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Sharma R, Sharma H, Jones S, Borghini-Fuhrer I, Domingo GJ, Gibson RA, Rolfe K, Tan L, Fiţa IG, Chen C, Bird P, Pingle A, Duparc S. Optimal balance of benefit versus risk for tafenoquine in the treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Malar J 2024; 23:145. [PMID: 38741094 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-024-04924-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
A single 300 mg dose of tafenoquine (an 8-aminoquinoline), in combination with a standard 3-day course of chloroquine, is approved in several countries for the radical cure (prevention of relapse) of Plasmodium vivax malaria in patients aged ≥ 16 years. Despite this, questions have arisen on the optimal dose of tafenoquine. Before the availability of tafenoquine, a 3-day course of chloroquine in combination with the 8-aminoquinoline primaquine was the only effective radical cure for vivax malaria. The World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended standard regimen is 14 days of primaquine 0.25 mg/kg/day or 7 days of primaquine 0.5 mg/kg/day in most regions, or 14 days of primaquine 0.5 mg/kg/day in East Asia and Oceania, however the long treatment courses of 7 or 14 days may result in poor adherence and, therefore, low treatment efficacy. A single dose of tafenoquine 300 mg in combination with a 3-day course of chloroquine is an important advancement for the radical cure of vivax malaria in patients without glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, as the use of a single-dose treatment will improve adherence. Selection of a single 300 mg dose of tafenoquine for the radical cure of P. vivax malaria was based on collective efficacy and safety data from 33 studies involving more than 4000 trial participants who received tafenoquine, including over 800 subjects who received the 300 mg single dose. The safety profile of single-dose tafenoquine 300 mg is similar to that of standard-dosage primaquine 0.25 mg/kg/day for 14 days. Both primaquine and tafenoquine can cause acute haemolytic anaemia in individuals with G6PD deficiency; severe haemolysis can lead to anaemia, kidney damage, and, in some cases, death. Therefore, relapse prevention using an 8-aminoquinoline must be balanced with the need to avoid clinical haemolysis associated with G6PD deficiency. To minimize this risk, the WHO recommends G6PD testing for all individuals before the administration of curative doses of 8-aminoquinolines. In this article, the authors review key efficacy and safety data from the pivotal trials of tafenoquine and argue that the currently approved dose represents a favourable benefit-risk profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Sharma
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | | | | | | | | | - Rachel A Gibson
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK.
| | - Katie Rolfe
- Global Health Medicines R&D, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
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Mukaka M, Onyamboko MA, Olupot-Olupot P, Peerawaranun P, Suwannasin K, Pagornrat W, Kouhathong J, Madmanee W, Were W, Namayanja C, Onyas P, Titin H, Baseke J, Muhindo R, Kayembe DK, Ndjowo PO, Basara BB, Bongo GS, Okalebo CB, Abongo G, Uyoga S, Williams TN, Taya C, Dhorda M, Dondorp AM, Waithira N, Imwong M, Maitland K, Fanello C, Day NPJ, Tarning J, White NJ, Taylor WRJ. Pharmacokinetics of single low dose primaquine in Ugandan and Congolese children with falciparum malaria. EBioMedicine 2023; 96:104805. [PMID: 37757570 PMCID: PMC10550634 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are no pharmacokinetic data of single low dose primaquine (SLDPQ) as transmission blocking in African children with acute Plasmodium falciparum and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PDd). METHODS Primaquine pharmacokinetics of age-dosed SLDPQ (shown previously to be gametocytocidal with similar tolerability as placebo) were characterised in falciparum-infected Ugandan and Congolese children aged 6 months to 11 years, treated on admission with standard 3-day dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine or artemether-lumefantrine plus SLDPQ: 6 m-<1 y: 1.25 mg, 1-5 y: 2.5 mg, 6-9 y: 5 mg, 10-11 y: 7.5 mg. LC-MS/MS-measured plasma primaquine and carboxyprimaquine (baseline, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 h) were analysed by noncompartmental analysis. Multivariable linear regression modelled associations between covariates, including cytochrome-P450 2D6 metaboliser status, and outcomes. FINDINGS 258 children (median age 5 [interquartile range (IQR) 3-7]) were sampled; 8 (3.1%) with early vomiting were excluded. Primaquine doses of 0.10-0.40 (median 0.21, IQR 0.16-0.25) mg base/kg resulted in primaquine maximum plasma concentrations (Cmax) of 2.3-447 (median 103.0, IQR 72.1-140.0) ng/mL between 1.0 and 8.0 (median 2) hours (Tmax) and median areas under the drug concentration curves (AUC0-last) 730.2 (6 m-<1 y, n = 12), 582.8 (1-5 y, n = 126), 871.1 (6-9 y, n = 80), and 931.0 (10-11 y, n = 32) ng∗h/mL. Median elimination half-live (T½) was 4.7 (IQR 3.8-5.6) hours. Primaquine clearance/kg peaked at 18 months, plateauing at 4 y. Increasing CYP2D6 metaboliser activity score [poor (3/250), intermediate (52/250), normal (150/250), ultrarapid (5/250), indeterminate (40/250)] and baseline haemoglobin were significantly associated with a lower primaquine AUC0-last,which increased with increasing mg/kg dose and age but was independent of the artemisinin treatment used. INTERPRETATION Age-dosed SLDPQ resulted in variable primaquine exposure that depended on bodyweight-adjusted dose, age, baseline haemoglobin and CYP2D6 metaboliser status, but not on dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine or artemether-lumefantrine. These data support age-dosed SLDPQ for transmission blocking in sub-Saharan Africa. FUNDING This work was cofunded by the UK Medical Research Council, Wellcome Trust, and UK Aid through the Global Health Trials (grant reference MR/P006973/1). The funders had no role in the study design, execution, and analysis and decisions regarding publication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mavuto Mukaka
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Marie A Onyamboko
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Avenue Tombalbaye 68-78, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Peter Olupot-Olupot
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda; Busitema University, P.O. Box 1460, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Pimnara Peerawaranun
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Kanokon Suwannasin
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Watcharee Pagornrat
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Jindarat Kouhathong
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Wanassanan Madmanee
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Winifred Were
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Cate Namayanja
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Peter Onyas
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Harriet Titin
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Joy Baseke
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Rita Muhindo
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Daddy K Kayembe
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Avenue Tombalbaye 68-78, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Pauline O Ndjowo
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Avenue Tombalbaye 68-78, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Benjamin B Basara
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Avenue Tombalbaye 68-78, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Georgette S Bongo
