Functional association of cell death suppressor, Arabidopsis Bax inhibitor-1, with fatty acid 2-hydroxylation through cytochrome b₅

bZIP60 and Bax inhibitor 1 contribute IRE1-dependent and independent roles to potexvirus infection

IRE1, BI-1, and bZIP60 monitor compatible plant-potexvirus interactions though recognition of the viral TGB3 protein. This study was undertaken to elucidate the roles of three IRE1 isoforms, the bZIP60U and bZIP60S, and BI-1 roles in genetic reprogramming of cells during potexvirus infection. Experiments were performed using Arabidopsis thaliana knockout lines and Plantago asiatica mosaic virus infectious clone tagged with the green fluorescent protein gene (PlAMV-GFP). There were more PlAMV-GFP infection foci in ire1a/b, ire1c, bzip60, and bi-1 knockout than wild-type (WT) plants. Cell-to-cell movement and systemic RNA levels were greater bzip60 and bi-1 than in WT plants. Overall, these data indicate an increased susceptibility to virus infection. Transgenic overexpression of AtIRE1b or StbZIP60 in ire1a/b or bzip60 mutant background reduced virus infection foci, while StbZIP60 expression influences virus movement. Transgenic overexpression of StbZIP60 also confers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress resistance following tunicamycin treatment. We also show bZIP60U and TGB3 interact at the ER. This is the first demonstration of a potato bZIP transcription factor complementing genetic defects in Arabidopsis. Evidence indicates that the three IRE1 isoforms regulate the initial stages of virus replication and gene expression, while bZIP60 and BI-1 contribute separately to virus cell-to-cell and systemic movement.

The fatty acid 2-hydroxylase CsSCS7 is a key hyphal growth factor and potential control target in Colletotrichum siamense

SCS7 is a fatty acid 2-hydroxylase required for the synthesis of inositol phosphorylceramide but is not essential for normal growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, we demonstrate that the Colletotrichum siamense SCS7 homolog CsSCS7 plays a key role in hyphal growth. The CsSCS7 deletion mutant showed strong hyphal growth inhibition, small conidia, and marginally reduced sporulation and also resulted in a sharp reduction in the full virulence and increasing the fungicide sensitivity. The three protein domains (a cytochrome b5 domain, a transmembrane domain, and a hydroxylase domain) are important to CsSCS7 protein function in hyphal growth. The fatty acid assay results revealed that the CsSCS7 gene is important for balancing the contents of multiple mid-long- and short-chain fatty acids. Additionally, the retarded growth and virulence of C. siamense ΔCsSCS7 can be recovered partly by the reintroduction of homologous sequences from Magnaporthe oryzae and Fusarium graminearum but not SCS7 of S. cerevisiae. In addition, the spraying of C. siamense with naked CsSCS7-double-stranded RNA (dsRNAs), which leads to RNAi, increases the inhibition of hyphal growth and slightly decreases disease lesions. Then, we used nano material Mg-Al-layered double hydroxide as carriers to deliver dsRNA, which significantly enhanced the control effect of dsRNA, and the lesion area was obviously reduced. These data indicated that CsSCS7 is an important factor for hyphal growth and affects virulence and may be a potential control target in C. siamense and even in filamentous plant pathogenic fungi.IMPORTANCECsSCS7, which is homologous to yeast fatty acid 2-hydroxylase SCS7, was confirmed to play a key role in the hyphal growth of Colletotrichum siamense and affect its virulence. The CsSCS7 gene is involved in the synthesis and metabolism of fatty acids. Homologs from the filamentous fungi Magnaporthe oryzae and Fusarium graminearum can recover the retarded growth and virulence of C. siamense ΔCsSCS7. The spraying of double-stranded RNAs targeting CsSCS7 can inhibit hyphal growth and reduce the disease lesion area to some extent. After using nano material Mg-Al layered double hydroxide as carrier, the inhibition rates were significantly increased. We demonstrated that CsSCS7 is an important factor for hyphal growth and affects virulence and may be a potential control target in C. siamense and even in filamentous plant pathogenic fungi.

