE for the first time to investigate the presence of 17 synthetic cathinones in four European countries. A method based on solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was developed, validated, and used to quantify the target analytes. Seven substances were found, with mephedrone and methcathinone being the most frequently detected and none of the analytes being found in Norway. Population-normalized loads were used to evaluate the pattern of use, which indicated a higher consumption in the U.K., followed by Spain and Italy, in line with the European prevalence data from population surveys. In the U.K., where an entire week was investigated, an increase of the loads was found during the weekend, indicating a preferential use in recreational contexts. This study demonstrated that WBE can be a useful additional tool to monitor the use of NPS in a population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iria González-Mariño
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" (IRCCS) , Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute for Food Analysis and Research (IIAA), University of Santiago de Compostela , Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" (IRCCS) , Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Nikolaos I Rousis
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" (IRCCS) , Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Erika Castrignanò
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath , Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) , Gaustadalleen 21, 0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - José Benito Quintana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Sciences, Institute for Food Analysis and Research (IIAA), University of Santiago de Compostela , Constantino Candeira S/N, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | | | - Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" (IRCCS) , Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" (IRCCS) , Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
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41
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Bijlsma L, Botero-Coy AM, Rincón RJ, Peñuela GA, Hernández F. Estimation of illicit drug use in the main cities of Colombia by means of urban wastewater analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 565:984-993. [PMID: 27246161 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) relies on the principle that traces of compounds, which a population is exposed to or consume, are excreted unchanged or as metabolites in urine and/or feces, and ultimately end up in the sewer network. Measuring target metabolic residues i.e. biomarkers in raw urban wastewater allows identifying the exposure or use of substances of interest in a community. Up to date, the most popular application of WBE is the estimation of illicit drug use and studies have been made mainly across Europe, which has allowed estimating and comparing drug use in many European cities. However, until now a comprehensive study applying WBE on the most frequently consumed illicit drugs has not been performed in South American countries. In this work, we applied this approach to samples from Colombia, selecting two of the most populated cities: Bogotá and Medellin. Several biomarkers were selected to estimate drug use of cocaine, cannabis, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), heroin and ketamine. Composite samples (24-h) were collected at the corresponding municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sample treatment was performed at location by applying solid-phase extraction (SPE). Before SPE, the samples were spiked with appropriate isotope labeled internal standards. In parallel, samples (spiked with the analytes under study at two concentration levels) were also processed for quality control. Analysis of influent wastewater was made by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, with triple quadrupole analyzer. Data shown in this paper reveal a high use of cocaine by the population of the selected Colombian cities, particularly from Medellin, while the use of other illicit drugs were low. The relevance of using quality control samples, particularly in collaborative studies, as those presented in this work, where research groups from different countries participate and where the samples had to be shipped overseas, is highlighted in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubertus Bijlsma
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Ana M Botero-Coy
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Rolando J Rincón
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Sciences, University Antonio Nariño, Colombia
| | - Gustavo A Peñuela
- Grupo GDCON, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antioquia, 70 # 52-21, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Félix Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water (IUPA), University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain.
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Gatidou G, Kinyua J, van Nuijs ALN, Gracia-Lor E, Castiglioni S, Covaci A, Stasinakis AS. Drugs of abuse and alcohol consumption among different groups of population on the Greek Island of Lesvos through sewage-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 563-564:633-640. [PMID: 27236142 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of 22 drugs of abuse, their metabolites, and the alcohol metabolite ethyl sulphate was investigated in raw sewage samples collected during the non-touristic season from three sewage treatment plants (STPs), which serve different sizes and types of population in the Greek island of Lesvos. Using the sewage-based epidemiology approach, the consumption of these substances was estimated. Five target analytes, cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BE), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) and ethyl sulphate (EtS) were detected at concentrations above their limit of quantification, whereas the rest eighteen target compounds were not detected. THC-COOH was detected in most of the samples with concentrations ranging between <20 and 90ngL(-1), followed by EtS (range <1700-12,243ngL(-1)). COC, BE, and MDMA were present only in the STP that serves Mytilene (the main city of the island), at mean concentrations of 3.9ngL(-1) for COC (95% CI: 1.7-6.1), 9.4ngL(-1) for BE (95% CI: -1.6-23) and 3.2ngL(-1) for MDMA (95% CI: 1.2-5.1). Back-calculations to an amount of used substance indicated more intense use of drugs among city population than rural and University population with average values of 9.5 and 1.2mgday(-1) per 1000 inhabitants for COC (95% CI: -1.43-20.4) and MDMA (95% CI: 0.52-1.85), respectively, and 2.8gday(-1) per 1000 inhabitants for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (95% CI: 2.4-3.1), the active ingredient of cannabis. Alcohol consumption was observed to be higher in the city population (5.4mL pure alcohol per day per inhabitant) than in the rural population (3.4mL pure alcohol per day per inhabitant), but the difference was not statistically significant. Consumption of THC differed significantly among the three STPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Gatidou
- Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, University Hill, Mytilene 81 100, Greece.
| | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Emma Gracia-Lor
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", 16 Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", 16 Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campus Drie Eiken, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Athanasios S Stasinakis
- Department of Environment, University of the Aegean, University Hill, Mytilene 81 100, Greece
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43
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Milione S, Mercurio I, Troiano G, Melai P, Agostinelli V, Nante N, Bacci M. Drugs and psychoactive substances in the Tiber River. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2016.1212270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Milione
- Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic, and Aging Sciences, Second University of Naples, Italy
| | - Isabella Mercurio
- Forensic Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Neurosciences, Hospital Santa Maria alle Scotte, Siena, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Nicola Nante
- Postgraduate School of Public Health University of Siena, Italy
| | - Mauro Bacci
- Legal Medicine, Forensic Science and Sports Medicine, University of Perugia, Italy
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44
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Bitter JL. The persistence of illicit drug smoke residues and their recovery from common household surfaces. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:603-612. [PMID: 27328798 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Third-hand smoke is the residue remaining on surfaces during smoking events. It is composed of particles and vapours that form upon heating. The phrase 'third-hand smoke' is primarily used to describe nicotine and other chemicals from cigarettes, but any residues formed from the smoking of various substances could be classified similarly. There has been an increasing body of research on third-hand smoke from cigarettes in the last decade, but little has been done in regards to understanding the persistence of particles and vapours from illicit drugs. In this work, small samples of cocaine and methamphetamine were volatilized to produce an illicit drug smoke that was collected onto various surface materials and left exposed to ambient conditions over 672 h (four weeks). Chemical analyses by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry of residues on silicon, plastic, laminate, and artificial leather surfaces indicated a rapid decrease in recovery of the parent molecule, with varied formation of decomposition products over the first 168 h of exposure. Measurable amounts of the parent molecule were still present after 672 h, exhibiting a strong persistence of these drugs on various household materials. This is important in a forensic science context, as third-hand smoke residues could provide a viable source of trace evidence previously not utilized. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie L Bitter
- National Institute of Standards, Technology, Materials Measurement Science Division, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
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45
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Population surveys compared with wastewater analysis for monitoring illicit drug consumption in Italy in 2010-2014. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 161:178-88. [PMID: 26875670 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monitoring consumption by population surveys (PS) is an important way to challenge the spread of illicit drugs (ID). To improve the information, we explored a complementary method, particularly wastewater analysis (WWA). METHODS We estimated the prevalence of use by PS, and the consumption by WWA, of cocaine, opioids, cannabis, methamphetamine and MDMA (ecstasy) from 2010 to 2014 in Italy and compared the results. RESULTS According to PS, cannabis and cocaine were the ID most used in Italy (last month prevalence 3.0% and 0.43% respectively in 2010) followed by opioids (0.17%) and amphetamines (0.14%). WWA gave similar findings, with cannabis consumption (4.35 g THC/day/1000 inhabitants) exceeding cocaine (0.78 g), heroin (0.092 g), methamphetamine and MDMA (0.103 g). The time trend investigated by PS showed significant decreases for all ID from 2010 to 2012. WWA also indicated a reduction of consumption for methamphetamine (p<0.0001) and heroin (p<0.01). Both methods showed an increase for cannabis in 2014 (p<0.001) with the other ID unchanged. Spatial investigations by WWA showed that cannabis and cocaine were consumed significantly more in central Italy than in the north and south. PS indicated the same but only for cannabis. WWA was helpful to study weekly patterns of consumption, showing increases in cocaine and MDMA at weekends. CONCLUSIONS PS and WWA were confirmed as complementary methods and when used together improved the information on ID use in Italy. We suggest that the combined use of the two approaches can give better information on ID use in the population.
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46
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A nuanced picture of illicit drug use in 17 Italian cities through functional principal component analysis of temporal wastewater data. J Public Health (Oxf) 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10389-016-0717-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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47
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Kim KY, Lai FY, Kim HY, Thai PK, Mueller JF, Oh JE. The first application of wastewater-based drug epidemiology in five South Korean cities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 524-525:440-6. [PMID: 25933175 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug consumption in five cities in South Korea was estimated by analyzing 17 drug residues in untreated wastewater samples collected during the Christmas and New Year period of 2012-13. Only methamphetamine, amphetamine, and codeine were detected at concentrations of tens of nanograms per liter or even lower concentrations in more than 90% of the samples. Other illicit drug residues (including cocaine, methadone, and benzoylecgonine) that have been detected frequently in wastewater from other countries were not found in this study. Methamphetamine was found to be the most widely used illicit drug in South Korea, and the estimated average consumption rate was 22 mg d(-1) (1000 people)(-1). This rate is, for example, 2-5 times lower than the estimated average consumption rates in Hong Kong and other parts of China and 4-80 times lower than the estimated average consumption rates in cities in Western countries. It should be noted that the wastewater samples analyzed in this study were collected during a holiday season, when daily consumption of illicit drugs is often higher than on an average day. The methamphetamine usage rates were calculated for different cities in South Korea, and the usage rates in smaller cities was higher (2-4 times) than the average.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki Yong Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Foon Yin Lai
- The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), The University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Hee-Young Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea
| | - Phong K Thai
- The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), The University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), The University of Queensland, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Queensland 4108, Australia.