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, University of Kinshasa, Avenue Tombalbaye 68-78, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Charles B Okalebo
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Grace Abongo
- Mbale Clinical Research Institute (MCRI), P.O. Box 1966, Mbale, Uganda
| | - Sophie Uyoga
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Thomas N Williams
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya; Institute of Global Health Innovation, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, SW7 2AS, United Kingdom
| | - Chiraporn Taya
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Mehul Dhorda
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Arjen M Dondorp
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Naomi Waithira
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Mallika Imwong
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kathryn Maitland
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya; Institute of Global Health Innovation, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, SW7 2AS, United Kingdom
| | - Caterina Fanello
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas P J Day
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Joel Tarning
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J White
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Walter R J Taylor
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
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De-Oliveira ACAX, Paumgartten FJR. Malaria-induced Alterations of Drug Kinetics and Metabolism in Rodents and Humans. Curr Drug Metab 2021; 22:127-138. [PMID: 33397251 DOI: 10.2174/1389200221999210101232057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infections and inflammation lead to a downregulation of drug metabolism and kinetics in experimental animals. These changes in the expression and activities of drug-metabolizing enzymes may affect the effectiveness and safety of pharmacotherapy of infections and inflammatory conditions. OBJECTIVE In this review, we addressed the available evidence on the effects of malaria on drug metabolism activity and kinetics in rodents and humans. RESULTS An extensive literature review indicated that infection by Plasmodium spp consistently decreased the activity of hepatic Cytochrome P450s and phase-2 enzymes as well as the clearance of a variety of drugs in mice (lethal and non-lethal) and rat models of malaria. Malaria-induced CYP2A5 activity in the mouse liver was an exception. Except for paracetamol, pharmacokinetic trials in patients during acute malaria and in convalescence corroborated rodent findings. Trials showed that, in acute malaria, clearance of quinine, primaquine, caffeine, metoprolol, omeprazole, and antipyrine is slower and that AUCs are greater than in convalescent individuals. CONCLUSION Notwithstanding the differences between rodent models and human malaria, studies in P. falciparum and P. vivax patients confirmed rodent data showing that CYP-mediated clearance of antimalarials and other drugs is depressed during the symptomatic disease when rises in levels of acute-phase proteins and inflammatory cytokines occur. Evidence suggests that inflammatory cytokines and the interplay between malaria-activated NF-kB-signaling and cell pathways controlling phase 1/2 enzyme genes transcription mediate drug metabolism changes. The malaria-induced decrease in drug clearance may exacerbate drug-drug interactions, and the occurrence of adverse drug events, particularly when patients are treated with narrow-margin-of-safety medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C A X De-Oliveira
- Department of Biological Sciences, National School of Public Health, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Francisco J R Paumgartten
- Department of Biological Sciences, National School of Public Health, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Adebayo JO, Tijjani H, Adegunloye AP, Ishola AA, Balogun EA, Malomo SO. Enhancing the antimalarial activity of artesunate. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:2749-2764. [PMID: 32638101 PMCID: PMC7340003 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06786-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
The global challenge to the treatment of malaria is mainly the occurrence of resistance of malaria parasites to conventionally used antimalarials. Artesunate, a semisynthetic artemisinin compound, and other artemisinin derivatives are currently used in combination with selected active antimalarial drugs in order to prevent or delay the emergence of resistance to artemisinin derivatives. Several methods, such as preparation of hybrid compounds, combination therapy, chemical modification and the use of synthetic materials to enhance solubility and delivery of artesunate, have been employed over the years to improve the antimalarial activity of artesunate. Each of these methods has advantages it bestows on the efficacy of artesunate. This review discussed the various methods employed in enhancing the antimalarial activity of artesunate and delaying the emergence of resistance of parasite to it.
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Adebayo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
| | - H Tijjani
- Department of Biochemistry, Bauchi State University, Gadau, Bauchi State, Nigeria
| | - A P Adegunloye
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - A A Ishola
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - E A Balogun
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - S O Malomo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
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Lewis J, Gregorian T, Portillo I, Goad J. Drug interactions with antimalarial medications in older travelers: a clinical guide. J Travel Med 2020; 27:5644627. [PMID: 31776555 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taz089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Increasingly older adults are traveling to international destinations with malaria as a present risk. Surveillance systems indicate that older adults are more likely to suffer severe complications from malaria. The role of health care providers in selecting an appropriate medication for chemoprophylaxis or treatment of malaria in adults becomes more difficult as older adults undergo physiologic changes that alter the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic nature of medications potentially causing increased drug interactions, adverse events and altered drug action. A comprehensive literature search from 1970 to present, with a focus on the past 10 years, was conducted on drug interactions, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects on antimalarials in adults. It was determined that due to pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic changes in older adults, especially renal and cardiovascular, special attention should be given to this population of travelers in order to minimize the likelihood of adverse events or altered drug efficacy. Antimalarial drug-disease interactions in older adults can occur more often due to QT prolongation, exacerbation of hypoglycemia, decreased renal elimination and decreased hepatic metabolism. Older antimalarials have well-documented drug-drug interactions. Tafenoquine, a new antimalarial, requires glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase screening like primaquine and monitoring of new potential drug interaction with MATE1 and OCT2 substrates. While drug-drug interactions in older travelers may occur more often as a result of polypharmacy, data did not indicate adverse reactions or decreased drug efficacy is greater compared with younger adults. Overall, with the exception of recently approved tafenoquine, much is known about antimalarial drug and disease interactions, but new drugs are always being approved, requiring travel health providers to understand the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimalarial drugs to predict the impact on safety and efficacy in travelers. This guide provides travel health providers with valuable insights on potential outcomes associated with drug interactions in adults and recommended monitoring or drug regimen modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Lewis