MHP1 and MHL generate odd-chain fatty acids from 2-hydroxy fatty acids in sphingolipids and are related to immunity in Arabidopsis thaliana

In plants, the 2-hydroxy fatty acids (HFAs) of sphingolipids are important for plant growth and stress responses. Although the synthetic pathway of HFAs is well understood, their degradation has not yet been elucidated. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mpo1 has been identified as a dioxygenase that degrades HFAs. This study examined the functions of two homologs of yeast Mpo1, MHP1 and MHL, in Arabidopsis thaliana. The mhp1 and mhp1mhl mutants showed a dwarf phenotype compared to that of the wild type. Lipid analysis of the mutants revealed the involvement of MHP1 and MHL in synthesizing odd-chain fatty acids (OCFAs), possibly by the degradation of HFAs. OCFAs are present in trace amounts in plants; however, their physiological significance is largely unknown. RNA sequence analysis of the mhp1mhl mutant revealed that growth-related genes decreased, whereas genes involved in stress response increased. Additionally, the mhp1mhl mutant had increased expression of defense-related genes and increased resistance to infection by Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pto), and Pto carrying the effector AvrRpt2. Phytohormone analysis demonstrated that jasmonic acid in mhp1mhl was higher than that in the wild type. These results indicate that MHP1 and MHL are involved in synthesizing OCFAs and immunity in Arabidopsis.

Fatty Acid 2-Hydroxylase and 2-Hydroxylated Sphingolipids: Metabolism and Function in Health and Diseases

Sphingolipids containing acyl residues that are hydroxylated at C-2 are found in most, if not all, eukaryotes and certain bacteria. 2-hydroxylated sphingolipids are present in many organs and cell types, though they are especially abundant in myelin and skin. The enzyme fatty acid 2-hydroxylase (FA2H) is involved in the synthesis of many but not all 2-hydroxylated sphingolipids. Deficiency in FA2H causes a neurodegenerative disease known as hereditary spastic paraplegia 35 (HSP35/SPG35) or fatty acid hydroxylase-associated neurodegeneration (FAHN). FA2H likely also plays a role in other diseases. A low expression level of FA2H correlates with a poor prognosis in many cancers. This review presents an updated overview of the metabolism and function of 2-hydroxylated sphingolipids and the FA2H enzyme under physiological conditions and in diseases.

Cytochrome b 5: A versatile electron carrier and regulator for plant metabolism

Cytochrome b ₅ (CB5) is a small heme-binding protein, known as an electron donor delivering reducing power to the terminal enzymes involved in oxidative reactions. In plants, the CB5 protein family is substantially expanded both in its isoform numbers and cellular functions, compared to its yeast and mammalian counterparts. As an electron carrier, plant CB5 proteins function not only in fatty acid desaturation, hydroxylation and elongation, but also in the formation of specialized metabolites such as flavonoids, phenolic esters, and heteropolymer lignin. Furthermore, plant CB5s are found to interact with different non-catalytic proteins such as ethylene signaling regulator, cell death inhibitor, and sugar transporters, implicating their versatile regulatory roles in coordinating different metabolic and cellular processes, presumably in respect to the cellular redox status and/or carbon availability. Compared to the plentiful studies on biochemistry and cellular functions of mammalian CB5 proteins, the cellular and metabolic roles of plant CB5 proteins have received far less attention. This article summarizes the fragmentary information pertaining to the discovery of plant CB5 proteins, and discusses the conventional and peculiar functions that plant CB5s might play in different metabolic and cellular processes. Gaining comprehensive insight into the biological functions of CB5 proteins could offer effective biotechnological solutions to tailor plant chemodiversity and cellular responses to environment stimuli.

