The secular trends in height and weight of Turkish school children during 1993-2003

Secular trend and social variation in height of Polish schoolchildren between 1966 and 2012

AIM

To assess secular trend and changes in social inequalities of children's height across nearly 50 years, when vast socio-political changes took place in Poland.

METHODS

Data on schoolchildren aged 7-18 years were collected in 1966, 1978, 1988 and 2012 in Poland. Height was standardised for age using the LMS method. Socio-economic status (SES) was based on 4 factors: urbanisation level, mother's and father's education, and family size (number of children). Statistics included 2-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey's test and effect size calculations.

RESULTS

Positive secular trend in height was observed across all years. All analysed SES factors had significant effect on height which differed depending on SES category and year of Survey. Differences in height between extreme categories of SES factors decreased gradually, starting from 1978. However, only general SES in girls and urbanisation level in both sexes became insignificant in 2012.

CONCLUSION

Improvement of living conditions across nearly 50 years was reflected in the secular trend in children's height. Despite this improvement, however, the biological effects of social inequalities, visible in differences in height, to some extent, are still present in Poland.

Trajectories in Body Height, Body Weight, BMI, and Nutrition Status From 1979 to 1987: A Measurement-Based Analysis of 15,717 Male Adolescents From the Capital City of Montenegro

Introduction and Objective: This study aimed to consolidate body height and body weight, as well as the body mass index and nutrition status data of the entire male population of adolescents from Podgorica, the capital of Montenegro, in order to estimate trajectories in ahead mentioned variables from 1979 to 1987.

Methods: The sample includes 15,717 male adolescents divided into nine groups according to their year of birth. The sample of variables includes body height, body weight, and body mass index, as well as nutrition status, which was presented based on BMI standardized categories (underweight, normal weight, pre-obese, obese). The descriptive statistics were expressed as a mean and standard deviation for each variable, while post-hoc test with ANOVA were employed to explore differences between the means.

Results and Discussion: This study did not find significant differences in the body proportions of the measured group of subjects during the observed period, but some descriptive differences were observed that might be of interest for further analysis, especially when it comes to nutritional status.

Conclusions: The novelty and the original contribution of this study is reflected in the fact that descriptive data from the second half of the 20th century have been published, which can significantly help to follow the secular trend of one of the tallest nations in the world from the beginning of the 20th century—Montenegro—which has specific body proportions.

Changes in the intracranial volume from early adulthood to the sixth decade of life: A longitudinal study

Normal brain-aging occurs at all structural levels. Excessive pathophysiological changes in the brain, beyond the normal one, are implicated in the etiology of brain disorders such as severe forms of the schizophrenia spectrum and dementia. To account for brain-aging in health and disease, it is critical to study the age-dependent trajectories of brain biomarkers at various levels and among different age groups. The intracranial volume (ICV) is a key biological marker, and changes in the ICV during the lifespan can teach us about the biology of development, aging, and gene X environment interactions. However, whether ICV changes with age in adulthood is not resolved. Applying a semi-automatic in-house-built algorithm for ICV extraction on T1w MR brain scans in the Dutch longitudinal cohort (GROUP), we measured ICV changes. Individuals between the ages of 16 and 55 years were scanned up to three consecutive times with 3.32±0.32 years between consecutive scans (N = 482, 359, 302). Using the extracted ICVs, we calculated ICV longitudinal aging-trajectories based on three analysis methods; direct calculation of ICV differences between the first and the last scan, fitting all ICV measurements of individuals to a straight line, and applying a global linear mixed model fitting. We report statistically significant increase in the ICV in adulthood until the fourth decade of life (average change +0.03%/y, or about 0.5 ml/y, at age 20), and decrease in the ICV afterward (-0.09%/y, or about -1.2 ml/y, at age 55). To account for previous cross-sectional reports of ICV changes, we analyzed the same data using a cross-sectional approach. Our cross-sectional analysis detected ICV changes consistent with the previously reported cross-sectional effect. However, the reported amount of cross-sectional changes within this age range was significantly larger than the longitudinal changes. We attribute the cross-sectional results to a generational effect. In conclusion, the human intracranial volume does not stay constant during adulthood but instead shows a small increase during young adulthood and a decrease thereafter from the fourth decade of life. The age-related changes in the longitudinalmeasure are smaller than those reported using cross-sectional approaches and unlikely to affect structural brain imaging studies correcting for intracranial volume considerably. As to the possible mechanisms involved, this awaits further study, although thickening of the meninges and skull bones have been proposed, as well as a smaller amount of brain fluids addition above the overall loss of brain tissue.