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Tania Gregorian
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Ivan Portillo
- Leatherby Libraries, Chapman University, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jeff Goad
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, CA, USA
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Fasinu PS, Nanayakkara NPD, Wang YH, Chaurasiya ND, Herath HMB, McChesney JD, Avula B, Khan I, Tekwani BL, Walker LA. Formation primaquine-5,6-orthoquinone, the putative active and toxic metabolite of primaquine via direct oxidation in human erythrocytes. Malar J 2019; 18:30. [PMID: 30700282 PMCID: PMC6352325 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2658-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The activity and haemolytic toxicity associated with primaquine has been linked to its reactive metabolites. The reactive metabolites are thought to be primarily formed through the action of cytochrome P450-mediated pathways. Human erythrocytes generally are not considered a significant contributor to drug biotransformation. As erythrocytes are the target of primaquine toxicity, the ability of erythrocytes to mediate the formation of reactive oxidative primaquine metabolites in the absence of hepatic enzymes, was evaluated. METHODS Primaquine and its enantiomers were incubated separately with human red blood cells and haemoglobin. Post-incubation analysis was performed with UPLC-MS/MS to identify products of biotransformation. RESULTS The major metabolite detected was identified as primaquine-5,6-orthoquinone, reflecting the pathway yielding putative active and haematotoxic metabolites of primaquine, which was formed by oxidative demethylation of 5-hydroxyprimaquine. Incubation of primaquine with haemoglobin in a cell-free system yielded similar results. It appears that the observed biotransformation is due to non-enzymatic processes, perhaps due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) present in erythrocytes or in the haemoglobin incubates. CONCLUSION This study presents new evidence that primaquine-5,6-orthoquinone, the metabolite of primaquine reflecting the oxidative biotransformation pathway, is generated in erythrocytes, probably by non-enzymatic means, and may not require transport from the liver or other tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pius S Fasinu
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA. .,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Campbell University, Buies Creek, NC, 27501, USA.
| | - N P Dhammika Nanayakkara
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Yan-Hong Wang
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Narayan D Chaurasiya
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - H M Bandara Herath
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | | | - Bharathi Avula
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Ikhlas Khan
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Larry A Walker
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA. .,Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.
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Mello AGNC, Vieira MVDF, Sena LWPD, Paixão TPD, Pinto ACG, Grisólia DPDA, Silva MT, Vieira JLF. Levels of primaquine and carboxyprimaquine in patients with malaria vivax from the Brazilian Amazon basin. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2018; 60:e66. [PMID: 30379233 PMCID: PMC6201764 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-9946201860066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last two years, a substantial increase in the number of malaria vivax
cases has occurred in the Brazilian Amazon basin. The adequate exposure of
hypnozoites to primaquine is a matter of interest as these dormant forms are
responsible for the maintenance or even the increase of malaria burden in
endemic areas. The aim of this study was to estimate the levels of primaquine
and carboxyprimaquine in whole blood samples of patients with P.
vivax treated with chloroquine and an abbreviated regimen of
primaquine (0.5 mg/kg/d for 7 days), with adequate clinical and parasitological
outcomes after 180 days of follow-up. A total of 40 male patients met the
criteria for inclusion in the study. Primaquine and carboxyprimaquine were
measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. The levels of primaquine in
whole blood samples ranged from 40-238 ng/mL, 42-196 ng/mL and 42-150 ng/mL on
days 1, 3 and 7. The levels of carboxyprimaquine in whole blood samples ranged
from 87-234 ng/mL, 96-252 ng/mL and 74-448 ng/mL on days 1, 3 and 7. These data
provide a reliable estimation of exposure of the infecting parasite to
primaquine. Based on the regional pattern of relapse, the estimated blood levels
of primaquine can be considered effective against hypnozoites of the local
circulating strains of P. vivax.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Luann Wendel Pereira de Sena
- Universidade Federal do Pará, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Farmacocinética de Antimaláricos, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | - Thiago Portal da Paixão
- Universidade Federal do Pará, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Farmacocinética de Antimaláricos, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | - Ana Carla Godinho Pinto
- Universidade Federal do Pará, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Farmacocinética de Antimaláricos, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | | | - Margareth Tavares Silva
- Universidade Federal do Pará, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Farmacocinética de Antimaláricos, Belém, Pará, Brazil
| | - José Luiz Fernandes Vieira
- Universidade Federal do Pará, Faculdade de Farmácia, Laboratório de Farmacocinética de Antimaláricos, Belém, Pará, Brazil
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Kodchakorn C, Kesara NB. A review of clinical pharmacokinetics of chloroquine and primaquine and their application in malaria treatment in Thai population. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.5897/ajpp2017.4828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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9