Sphingolipids are involved in insect egg-induced cell death in Arabidopsis

In Brassicaceae, hypersensitive-like programmed cell death (HR-like) is a central component of direct defenses triggered against eggs of the large white butterfly (Pieris brassicae). The signaling pathway leading to HR-like in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is mainly dependent on salicylic acid (SA) accumulation, but downstream components are unclear. Here, we found that treatment with P. brassicae egg extract (EE) triggered changes in expression of sphingolipid metabolism genes in Arabidopsis and black mustard (Brassica nigra). Disruption of ceramide (Cer) synthase activity led to a significant decrease of EE-induced HR-like whereas SA signaling and reactive oxygen species levels were unchanged, suggesting that Cer are downstream activators of HR-like. Sphingolipid quantifications showed that Cer with C16:0 side chains accumulated in both plant species and this response was largely unchanged in the SA-induction deficient2 (sid2-1) mutant. Finally, we provide genetic evidence that the modification of fatty acyl chains of sphingolipids modulates HR-like. Altogether, these results show that sphingolipids play a key and specific role during insect egg-triggered HR-like.

Sphingolipids with 2-hydroxy fatty acids aid in plasma membrane nanodomain organization and oxidative burst

Plant sphingolipids mostly possess 2-hydroxy fatty acids (HFA), the synthesis of which is catalyzed by FA 2-hydroxylases (FAHs). In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), two FAHs (FAH1 and FAH2) have been identified. However, the functions of FAHs and sphingolipids with HFAs (2-hydroxy sphingolipids) are still unknown because of the lack of Arabidopsis lines with the complete deletion of FAH1. In this study, we generated a FAH1 mutant (fah1c) using CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing. Sphingolipid analysis of fah1c, fah2, and fah1cfah2 mutants revealed that FAH1 hydroxylates very long-chain FAs (VLCFAs), whereas the substrates of FAH2 are VLCFAs and palmitic acid. However, 2-hydroxy sphingolipids are not completely lost in the fah1cfah2 double mutant, suggesting the existence of other enzymes catalyzing the hydroxylation of sphingolipid FAs. Plasma membrane (PM) analysis and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that hydroxyl groups of sphingolipid acyl chains play a crucial role in the organization of nanodomains, which are nanoscale liquid-ordered domains mainly formed by sphingolipids and sterols in the PM, through hydrogen bonds. In the PM of the fah1cfah2 mutant, the expression levels of 26.7% of the proteins, including defense-related proteins such as the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) brassinosteroid insensitive 1-associated receptor kinase 1 and chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1, NADPH oxidase respiratory burst oxidase homolog D (RBOHD), and heterotrimeric G proteins, were lower than that in the wild-type. In addition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst was suppressed in the fah1cfah2 mutant after treatment with the pathogen-associated molecular patterns flg22 and chitin. These results indicated that 2-hydroxy sphingolipids are necessary for the organization of PM nanodomains and ROS burst through RBOHD and PRRs during pattern-triggered immunity.

Biochemical Investigation of Membrane-Bound Cytochrome b5 and the Catalytic Domain of Cytochrome b5 Reductase from Arabidopsis thaliana

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane of plant cells contains several enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of a diverse range of molecules essential for plant growth and holds potential for industrial applications. Many of these enzymes are dependent on electron transfer proteins to sustain their catalytic cycles. In plants, two crucial ER-bound electron transfer proteins are cytochrome b5 and cytochrome b5 reductase, which catalyze the stepwise transfer of electrons from NADH to redox enzymes such as fatty acid desaturases, cytochrome P450s, and plant aldehyde decarbonylase. Despite the high significance of plant cytochrome b5 and cytochrome b5 reductase, they have eluded detailed characterization to date. Here, we overexpressed the full-length membrane-bound cytochrome b5 isoform B from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana in Escherichia coli, purified the protein employing detergents as well as styrene-maleic acid (SMA) copolymers, and biochemically characterized the protein. The SMA-encapsulated cytochrome b5 exhibits a discoidal shape and the characteristic features of the active heme-bound state. We also overexpressed and purified the soluble domain of cytochrome b5 reductase from A. thaliana, establishing its activity, stability, and kinetic parameters. Further, we demonstrated that the plant cytochrome b5, purified in detergents and styrene maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs), readily accepts electrons from the cognate plant cytochrome b5 reductase and distant electron mediators such as plant NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase and cyanobacterial NADPH-ferredoxin reductase. We also measured the kinetic parameters of cytochrome b5 reductase for cytochrome b5. Our studies are the first to report the purification and detailed biochemical characterization of the plant cytochrome b5 and cytochrome b5 reductase from the bacterial overexpression system.