Secular trends in height, weight and body mass index of primary school children in Turkey between 1993 and 2016

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to analyze the secular trends in height, weight and body mass index (BMI) of children in a Turkish primary school in a 23-year time interval.

METHODS

The height, weight and BMI of 1099 children between 7 and 15 years old were measured. Data were compared to those of children of the same ages from previous measurements carried out in 1993 (867 children) and in 2003 (1214 children) in the same school. The changes in weight, height and BMI were determined and analyzed statistically.

RESULTS

Weight increments between 7.7 and 16.2 kg/23 years and height increments between 1.1 and 8.3 cm/23 years were observed in boys. For girls, weight increments between 6.5 and 13.4 kg/23 years and height increments between 1.3 and 7.2 cm/23 years were indicated. Usually, there were significant height increments between 1993 and 2016 in both genders. However, there were no significant differences in height between 2003 and 2016 for all age groups. Furthermore, there were significant differences in BMI measurements in all age and gender groups between 1993 and 2016.

CONCLUSIONS

The secular ascending trend in height seems to stop between 2003 and 2016; however, increments in weight and mean BMI tend to continue in Turkish primary school children and adolescents.

Intergenerational changes in chest size and proportions in children and adolescents aged 3-18 from Kraków (Poland), within the last 70 years

OBJECTIVES

The size and proportions of the human body change continuously in response to social change and economic development. As reported by papers on intergenerational changes in chest size, this part of the human body is also influenced by environmental factors. The aim of this study was to assess changes in the dimensions and proportions of the chest of children and adolescents over a span of 70 years.

METHODS

In 2010 an anthropological study was conducted on 3878 children and adolescents aged 3-18 years living in Kraków (Poland). Data on chest dimensions (breadth, depth, circumference, chest index) were compared to data from 1938 (3719 children) and 1983 (6464 children).

RESULTS

In boys, chests became increasingly deep; in boys 18 years of age, the chest index increased by 4.8 units, unlike girls, whose chests markedly flattened. The chest index in girls 18 years of age decreased by 4.2 units. In almost all age categories these differences were statistically significant. Also, in all age categories, children studied in 2010 had a significantly bigger chest circumference than boys and girls surveyed in 1983, respectively, by averages of 3.6 cm and 3 cm.

CONCLUSIONS

The main reason for these changes may be the socio-economic transformation, which has been especially strong in recent decades. These results may have practical importance in many areas of knowledge, including medicine, nutritional science, and sports. They can also be important for informing preventive measures that should be taken in order to increase the physical activity of children and youth, especially boys.

Trend in height of Turkish and Moroccan children living in the Netherlands

Objectives

To study trends in height of Turkish and Moroccan immigrant children living in The Netherlands, to investigate the association between height and background characteristics in these children, and to calculate height-for-age-references data for these groups.

Design

Nationwide cross-sectional data collection from children aged 0 to 18 years by trained professionals in 1997 and 2009. The study population consisted of 2,822 Turkish 2,779 Moroccan, and 13,705 Dutch origin children in 1997and 2,548 Turkish, 2,594 Moroccan, and 11,255 Dutch origin children in 2009. Main outcome measures: Mean height in cm, and mean height standard deviation scores.

Results

In 2009, mean height at the age of 18y was similar for Turkish and Moroccan children: 177 cm for boys and 163 cm for girls, which was 2 to 3 cm taller than in 1997. Still, Turkish and Moroccan adolescents were 5.5 cm (boys) to 7 cm (girls) shorter than their Dutch peers. No significant differences were found in mean height standard deviation scores across the educational level of the parents, geographical region, primary language spoken at home, and immigrant generation.