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Leang R, Khu NH, Mukaka M, Debackere M, Tripura R, Kheang ST, Chy S, Kak N, Buchy P, Tarantola A, Menard D, Roca-Felterer A, Fairhurst RM, Kheng S, Muth S, Ngak S, Dondorp AM, White NJ, Taylor WRJ. An optimised age-based dosing regimen for single low-dose primaquine for blocking malaria transmission in Cambodia. BMC Med 2016; 14:171. [PMID: 27784313 PMCID: PMC5081959 DOI: 10.1186/s12916-016-0701-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2012, the World Health Organization recommended the addition of single low-dose primaquine (SLDPQ, 0.25 mg base/kg body weight) to artemisinin combination therapies to block the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum without testing for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. The targeted group was non-pregnant patients aged ≥ 1 year (later changed to ≥ 6 months) with acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria, primarily in countries with artemisinin-resistant P. falciparum (ARPf). No dosing regimen was suggested, leaving malaria control programmes and clinicians in limbo. Therefore, we designed a user-friendly, age-based SLDPQ regimen for Cambodia, the country most affected by ARPf. METHODS By reviewing primaquine's pharmacology, we defined a therapeutic dose range of 0.15-0.38 mg base/kg (9-22.5 mg in a 60-kg adult) for a therapeutic index of 2.5. Primaquine doses (1-20 mg) were tested using a modelled, anthropometric database of 28,138 Cambodian individuals (22,772 healthy, 4119 with malaria and 1247 with other infections); age distributions were: 0.5-4 years (20.0 %, n = 5640), 5-12 years (9.1 %, n = 2559), 13-17 years (9.1 %, n = 2550), and ≥ 18 years (61.8 %, n = 17,389). Optimal age-dosing groups were selected according to calculated mg base/kg doses and proportions of individuals receiving a therapeutic dose. RESULTS Four age-dosing bands were defined: (1) 0.5-4 years, (2) 5-9 years, (3) 10-14 years, and (4) ≥15 years to receive 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 15 mg of primaquine base, resulting in therapeutic doses in 97.4 % (5494/5640), 90.5 % (1511/1669), 97.7 % (1473/1508), and 95.7 % (18,489/19,321) of individuals, respectively. Corresponding median (1st-99th centiles) mg base/kg doses of primaquine were (1) 0.23 (0.15-0.38), (2) 0.29 (0.18-0.45), (3) 0.27 (0.15-0.39), and (4) 0.29 (0.20-0.42). CONCLUSIONS This age-based SLDPQ regimen could contribute substantially to malaria elimination and requires urgent evaluation in Cambodia and other countries with similar anthropometric characteristics. It guides primaquine manufacturers on suitable tablet strengths and doses for paediatric-friendly formulations. Development of similar age-based dosing recommendations for Africa is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rithea Leang
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Corner St. 92, Trapeng Svay Village, Sangkat Phnom Penh, Thmei, Khan Sen Sok, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Naw Htee Khu
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Mavuto Mukaka
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Oxford Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research Building, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Mark Debackere
- MSF Belgium Cambodia Malaria Program, #19, Street 388, Sangkat Tuol Svay Prey, Khan Chamkarmon, PO Box 1933, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Rupam Tripura
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Soy Ty Kheang
- University Research Co., LLC, MK Building, House #10 (2nd floor), St. 214, Chey Chumneas, Daun Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Say Chy
- University Research Co., LLC, MK Building, House #10 (2nd floor), St. 214, Chey Chumneas, Daun Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Neeraj Kak
- University Research Co., LLC Washington DC: 7200 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Philippe Buchy
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, 5 Monivong Boulevard, PO Box 983, Phnom Penh, 12201, Cambodia
| | - Arnaud Tarantola
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, 5 Monivong Boulevard, PO Box 983, Phnom Penh, 12201, Cambodia
| | - Didier Menard
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, 5 Monivong Boulevard, PO Box 983, Phnom Penh, 12201, Cambodia
| | - Arantxa Roca-Felterer
- Malaria Consortium, House #91 Street 95, Boeung Trabek, Chamkar Morn, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Rick M Fairhurst
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20852, USA
| | - Sim Kheng
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Corner St. 92, Trapeng Svay Village, Sangkat Phnom Penh, Thmei, Khan Sen Sok, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sinoun Muth
- National Center for Parasitology, Entomology and Malaria Control, Corner St. 92, Trapeng Svay Village, Sangkat Phnom Penh, Thmei, Khan Sen Sok, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Song Ngak
- FHI 360 Cambodia Office, #03, Street 330 Boeung Keng Kang III Khan Chamkamon, PO Box: 2586, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Arjen M Dondorp
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Oxford Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research Building, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Nicholas J White
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.,Oxford Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research Building, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Walter Robert John Taylor
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Rajthevee, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand. .,Oxford Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research Building, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK. .,Centre de Médecine Humanitaire, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Genève, Genève, Switzerland.
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10
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Fasinu PS, Tekwani BL, Avula B, Chaurasiya ND, Nanayakkara NPD, Wang YH, Khan IA, Walker LA. Pathway-specific inhibition of primaquine metabolism by chloroquine/quinine. Malar J 2016; 15:466. [PMID: 27618912 PMCID: PMC5020452 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1509-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There has been some evidence to suggest that the addition of chloroquine (CQ) or quinine (QN) to 8-aminoquinoline (8-AQ) treatment regimens may increase the therapeutic efficacy of the 8-AQ and simultaneously mitigate against its haemolytic toxicity. However, both CQ and QN are considered effective, although perhaps moderate inhibitors of CYP2D6, an enzyme now regarded as necessary for primaquine (PQ) pharmacologic activity. An understanding of the influence of CQ and QN on the metabolism of PQ may shed light on the potential mechanisms of the beneficial interaction. Methods Differential metabolism of PQ enantiomers by recombinant human CYP2D6, monoamine oxidase A (MAO), and cryopreserved human hepatocytes in the presence/absence of CQ and QN. Results Both CQ and QN significantly inhibited the activity of CYP2D6. PQ depletion by MAO and human hepatocytes was not affected significantly by the presence of CQ and QN. CYP2D6-mediated hydroxylation was largely suppressed by both CQ and QN. The formation of the primary deaminated metabolites, including carboxyprimaquine (CPQ) and cyclized side chain derivative from the aldehyde (m/z 241), was not sensitive to the presence of CQ and QN. However, the appearance of the glucuronides of CPQ and PQ alcohol were significantly suppressed. CQ and QN also inhibited the appearance of the m/z 257 metabolite with a similar pattern, suggesting that it may be derived from the CPQ conjugate. The apparent quinone-imine of CPQ (m/z 289) was only partially suppressed by both QN and CQ, but with a differential pattern of inhibition for the two drugs. The m/z 274 (quinone-imine of a ring-hydroxylated PQ metabolite) and m/z 422 (an apparent glucose conjugate of PQ) metabolites in hepatocytes were strongly suppressed by both QN and CQ, perhaps a reflection of the 2D6 inhibition by these drugs. The formation of the carbamoyl glucuronide of PQ (m/z 480) was not affected by CQ/QN. Conclusion The metabolite-specific interactions in the current studies seem at variance with earlier reports of the dependence of PQ on CYP2D6 metabolism, and enhanced PQ anti-malarial activity/reduced toxicity in the presence of CQ/QN. These results suggest a complex picture in which CQ/QN may shift metabolite pathway balances towards a profile that retains efficacy, while reducing the formation or availability of toxic metabolites to erythrocytes. Alternatively, these drugs may alter transport or distribution of PQ metabolites in a fashion that reduces toxicity while maintaining efficacy against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pius S Fasinu