Sphingolipid-Induced Programmed Cell Death is a Salicylic Acid and EDS1-Dependent Phenotype in Arabidopsis Fatty Acid Hydroxylase (Fah1, Fah2) and Ceramide Synthase (Loh2) Triple Mutants

Ceramides (Cers) and long-chain bases (LCBs) are plant sphingolipids involved in the induction of plant programmed cell death (PCD). The fatty acid hydroxylase mutant fah1 fah2 exhibits high Cer levels and moderately elevated LCB levels. Salicylic acid glucoside level is increased in this mutant, but no cell death can be detected by trypan blue staining. To determine the effect of Cers with different chain lengths, fah1 fah2 was crossed with ceramide synthase mutants longevity assurance gene one homologue1-3 (loh1, loh2 and loh3). Surprisingly, only triple mutants with loh2 show cell death detected by trypan blue staining under the selected conditions. Sphingolipid profiling revealed that the greatest differences between the triple mutant plants are in the LCB and LCB-phosphate (LCB-P) fraction. fah1 fah2 loh2 plants accumulate LCB d18:0, LCB t18:0 and LCB-P d18:0. Crossing fah1 fah2 loh2 with the salicylic acid (SA) synthesis mutant sid2-2 and with the SA signaling mutants enhanced disease susceptibility 1-2 (eds1-2) and phytoalexin deficient 4-1 (pad4-1) revealed that lesions are SA- and EDS1-dependent. These quadruple mutants also confirm that there may be a feedback loop between SA and sphingolipid metabolism as they accumulated less Cers and LCBs. In conclusion, PCD in fah1 fah2 loh2 is a SA- and EDS1-dependent phenotype, which is likely due to accumulation of LCBs.

An endoplasmic reticulum-localized cytochrome b 5 regulates high-affinity K+ transport in response to salt stress in rice

High-affinity K⁺ (HAK) transporter-mediated K⁺ uptake has an important role when plants are subjected to stresses. This work identifies a mechanism of HAK regulation. The affinity of HAK at the plasma membrane for K⁺ depends on the binding of a cytochrome (CYB5) protein at the endoplasmic reticulum. This improves K⁺ uptake and the ability of plants to survive under saline conditions. The HAK–CYB5 interaction not only constitutes a mechanism of HAK regulation but also reflects interorganelle communication mediated by functional protein interactions under conditions of stress.

Potassium (K⁺) is an essential element for growth and development in both animals and plants, while high levels of environmental sodium (Na⁺) represent a threat to most plants. The uptake of K⁺ from high-saline environments is an essential mechanism to maintain intracellular K⁺/Na⁺ homeostasis, which can help reduce toxicity caused by Na⁺ accumulation, thereby improving the salt tolerance of plants. However, the mechanisms and regulation of K⁺-uptake during salt stress remain poorly understood. In this study, we identified an endoplasmic reticulum–localized cytochrome b₅ (OsCYB5-2) that interacted with a high-affinity K⁺ transporter (OsHAK21) at the plasma membrane. The association of OsCYB5-2 with the OsHAK21 transporter caused an increase in transporter activity by enhancing the apparent affinity for K⁺-binding but not Na⁺-binding. Heme binding to OsCYB5-2 was essential for the regulation of OsHAK21. High salinity directly triggered the OsHAK21–OsCYB5-2 interaction, promoting OsHAK21-mediated K⁺-uptake and restricting Na⁺ entry into cells; this maintained intracellular K⁺/Na⁺ homeostasis in rice cells. Finally, overexpression of OsCYB5-2 increased OsHAK21-mediated K⁺ transport and improved salt tolerance in rice seedlings. This study revealed a posttranslational regulatory mechanism for HAK transporter activity mediated by a cytochrome b₅ and highlighted the coordinated action of two proteins to perceive Na⁺ in response to salt stress.