Conclusions

While the secular height increase in Dutch children came to a halt, the trend in Turkish and Moroccan children living in The Netherlands continued. However, large differences in height between Turkish and Moroccan children and Dutch children remain. We found no association with the background characteristics. We recommend the use of the new growth charts for children of Turkish and Moroccan origin who have a height-for-age below -2SD on the growth chart for Dutch children.

Secular trends in body height and body mass in 19-year-old Polish men based on six national surveys from 1965 to 2010

OBJECTIVES

The aim was to determine whether an intergenerational trend toward increased stature is slowing down, and whether body weight has recently increased among young men in Poland, as it has in Western European countries.

METHODS

Data were taken from six national surveys of 19-year-old Polish male conscripts from cohorts 1965, 1976, 1986, 1995, 2001, and 2010.

RESULTS

The mean stature of this population increased throughout the last 45 years from 170.5 cm in 1965 to 178.3 in 2010. However, the average gain in stature per decade declined from 2.4 cm in the period 1965 to 1976 to 0.8 cm per decade in 1995 to 2001, but increased to 1.0 cm in the last period. The average of body weight increased from 63.2 kg in 1965 to 73.1 in 2010 and body mass index (BMI) rose from 21.73 to 22.94 in the same period. The tempo of increase varied in different periods; between 1965 and 1986 an insignificant increase was observed (of circa 0.12); in 1986 to 1995 there was no increase, whereas the period of 2001 to 2010 witnessed a significant increase (of circa 0.76).

CONCLUSIONS

The trend of body size and stature increase within the Polish population, although decelerating, remained positive and steady during the last 45 years. No significant impact of the past half-century's socioeconomic crises was observed in these measures of growth. We concluded that during the economic crises some effective mechanism protecting the living conditions of the children and youth were operating within the population.

The changes in age of peak swim speed for elite male and female Swiss freestyle swimmers between 1994 and 2012

This study determined the age and its changes across years of peak swimming performance from 50 to 1,500 m freestyle. Data of 70,059 Swiss freestyle swimmers (33,725 women and 36,334 men) aged 10-40 years and competing from 50 to 1,500 m were analysed. The association between age and swimming speed of the annual ten fastest swimmers was investigated using single and multi-level hierarchical regression analyses. For women, age of peak swimming speed increased in 50 m from 18.9 (s = 2.3) to 20.4 (s = 4.2) years but decreased in 1,500 m from 25.0 (s = 13.1) (1996) to 18.1 (s = 3.7) years. For 100-800 m, age remained at 19.1 (s = 1.1), 19.3 (s = 1.1), 18.7 (s = 1.5) and 18.5 (s = 1.3) years, respectively. For men, age of peak swimming speed decreased in 50 m from 23.0 (s = 4.0) to 23.0 (s = 3.5) but remained for 100-1,500 m at 22.5 (s = 1.4), 21.4 (s = 0.9), 20.3 (s = 0.9), 20.3 (s = 0.9) and 20.3 (s = 1.1) years, respectively. Age was positively associated with swimming speed for 50-800 m, but negatively for 1,500 m. In conclusion, the age of peak swimming speed was younger in women compared to men for 50-800 m freestyle. For women, age of peak swimming speed increased in 50 m but decreased in 1,500 m freestyle across years. For men, age of peak swimming speed decreased in 50 m freestyle.

Anthropometric studies on the Turkish population--a historical review

A historical review of anthropometric studies conducted on Turkish children and adults is presented. In view of observed differences in growth status between children of different societies, the need for local reference standards and the methodology to be used for such studies have been stressed. The importance of local studies in reflecting the state of health and nutrition both in children and adults has also been mentioned. While a number of studies in children cited in this paper are designed to compare the growth of children from different socioeconomic levels, other studies aim to establish local reference data for Turkish children. While the historical studies in adults aim to define racial characteristics, the more recent studies aim to bring out nutritional characteristics with emphasis on increasing frequency of obesity.

Women achieve peak freestyle swim speed at earlier ages than men

Background

The age of peak swim performance has been investigated for freestyle swimmers for distances ranging from 50 m to 1500 m among swimmers aged 19 to 99 years. However, studies have yet to investigate the 10 to 19 year-old age group. The aims of the present study were (1) to investigate the age range of peak freestyle swim speed, and (2) to find differences in age range and peak freestyle swim speed between male and female freestyle swimmers from 50 m to 1500 m at a national level.