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.,Departments of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Bharathi Avula
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Narayan D Chaurasiya
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - N P Dhammika Nanayakkara
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Yan-Hong Wang
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Ikhlas A Khan
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.,Departments of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
| | - Larry A Walker
- The National Center for Natural Products Research, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA.,Departments of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677, USA
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11
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Abstract
Introduction: Relapses are important contributors to illness and morbidity in Plasmodium vivax and P. ovale infections. Relapse prevention (radical cure) with primaquine is required for optimal management, control and ultimately elimination of Plasmodium vivax malaria. A review was conducted with publications in English, French, Portuguese and Spanish using the search terms ‘P. vivax’ and ‘relapse’. Areas covered: Hypnozoites causing relapses may be activated weeks or months after initial infection. Incidence and temporal patterns of relapse varies geographically. Relapses derive from parasites either genetically similar or different from the primary infection indicating that some derive from previous infections. Malaria illness itself may activate relapse. Primaquine is the only widely available treatment for radical cure. However, it is often not given because of uncertainty over the risks of primaquine induced haemolysis when G6PD deficiency testing is unavailable. Recommended dosing of primaquine for radical cure in East Asia and Oceania is 0.5 mg base/kg/day and elsewhere is 0.25 mg base/kg/day. Alternative treatments are under investigation. Expert commentary: Geographic heterogeneity in relapse patterns and chloroquine susceptibility of P. vivax, and G6PD deficiency epidemiology mean that radical treatment should be given much more than it is today. G6PD testing should be made widely available so primaquine can be given more safely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy S Chu
- a Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine , Mahidol University , Mae Sot , Thailand.,b Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Nicholas J White
- b Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand.,c Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
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12
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Gerardin J, Eckhoff P, Wenger EA. Mass campaigns with antimalarial drugs: a modelling comparison of artemether-lumefantrine and DHA-piperaquine with and without primaquine as tools for malaria control and elimination. BMC Infect Dis 2015; 15:144. [PMID: 25887935 PMCID: PMC4376519 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-015-0887-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Antimalarial drugs are a powerful tool for malaria control and elimination. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) can reduce transmission when widely distributed in a campaign setting. Modelling mass antimalarial campaigns can elucidate how to most effectively deploy drug-based interventions and quantitatively compare the effects of cure, prophylaxis, and transmission-blocking in suppressing parasite prevalence. Methods A previously established agent-based model that includes innate and adaptive immunity was used to simulate malaria infections and transmission. Pharmacokinetics of artemether, lumefantrine, dihydroartemisinin, piperaquine, and primaquine were modelled with a double-exponential distribution-elimination model including weight-dependent parameters and age-dependent dosing. Drug killing of asexual parasites and gametocytes was calibrated to clinical data. Mass distribution of ACTs and primaquine was simulated with seasonal mosquito dynamics at a range of transmission intensities. Results A single mass campaign with antimalarial drugs is insufficient to permanently reduce malaria prevalence when transmission is high. Current diagnostics are insufficiently sensitive to accurately identify asymptomatic infections, and mass-screen-and-treat campaigns are much less efficacious than mass drug administrations. Improving campaign coverage leads to decreased prevalence one month after the end of the campaign, while increasing compliance lengthens the duration of protection against reinfection. Use of a long-lasting prophylactic as part of a mass drug administration regimen confers the most benefit under conditions of high transmission and moderately high coverage. Addition of primaquine can reduce prevalence but exerts its largest effect when coupled with a long-lasting prophylactic. Conclusions Mass administration of antimalarial drugs can be a powerful tool to reduce prevalence for a few months post-campaign. A slow-decaying prophylactic administered with a parasite-clearing drug offers strong protection against reinfection, especially in highly endemic areas. Transmission-blocking drugs have only limited effects unless administered with a prophylactic under very high coverage. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-015-0887-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaline Gerardin
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Intellectual Ventures, 1555 132nd Ave NE, Bellevue, WA, 98005, USA.
| | - Philip Eckhoff
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Intellectual Ventures, 1555 132nd Ave NE, Bellevue, WA, 98005, USA.
| | - Edward A Wenger
- Institute for Disease Modeling, Intellectual Ventures, 1555 132nd Ave NE, Bellevue, WA, 98005, USA.
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13
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Pharmacokinetic interactions between primaquine and pyronaridine-artesunate in healthy adult Thai subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 59:505-13. [PMID: 25385096 PMCID: PMC4291381 DOI: 10.1128/aac.03829-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyronaridine-artesunate is a newly introduced artemisinin-based combination treatment which may be deployed together with primaquine. A single-dose, randomized, three-sequence crossover study was conducted in healthy Thai volunteers to characterize potential pharmacokinetic interactions between these drugs. Seventeen healthy adults received a single oral dose of primaquine alone (30 mg base) and were then randomized to receive pyronaridine-artesunate alone (540−180 mg) or pyronaridine-artesunate plus primaquine in combination, with intervening washout periods between all treatments. The pharmacokinetic properties of primaquine, its metabolite carboxyprimaquine, artesunate, its metabolite dihydroartemisinin, and pyronaridine were assessed in 15 subjects using a noncompartmental approach followed by a bioequivalence evaluation. All drugs were well tolerated. The single oral dose of primaquine did not result in any clinically relevant pharmacokinetic alterations to pyronaridine, artesunate, or dihydroartemisinin exposures. There were significantly higher primaquine maximum plasma drug concentrations (geometric mean ratio, 30%; 90% confidence interval [CI], 17% to 46%) and total exposures (15%; 6.4% to 24%) during coadministration with pyronaridine-artesunate than when primaquine was given alone. Pyronaridine, like chloroquine and piperaquine, increases plasma primaquine concentrations. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under registration no. NCT01552330.)