HbLFG1, a Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) Lifeguard Protein, Can Facilitate Powdery Mildew Infection by Suppressing Plant Immunity

Powdery mildew causes substantial losses in crop and economic plant yields worldwide. Although powdery mildew infection of rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis), caused by the biotrophic fungus Erysiphe quercicola, severely threatens natural rubber production, little is known about the mechanism by which E. quercicola adapts to H. brasiliensis to invade the host plant. In barley and Arabidopsis thaliana, lifeguard (LFG) proteins, which have topological similarity to BAX INHIBITOR-1, are involved in host plant susceptibility to powdery mildew infection. In this study, we characterized an H. brasiliensis LFG protein (HbLFG1) with a focus on its function in regulating defense against powdery mildew. HbLFG1 gene expression was found to be upregulated during E. quercicola infection. HbLFG1 showed conserved functions in cell death inhibition and membrane localization. Expression of HbLFG1 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and A. thaliana Col-0 was demonstrated to significantly suppress callose deposition induced by conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns chitin and flg22. Furthermore, we found that overexpression of HbLFG1 in H. brasiliensis mesophyll protoplasts significantly suppressed the chitin-induced burst of reactive oxygen species. Although A. thaliana Col-0 and E. quercicola displayed an incompatible interaction, Col-0 transformants overexpressing HbLFG1 were shown to be susceptible to E. quercicola. Collectively, the findings of this study provide evidence that HbLFG1 acts as a negative regulator of plant immunity that facilitates E. quercicola infection in H. brasiliensis.

Disruption of long-chain base hydroxylation alters growth and impacts sphingolipid synthesis in Physcomitrella patens

Sphingolipids have roles as membrane structural components and as bioactive molecules in plants. In Physcomitrella patens, 4-hydroxysphinganine (phytosphingosine, t18:0) is the predominant sphingolipid long-chain base (LCB). To assess the functional significance of t18:0, CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis was used to generate mutant lines lacking the sole SPHINGOID BASE HYDROXYLASE (SBH) gene encoding the hydroxylase responsible for converting sphinganine (d18:0) to t18:0. Total sphingolipid content in sbh protonemata was 2.4-fold higher than in wild-type. Modest changes in glycosyl inositolphosphorylceramide (GIPC) glycosylation patterns occurred. Sphingolipidomic analyses of mutants lacking t18:0 indicated modest alterations in acyl-chain pairing with d18:0 in GIPCs and ceramides, but dramatic alterations in acyl-chain pairing in glucosylceramides, in which 4,8-sphingadienine (d18:2) was the principal LCB. A striking accumulation of free and phosphorylated LCBs accompanied loss of the hydroxylase. The sbh lines exhibited altered morphology, including smaller chloronemal cell size, irregular cell shape, reduced gametophore size, and increased pigmentation. In the presence of the synthetic trihydroxy LCB t17:0, the endogenous sphingolipid content of sbh lines decreased to wild-type levels, and the mutants exhibited phenotypes more similar to wild-type plants. These results demonstrate the importance of sphingolipid content and composition to Physcomitrella growth. They also illuminate similarities in regulating sphingolipid content but differences in regulating sphingolipid species composition between the bryophyte P. patens and angiosperm A. thaliana.