Methods

The changes in age range and peak freestyle swim speed among Swiss elite freestyle swimmers aged 0–9 years and 70–79 years who were ranked on the Swiss high score list between 2006 and 2010 were analyzed using linear regression analyses and analysis of variance.

Results

Men were fastest at ages 22–23 years for 100 m and 200 m; at ages 24–25 years for 400 m and 800 m; and at 26–27 years for 50 m and 1500 m. Women achieved peak freestyle swim speed at ages 20–21 years for all distances with the exception of 800 m. In the 800 m, women were fastest at ages 26–27 years. The difference in peak freestyle swim speed decreased with increasing swim distance from 50 m to 800 m (ie, 13.1% ± 1.3% in 50 m; 13.2% ± 0.9% in 100 m; 10.8% ± 0.9% in 200 m; 7.9% ± 1.3% in 400 m; and 4.2% ± 2.0% in 800 m). For 1500 m, however, the gender difference increased to 6.4% ± 2.3%.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that peak freestyle swim speed is achieved at lower age ranges in women when compared to men at 50 m to 1500 m, but not at 800 m. The gender difference in peak freestyle swim speed decreased with increasing swim distance from 50 m to 800 m, but not for 1500 m. These data should be confirmed with swimmers at an international level.

Secular growth changes in stature and weight for Chinese Mongolian youth, 1964-2005

BACKGROUND

A secular growth trend has been demonstrated in China during the past half century. However, few studies have involved minority ethnicity.

AIM

This study demonstrates secular changes in stature and weight for Chinese Mongolians from 1964 to 2005, and analyses the correlations with environmental factors, revealing inequalities within populations.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Data were gathered from 7- to 18-year-old students in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China, both from local records in 1964 and from the 1985, 1991, 1995, 2000 and 2005 cycles of the Chinese National Survey on Students' Constitution and Health.

RESULTS

During the past 41 years, the average rates of stature increments for 7- to 17- year-olds are 1.9 and 2.0 cm per decade, of weight are 2.2 and 1.5 kg per decade and of BMI are 0.5 and 0.3 kg/m(2) per decade, for males and females, respectively. The overall increments of stature in 18-year-old males and females from 1985 to 2005 are 2.3 and 2.1 cm, respectively. The rate of change of stature is stronger in the first three decades, while that of weight and BMI are greater in the last decade. Evidence strongly suggests that changes may have occurred since the late 1970s.

CONCLUSION

The positive growth changes of Chinese Mongolian people are closely related to urbanization, socio-economic progress and living improvements.

Secular trends in height and weight among children and adolescents of the Seychelles, 1956-2006

BACKGROUND

Height of individuals has long been considered as a significant index of nutrition and health of a population; still, there is little information regarding the trends of height and weight among developing or transitional countries. We assessed the secular trends in height and weight in children of the Seychelles, a rapidly developing island state in the Indian Ocean (African region).

METHODS

Height and weight were measured in all students of all schools in four selected school grades (kindergarten, 4th, 7th and 10th grades) for the periods 1998-9 (6391 children) and 2005-6 (8582 children). Data for 1956-7 was extracted from a previously published report.

RESULTS

At age 15.5 years, boys/girls were on average 10/13 cm taller and 15/9 kg heavier in 2005-6 than in 1956-7. Height increased in boys/girls by 1.62/0.93 cm/decade between 1956-7 and 1998-9 and by 1.14/1.82 cm/decade between 1998-9 and 2005-6. For weight, the linear increase in boys/girls was 1.38/1.10 kg/decade between 1956-7 and 1998-9 and 2.21/2.50 kg/decade between 1998-9 and 2005-6. Overall, the relative increase in weight between 1956-7 and 2005-6 was 5-fold higher than the relative increase in height.

CONCLUSION

Height and weight increased markedly over time in children aged <16 years in the Seychelles, consistent with large changes in socio-economic and nutritional indicators in the considered 50-year interval. The markedly steeper increase in weight than height over time is consistent with an epidemic of overweight and obesity.