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14
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Open-label crossover study of primaquine and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine pharmacokinetics in healthy adult thai subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:7340-6. [PMID: 25267661 PMCID: PMC4249579 DOI: 10.1128/aac.03704-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine is an artemisinin-based combination treatment (ACT) recommended by the WHO for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria, and it is being used increasingly for resistant vivax malaria where combination with primaquine is required for radical cure. The WHO recently reinforced its recommendations to add a single dose of primaquine to ACTs to reduce P. falciparum transmission in low-transmission settings. The pharmacokinetics of primaquine and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine were evaluated in 16 healthy Thai adult volunteers in a randomized crossover study. Volunteers were randomized to two groups of three sequential hospital admissions to receive 30 mg (base) primaquine, 3 tablets of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (120/960 mg), and the drugs together at the same doses. Blood sampling was performed over 3 days following primaquine and 36 days following dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine dosing. Pharmacokinetic assessment was done with a noncompartmental approach. The drugs were well tolerated. There were no statistically significant differences in dihydroartemisinin and piperaquine pharmacokinetics with or without primaquine. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine coadministration significantly increased plasma primaquine levels; geometric mean ratios (90% confidence interval [CI]) of primaquine combined versus primaquine alone for maximum concentration (Cmax), area under the concentration-time curve from 0 h to the end of the study (AUC0–last), and area under the concentration-time curve from 0 h to infinity (AUC0–∞) were 148% (117 to 187%), 129% (103 to 163%), and 128% (102 to 161%), respectively. This interaction is similar to that described recently with chloroquine and may result in an enhanced radical curative effect. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under registration no. NCT01525511.)
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15
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Abstract
Chloroquine combined with primaquine has been the standard radical curative regimen for Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale malaria for over half a century. In an open-label crossover pharmacokinetic study, 16 healthy volunteers (4 males and 12 females) aged 20 to 47 years were randomized into two groups of three sequential hospital admissions to receive a single oral dose of 30 mg (base) primaquine, 600 mg (base) chloroquine, and the two drugs together. The coadministration of the two drugs did not affect chloroquine or desethylchloroquine pharmacokinetics but increased plasma primaquine concentrations significantly (P ≤ 0.005); the geometric mean (90% confidence interval [CI]) increases were 63% (47 to 81%) in maximum concentration and 24% (13 to 35%) in total exposure. There were also corresponding increases in plasma carboxyprimaquine concentrations (P ≤ 0.020). There were no significant electrocardiographic changes following primaquine administration, but there was slight corrected QT (QTc) (Fridericia) interval lengthening following chloroquine administration (median [range] = 6.32 [−1.45 to 12.3] ms; P < 0.001), which was not affected by the addition of primaquine (5.58 [1.74 to 11.4] ms; P = 0.642). This pharmacokinetic interaction may explain previous observations of synergy in preventing P. vivax relapse. This trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under reference number NCT01218932.
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16
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Pharmacokinetic properties of single-dose primaquine in Papua New Guinean children: feasibility of abbreviated high-dose regimens for radical cure of vivax malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:432-9. [PMID: 24189254 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01437-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Since conventional 14-day primaquine (PMQ) radical cure of vivax malaria is associated with poor compliance, and as total dose, not therapy duration, determines efficacy, a preliminary pharmacokinetic study of two doses (0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg of body weight) was conducted in 28 healthy glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-normal Papua New Guinean children, aged 5 to 12 years, to facilitate development of abbreviated high-dose regimens. Dosing was with food and was directly observed, and venous blood samples were drawn during a 168-h postdose period. Detailed safety monitoring was performed for hepatorenal function and hemoglobin and methemoglobin concentrations. Plasma concentrations of PMQ and its metabolite carboxyprimaquine (CPMQ) were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and analyzed using population pharmacokinetic methods. The derived models were used in simulations. Both single-dose regimens were well tolerated with no changes in safety parameters. The mean PMQ central volume of distribution and clearance relative to bioavailability (200 liters/70 kg and 24.6 liters/h/70 kg) were within published ranges for adults. The median predicted maximal concentrations (Cmax) for both PMQ and CPMQ after the last dose of a 1.0 mg/kg 7-day PMQ regimen were approximately double those at the end of 14 days of 0.5 mg/kg daily, while a regimen of 1.0 mg/kg twice daily resulted in a 2.38 and 3.33 times higher Cmax for PMQ and CPMQ, respectively. All predicted median Cmax concentrations were within ranges for adult high-dose studies that also showed acceptable safety and tolerability. The present pharmacokinetic data, the first for PMQ in children, show that further studies of abbreviated high-dose regimens are feasible in this age group.
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17
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White NJ, Qiao LG, Qi G, Luzzatto L. Rationale for recommending a lower dose of primaquine as a Plasmodium falciparum gametocytocide in populations where G6PD deficiency is common. Malar J 2012; 11:418. [PMID: 23237606 PMCID: PMC3546849 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In areas of low malaria transmission, it is currently recommended that a single dose of primaquine (0.75 mg base/kg; 45 mg adult dose) be added to artemisinin combination treatment (ACT) in acute falciparum malaria to block malaria transmission. Review of studies of transmission-blocking activity based on the infectivity of patients or volunteers to anopheline mosquitoes, and of haemolytic toxicity in glucose 6-dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficient subjects, suggests that a lower primaquine dose (0.25 mg base/kg) would be safer and equally effective. This lower dose could be deployed together with ACTs without G6PD testing wherever use of a specific gametocytocide is indicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J White
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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18
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Abstract
Falciparum malaria is transmitted by anopheline mosquitoes that have fed on blood containing gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum. In areas of low malaria transmission, where symptomatic infections contribute substantially to malaria transmission, the use of gametocytocidal drugs reduces the incidence of malaria. Artemisinin-based combination therapies provide high cure rates and substantially reduce gametocyte carriage. Artemisinin resistance in P falciparum lessens overall gametocytocidal activity, which provides a selective pressure to the spread of these resistant parasites. The 8-aminoquinoline compounds possess unique gametocytocidal properties and rapidly sterilise the mature transmissible stages of P falciparum. The addition of one dose of primaquine to artemisinin-based combination regimens could help to counter the spread of artemisinin resistance. Although primaquine is commonly recommended for falciparum and vivax malaria, concerns about drug-related haemolysis frequently prevent its administration. The limited available evidence on transmission-blocking effects of primaquine and its forerunner plasmoquine suggests that doses lower than currently recommended (0.50-0.75 mg base per kg), which would be safer, might still be very effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J White
- Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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19
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Nair A, Abrahamsson B, Barends DM, Groot D, Kopp S, Polli JE, Shah VP, Dressman JB. Biowaiver Monographs for Immediate-Release Solid Oral Dosage Forms: Primaquine Phosphate. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:936-45. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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20
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Myint HY, Berman J, Walker L, Pybus B, Melendez V, Baird JK, Ohrt C. Review: Improving the therapeutic index of 8-aminoquinolines by the use of drug combinations: review of the literature and proposal for future investigations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011; 85:1010-4. [PMID: 22144436 PMCID: PMC3225144 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-0498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Because 8-aminoquinolines affect critical survival stages of Plasmodium parasites, treatment and control of malaria could be markedly improved by more widespread use of these drugs; however, hemolytic toxicity, which is widely prevalent in G6PD-deficient patients, severely constrains this use. Primaquine was approved more than 50 years ago after extensive clinical testing. Review of the mid-20th century literature in the light of present understanding of pharmacokinetics and metabolism suggests that manipulation of these factors might dissociate 8-aminoquinoline efficacy from toxicity and lead to an improved therapeutic index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hla Y Myint
- Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA.