Poplar MYB117 promotes anthocyanin synthesis and enhances flavonoid B-ring hydroxylation by up-regulating the flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase gene

Flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols, are widespread plant secondary metabolites and important for plant adaptation to diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. Flavonoids can be variously hydroxylated and decorated; their biological activity is partly dependent on the degree of hydroxylation of the B-ring. Flavonoid biosynthesis is regulated by MYB transcription factors, which have been identified and characterized in a diversity of plants. Here we characterize a new MYB activator, MYB117, in hybrid poplar (Populus tremula×tremuloides). When overexpressed in transgenic poplar plants, MYB117 enhanced anthocyanin accumulation in all tissues. Transcriptome analysis of MYB117-overexpressing poplars confirmed the up-regulation of flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis genes, as well as two flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) genes. We also identified up-regulated cytochrome b5 genes, required for full activity of F3'5'H . Phytochemical analysis demonstrated a corresponding increase in B-ring hydroxylation of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols in these transgenics. Similarly, overexpression of F3'5'H1 directly in hybrid poplar also resulted in increased B-ring hydroxylation, but without affecting overall flavonoid content. However, the overexpression of the cytochrome b5 gene in F3'5'H1-overexpressing plants did not further increase B-ring hydroxylation. Our data indicate that MYB117 regulates the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in poplar, but also enhances B-ring hydroxylation by up-regulating F3'5'H1.

Sphingolipids in plants: a guidebook on their function in membrane architecture, cellular processes, and environmental or developmental responses

Sphingolipids are fundamental lipids involved in various cellular, developmental and stress-response processes. As such, they orchestrate not only vital molecular mechanisms of living cells but also act in diseases, thus qualifying as potential pharmaceutical targets. Sphingolipids are universal to eukaryotes and are also present in some prokaryotes. Some sphingolipid structures are conserved between animals, plants and fungi, whereas others are found only in plants and fungi. In plants, the structural diversity of sphingolipids, as well as their downstream effectors and molecular and cellular mechanisms of action, are of tremendous interest to both basic and applied researchers, as about half of all small molecules in clinical use originate from plants. Here, we review recent advances towards a better understanding of the biosynthesis of sphingolipids, the diversity in their structures as well as their functional roles in membrane architecture, cellular processes such as membrane trafficking and cell polarity, and cell responses to environmental or developmental signals.

Fumonisin B1: A Tool for Exploring the Multiple Functions of Sphingolipids in Plants

Fumonisin toxins are produced by Fusarium fungal pathogens. Fumonisins are structural analogs of sphingosine and potent inhibitors of ceramide synthases (CerSs); they disrupt sphingolipid metabolism and cause disease in plants and animals. Over the past three decades, researchers have used fumonisin B1 (FB1), the most common fumonisin, as a probe to investigate sphingolipid metabolism in yeast and animals. Although the physiological effects of FB1 in plants have yet to be investigated in detail, forward and reverse genetic approaches have revealed many genes involved in these processes. In this review, we discuss the intricate network of signaling pathways affected by FB1, including changes in sphingolipid metabolism and the effects of these changes, with a focus on our current understanding of the multiple effects of FB1 on plant cell death and plant growth. We analyze the major findings that highlight the connections between sphingolipid metabolism and FB1-induced signaling, and we point out where additional research is needed to fill the gaps in our understanding of FB1-induced signaling pathways in plants.

Generation of Arabidopsis lines with a red fluorescent marker for endoplasmic reticulum using a tail-anchored protein cytochrome b5 -B

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a multifunctional organelle that performs multiple cellular activities in eukaryotes. Visualizing ER using fluorescent proteins is a powerful method of analyzing its dynamics and to understand its functions. However, red fluorescent proteins with both an N-terminal signal peptide (SP) and a C-terminal ER retention tetrapeptide (HDEL) often cause mislocalization to vacuoles or extracellular spaces when they are constitutively expressed in Arabidopsis. To obtain a red fluorescent ER marker, we selected Arabidopsis cytochrome b5 -B (Cb5-B), a tail-anchored (TA) protein on the ER membrane. Its localization is determined by the transmembrane domain (TMD) and tail domain at the C-terminus. We fused the TMD and the tail domain of Cb5-B to the C-terminus of a red fluorescent protein, tdTomato (tdTomato-CTT). When tdTomato-CTT was constitutively expressed under the ubiquitin10 promoter in Arabidopsis, the fluorescent signal was exclusively detected at the ER by means of the reliable ER marker SP-GFP-HDEL. Therefore, tdTomato-CTT can accurately visualize the ER in stable Arabidopsis lines. Additionally, transient assays showed that tdTomato-CTT can also be used as an ER marker in onion, rice, and Nicotiana benthamiana. We believe that TA proteins could be used to generate various organellar membrane markers in plants.