| | - Jeong-Eun Oh
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University Busan 609-735, Republic of Korea.
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48
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Castiglioni S, Borsotti A, Senta I, Zuccato E. Wastewater analysis to monitor spatial and temporal patterns of use of two synthetic recreational drugs, ketamine and mephedrone, in Italy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:5563-5570. [PMID: 25844536 DOI: 10.1021/es5060429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater analysis was applied in a four-year monitoring study to assess temporal and spatial patterns of ketamine and mephedrone use in the general population in Italy. Composite raw wastewater samples were collected from sewage treatment plants (STPs) in 17 cities. Target analytes were measured using a validated method based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Mass loads were use to assess ketamine and mephedrone use and were normalized to the population served by the plants. Ketamine was detected in wastewater in all except one (Palermo) of the cities investigated, while mephedrone was detected only in Bologna and Florence. Ketamine mass loads progressively increased from 2010 to 2013, and in Milan rose from 1 to 1.5 g/day in 2008-2010 to 3.4-3.6 g/day in 2013-2014. Mass loads were higher in north and central Italy than in the south, and in larger rather than small cities. Wastewater analysis was suitable to provide objective and up-to-date information on the use of ketamine in Italy, to identify ketamine spatial and temporal changes, and to confirm the low use of mephedrone. These results can complement information from population surveys which often provide only scant and incomplete figures for these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Castiglioni
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Ivan Senta
- ‡Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Bijenicka cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- †IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
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49
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Castiglioni S, Borsotti A, Riva F, Zuccato E. Illicit drug consumption estimated by wastewater analysis in different districts of Milan: A case study. Drug Alcohol Rev 2014; 35:128-32. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Castiglioni
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Andrea Borsotti
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Francesco Riva
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
| | - Ettore Zuccato
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche ‘Mario Negri’; Milan Italy
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50
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Mackuľak T, Skubák J, Grabic R, Ryba J, Birošová L, Fedorova G, Spalková V, Bodík I. National study of illicit drug use in Slovakia based on wastewater analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 494-495:158-165. [PMID: 25046607 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze illicit drugs and their metabolites in wastewater from eight selected wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Slovakia. The effect of two of the biggest music festivals in Slovakia on illicit drugs in wastewater was also investigated. Urinary bio-markers of amphetamine, methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis and ecstasy use were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We then compared our results with data obtained in other parts of Europe and the world. This study demonstrates that Slovakia has one of highest methamphetamine consumption rates in Europe. Within Slovakia, the highest level of methamphetamine consumption was found in Petržalka, where the mean specific load of this drug in sewage was 169 mg/day/1000 inhabitants; the next highest loads were detected in Piešťany (128 mg/day/1000 inhabitants) and Bratislava (124 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). Amphetamine, ecstasy and cannabis consumption in our study were comparable to that found in other European cities, whereas cocaine consumption was lower. We also analyzed the pattern of drug consumption over the course of a week. The load of the cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine in wastewater increased during the weekend. The use of this drug was most common in the capital of Slovakia. Increased consumption was also found during a folk festival in Piešťany. The ecstasy load in wastewater from larger cities also significantly increased over the weekend. An increase of drug consumption was also detected during a music festival in Trenčín, especially for ecstasy. The specific load of ecstasy during this festival increased from 3mg/day/1000 inhabitants to 29 mg/day/1000 inhabitants. The possible influence of music styles on the consumption of certain drugs was also observed. During a folk festival, methamphetamine and cocaine were more commonly used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Mackuľak
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jaroslav Skubák
- Institute of Biochemistry, Nutrition and Health Protection, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Roman Grabic
- University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Zatisi 728/II, 389 01 Vodnany, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Ryba
- Institute of Natural and Synthetic Polymers, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lucia Birošová
- Institute of Biochemistry, Nutrition and Health Protection, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Ganna Fedorova
- University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Zatisi 728/II, 389 01 Vodnany, Czech Republic
| | - Viera Spalková
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Igor Bodík
- Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia
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