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21
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Petersen I, Eastman R, Lanzer M. Drug-resistant malaria: molecular mechanisms and implications for public health. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:1551-62. [PMID: 21530510 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to antimalarial drugs has often threatened malaria elimination efforts and historically has led to the short-term resurgence of malaria incidences and deaths. With concentrated malaria eradication efforts currently underway, monitoring drug resistance in clinical settings complemented by in vitro drug susceptibility assays and analysis of resistance markers, becomes critical to the implementation of an effective antimalarial drug policy. Understanding of the factors, which lead to the development and spread of drug resistance, is necessary to design optimal prevention and treatment strategies. This review attempts to summarize the unique factors presented by malarial parasites that lead to the emergence and spread of drug resistance, and gives an overview of known resistance mechanisms to currently used antimalarial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Petersen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Parasitology, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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22
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Le nouvel âge de la primaquine contre le paludisme. Med Mal Infect 2008; 38:169-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medmal.2008.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2007] [Revised: 09/20/2007] [Accepted: 01/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bray PG, Deed S, Fox E, Kalkanidis M, Mungthin M, Deady LW, Tilley L. Primaquine synergises the activity of chloroquine against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum. Biochem Pharmacol 2005; 70:1158-66. [PMID: 16139253 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2005.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2005] [Revised: 07/20/2005] [Accepted: 07/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, resistance to the antimalarial drug, chloroquine, has become widespread. It is, therefore, imperative to find compounds that could replace chloroquine or work synergistically with this drug to overcome chloroquine resistance. We have examined the interaction between chloroquine, a 4-aminoquinoline, and a number of 8-aminoquinolines, including primaquine, a drug that is widely used to treat Plasmodium vivax infections. We find that primaquine is a potent synergiser of the activity of chloroquine against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Analysis of matched transfectants expressing mutant and wild-type alleles of the P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT) indicate that primaquine exerts its activity by blocking PfCRT, and thus enhancing chloroquine accumulation. Our data suggest that a novel formulation of two antimalarial drugs already licensed for use in humans could be used to treat chloroquine-resistant parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G Bray
- Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK
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24
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Abstract
Combination of antimalarial agents has been introduced as a response to widespread drug resistance. The higher number of mutations required to express complete resistance against combinations may retard the further development of resistance. Combination of drugs, especially with the artemisinin drugs, may also offer complete and rapid eradication of the parasite load in symptomatic patients and thus reduce the chance of survival of resistant strains. The advantages of combination therapy should be balanced against the increased chance of drug interactions. During the last decade, much of the pharmacokinetics and metabolic pathways of antimalarial drugs have been elucidated, including the role of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme complex. Change in protein binding is not a significant cause of interactions between antimalarial agents. CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 are frequently involved in the metabolism of antimalarial agents. Quinidine is a potent inhibitor of CYP2D6, but it appears that this enzyme does not mediate the metabolism of any other antimalarial agent. The new combinations proguanil-atovaquone and chlorproguanil-dapsone do not show significant interactions. CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 are involved in the metabolism of artemisinin and derivatives, but further studies may reveal involvement of more enzymes. Artemisinin may induce CYP2C19. Several artemisinin drugs suffer from auto-induction of the first-pass effect, resulting in a decline of bioavailability after repeated doses. The mechanism of this effect is not yet clear, but induction by other agents cannot be excluded. The combination of artemisinin drugs with mefloquine and the fixed combination artemether-lumefantrine have been studied widely, and no significant drug interactions have been found. The artemisinin drugs will be used at an increasing rate, particularly in combination with other agents. Although clinical studies have so far not shown any significant interactions, drug interactions should be given appropriate attention when other combinations are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- P T Giao
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Tropical Medicine and AIDS, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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26
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Na-Bangchang K, Karbwang J, Ubalee R, Thanavibul A, Saenglertsilapachai S. Absence of significant pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between artemether and quinoline antimalarials. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2000; 25:171-8. [PMID: 11420886 DOI: 10.1007/bf03192310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2022]
Abstract
The study was carried out to investigate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between artemether (ARTEM) and quinoline antimalarials namely mefloquine (MQ), quinine (QN) and primaquine (PQ) when given concurrently. A randomised comparative, seven way cross-over design was performed in eight healthy male Thais following the administrations of seven drug regimens on seven occasions i.e. a single oral dose of ARTEM (300 mg), or MQ (750 mg), or QN (600 mg), or PQ (45 mg) alone, or the combination of ARTEM (300 mg) with MQ (750 mg), or QN (600 mg), or PQ (45 mg). All clinical and laboratory parameters were normal in all subjects, before, during and after the study. The eight subject experienced no adverse effect after ARTEM, QN, PQ alone regimens, or combination of ARTEM with QN and PQ. After administration of MQ in either occasion, 3 subjects had weakness, nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea; one subject complained of dizziness. All symptoms were mild and occurred during the first day of MQ administration. The fitting of the concentration-time curves of ARTEM, QN and PQ, to a one-compartment model with first order absorption yielded satisfactory results in all subjects. The best fit model for MQ was two-compartment model with first order absorption. The pharmacokinetics of all investigated drug, when given alone or in combination were not significantly different.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Na-Bangchang
- Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Thammasat University, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand
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27
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Strolin Benedetti M, Tipton KF. Monoamine oxidases and related amine oxidases as phase I enzymes in the metabolism of xenobiotics. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 1998; 52:149-71. [PMID: 9564617 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6499-0_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
To date most of the interest in oxidative metabolism of xenobiotics has been devoted to the role of the microsomal cytochrome P-450 system and to establish the basis for classifying and naming P450 enzymes. The contribution of amine oxidases to the metabolism of xenobiotics has been largely neglected, with the exception of the contribution of monoamine oxidases (MAOs) to the metabolism of exogenous tyramine and the studies of the "cheese effect" produced as the result of ingestion of large amounts of tyramine-containing foods under particular conditions. A review of the involvement of the mitochondrial MAOs in drug metabolism was published in 1988. Since that time, considerable additional evidence has appeared in the literature to support the contribution of MAOs to drug metabolism. In addition, the involvement of other amine oxidases in the metabolism of foreign compounds has been established. A second review on the contribution of amine oxidases to the metabolism of xenobiotics was therefore published in 1994. On an arbitrary basis, the heterogeneous class of amine oxidases can be divided into two types according to their prosthetic group: the flavineadenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent amine oxidases (Monoamine Oxidase and Polyamine Oxidase) and the amine oxidases not containing FAD (Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidases). In this overview, the contributions of these two types in xenobiotic metabolism are considered separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Strolin Benedetti
- Department of Preclinical Development and Human Pharmacology, Zambon Group, Bresso, Italy
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28
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Dua VK, Kar PK, Sarin R, Sharma VP. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of primaquine and carboxyprimaquine concentrations in plasma and blood cells in Plasmodium vivax malaria cases following chronic dosage with primaquine. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 1996; 675:93-8. [PMID: 8634775 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(95)00357-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A reversed-phase HPLC method using acetonitrile-methanol-1 M perchloric acid-water (30:9:1:95, v/v) at a flow-rate of 1.5 ml/min on a mu-Bondapak C18 column with UV detection at 254 nm was developed for the separation of primaquine, its major metabolite carboxyprimaquine and other metabolites such as N-acetylprimaquine, 4-hydroxyprimaquine, 5-hydroxyprimaquine, 5-hydroxy-6-methoxyprimaquine, demethylprimaquine and 6-methoxyprimaquine, and also other antimalarials. The calibration graphs were linear in the range 0.025-100 micrograms/ml for primaquine and 4-1000 micrograms/ml for carboxyprimaquine. The within-day and day-to-day coefficients of variation averaged 3.65 and 6.95%, respectively, for primaquine and 3.0 and 7.52%, respectively for carboxyprimaquine in plasma. The extraction recoveries for primaquine and carboxyprimaquine were 89 and 83%, respectively. The mean carboxyprimaquine concentration was much higher in plasma and blood cells of Plasmodium vivax patients than that in plasma from healthy subjects. The carboxyprimaquine level was also higher in blood cells than plasma whereas the primaquine concentration was the same in both cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- V K Dua
- Malaria Research Centre, Ranipur, Hardwar, India
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29
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Ismail S, Na Bangchang K, Karbwang J, Back DJ, Edwards G. Paracetamol disposition in Thai patients during and after treatment of falciparum malaria. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 48:65-9. [PMID: 7621851 DOI: 10.1007/bf00202175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Investigations in animals have suggested that conjugation of paracetamol may be reduced in malaria. We have measured plasma concentrations and the urinary excretion of paracetamol and its phase II metabolites in eight Thai patients during uncomplicated falciparum malaria and in convalescence, following a 1000 mg single oral dose. The apparent oral clearance (Malaria, 3.6; Convalescence, 3.9; ml.min-1.kg-1), the elimination half-life (Malaria, 3.8; Convalescence, 3.7 h) and apparent volume of distribution (Malaria, 1.2; Convalescence, 1.2; l.kg-1) of paracetamol were similar during malaria and convalescence. In addition, the urinary excretion of paracetamol and its major phase II metabolites and their formation clearances from paracetamol were not significantly different between the two study phases. These data show that clinical malaria infection has no effect on the conjugation of paracetamol in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ismail
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Liverpool, UK
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Bangchang KN, Songsaeng W, Thanavibul A, Choroenlarp P, Karbwang J. Pharmacokinetics of primaquine in G6PD deficient and G6PD normal patients with vivax malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1994; 88:220-2. [PMID: 8036681 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(94)90306-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of primaquine have been studied in 13 G6PD normal and 13 G6PD deficient Thai male patients with Plasmodium vivax malaria who were given daily doses of 15 mg of primaquine over 14 d, following a full course of chloroquine. After the first dose (15 mg), primaquine underwent rapid absorption. Mean values (SD in parentheses) of maximum plasma concentration of 57.7 (7.7) vs. 55.7 (7.4) ng/mL were reached at 2.2 (0.6) vs. 2.2 (0.6) h, for the G6PD deficient and G6PD normal groups, respectively. Thereafter, drug levels declined rapidly and monoexponentially with a t1/2 lambda of 6.4 (1.9) vs. 6.3 (2.7) h. The respective mean values (SD in parentheses) for MRT, AUC0-varies; is directly proportional to Cl/f, and Vz/f were 6.8 (0.4) vs. 6.8 (0.5) h, 0.547 (0.070) vs. 0.521 (0.090) micrograms/h/mL, 8.54 (0.37) vs. 8.97 (1.46) mL/min/kg and 4.8 (1.7) vs. 5.1 (1.2) L/kg. There was no difference in the plasma concentrations or pharmacokinetics of primaquine between patients with normal G6PD and G6PD deficiency. In the G6PD deficient group, no relationship between the severity of haemolysis (< 20% or > 20% haemolysis) and the concentrations/pharmacokinetics of primaquine was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K N Bangchang
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Benedetti
- Farmitalia Carlo Erba, R&D-Erbamont Group, Milan, Italy
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