Genome-Wide Identification and Analysis of the Cytochrome B5 Protein Family in Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. Pekinensis)

Cytochrome B5 (CB5) family proteins play an important role in various oxidation/reduction reactions in cells as the electron donor and are involved in a variety of biotic and abiotic stress processes. However, the function of the CB5s in Brassica rapa is still unclear. In this study, we carried out genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression analysis of BrCB5s in different tissues under adversities and stresses. It was identified that fifteen BrCB5s were distributed on different chromosomes, which were classified into seven groups (A-G) according to its phylogenetic relationship. Phylogenetic analysis of the CB5 protein sequences from six species showed that the BrCB5s conduct a close evolutionary process with the CB5s of Arabidopsis thaliana and far from those of Oryza sativa. Protein interaction analysis showed that 40 interaction patterns were predicted including two Sucrose Transporter 4 subfamily proteins (SUT 4) and Fatty Acid Hydroxylase 2 protein (FAH 2) can interact with most members of BrCB5s. The expression profile analysis indicated that BrCB5s were differentially expressed in different tissues, and the transcript abundances were significantly different under various abiotic stresses and plant hormone treatments. Our study provides a basis for a better understanding of the characteristics and biological functions of the CB5 family genes in Chinese cabbage during plant development, especially in plant responses to multiple stresses.

Arabidopsis Bax inhibitor-1 interacts with enzymes related to very-long-chain fatty acid synthesis

Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is a widely conserved cell death regulator that confers resistance to environmental stress in plants. Previous studies suggest that Arabidopsis thaliana BI-1 (AtBI-1) modifies sphingolipids by interacting with cytochrome b₅ (AtCb5), an electron-transfer protein. To reveal how AtBI-1 regulates sphingolipid synthesis, we screened yeast sphingolipid-deficient mutants and identified yeast ELO2 and ELO3 as novel enzymes that are essential for AtBI-1 function. ELO2 and ELO3 are condensing enzymes that synthesize very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs), major fatty acids in plant sphingolipids. In Arabidopsis, we identified four ELO homologs (AtELO1-AtELO4), localized in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Of those AtELOs, AtELO1 and AtELO2 had a characteristic histidine motif and were bound to AtCb5-B. This result suggests that AtBI-1 interacts with AtELO1 and AtELO2 through AtCb5. AtELO2 and AtCb5-B also interact with KCR1, PAS2, and CER10, which are essential for the synthesis of VLCFAs. Therefore, AtELO2 may participate in VLCFA synthesis with AtCb5 in Arabidopsis. In addition, our co-immunoprecipitation/mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated that AtBI-1 forms a complex with AtELO2, KCR1, PAS2, CER10, and AtCb5-D. Furthermore, AtBI-1 contributes to the rapid synthesis of 2-hydroxylated VLCFAs in response to oxidative stress. These results indicate that AtBI-1 regulates VLCFA synthesis by interacting with VLCFA-synthesizing enzymes.

Identification of progesterone receptor membrane component-1 as an interaction partner and possible regulator of fatty acid 2-hydroxylase

The fatty acid 2-hydroxylase (FA2H) is essential for synthesis of 2-hydroxylated fatty acids in myelinating and other cells, and deficiency of this enzyme causes a complicated form of hereditary spastic paraplegia also known as fatty acid hydroxylase-associated neurodegeneration. Despite its important role in sphingolipid metabolism, regulation of FA2H and its interaction with other proteins involved in the same or other metabolic pathways is poorly understood. To identify potential interaction partners of the enzyme, quantitative mass spectrometry using stable isotope labeling of cells was combined with formaldehyde cross-linking and proximity biotinylation, respectively. Besides other enzymes involved in sphingolipid synthesis and intermembrane transfer of ceramide, and putative redox partners of FA2H, progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1) and PGRMC2 were identified as putative interaction partners. These two related heme-binding proteins are known to regulate several cytochrome P450 enzymes. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments confirmed the interaction of FA2H with PGRMC1. Moreover, the PGRMC1 inhibitor AG-205 significantly reduced synthesis of hydroxylated ceramide and glucosylceramide in FA2H-expressing cells. This suggests that PGRMC1 may regulate FA2H activity, possibly through its heme chaperone activity.

The Wheat Bax Inhibitor-1 Protein Interacts with an Aquaporin TaPIP1 and Enhances Disease Resistance in Arabidopsis

Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident cell death suppressor evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes. The ability of BI-1 to inhibit the biotic and abiotic stresses have been well-studied in Arabidopsis, while the functions of wheat BI-1 are largely unknown. In this study, the wheat BI-1 gene TaBI-1.1 was isolated by an RNA-seq analysis of Fusarium graminearum (Fg)-treated wheat. TaBI-1.1 expression was induced by a salicylic acid (SA) treatment and down-regulated by an abscisic acid (ABA) treatment. Based on β-glucuronidase (GUS) staining, TaBI-1.1 was expressed in mature leaves and roots but not in the hypocotyl or young leaves. Constitutive expression of TaBI-1.1 in Arabidopsis enhanced its resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. Tomato (Pst) DC3000 infection and induced SA-related gene expression. Additionally, TaBI-1.1 transgenic Arabidopsis exhibited an alleviation of damage caused by high concentrations of SA and decreased the sensitivity to ABA. Consistent with the phenotype, the RNA-seq analysis of 35S::TaBI-1.1 and Col-0 plants showed that TaBI-1.1 was involved in biotic stresses. These results suggested that TaBI-1.1 positively regulates SA signals and plays important roles in the response to biotic stresses. In addition, TaBI-1.1 interacted with the aquaporin TaPIP1, and both them were localized to ER membrane. Furthermore, we demonstrated that TaPIP1 was up-regulated by SA treatment and TaPIP1 transgenic Arabidopsis enhanced the resistance to Pst DC3000 infection. Thus, the interaction between TaBI-1.1 and TaPIP1 on the ER membrane probably occurs in response to SA signals and defense response.

Unravelling Protein-Protein Interaction Networks Linked to Aliphatic and Indole Glucosinolate Biosynthetic Pathways in Arabidopsis

Within the cell, biosynthetic pathways are embedded in protein-protein interaction networks. In Arabidopsis, the biosynthetic pathways of aliphatic and indole glucosinolate defense compounds are well-characterized. However, little is known about the spatial orchestration of these enzymes and their interplay with the cellular environment. To address these aspects, we applied two complementary, untargeted approaches-split-ubiquitin yeast 2-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation screens-to identify proteins interacting with CYP83A1 and CYP83B1, two homologous enzymes specific for aliphatic and indole glucosinolate biosynthesis, respectively. Our analyses reveal distinct functional networks with substantial interconnection among the identified interactors for both pathway-specific markers, and add to our knowledge about how biochemical pathways are connected to cellular processes. Specifically, a group of protein interactors involved in cell death and the hypersensitive response provides a potential link between the glucosinolate defense compounds and defense against biotrophic pathogens, mediated by protein-protein interactions.

Plant Bax Inhibitor-1 interacts with ATG6 to regulate autophagy and programmed cell death

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process and is involved in the regulation of programmed cell death during the plant immune response. However, mechanisms regulating autophagy and cell death are incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that plant Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1), a highly conserved cell death regulator, interacts with ATG6, a core autophagy-related protein. Silencing of BI-1 reduced the autophagic activity induced by both N gene-mediated resistance to Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and methyl viologen (MV), and enhanced N gene-mediated cell death. In contrast, overexpression of plant BI-1 increased autophagic activity and surprisingly caused autophagy-dependent cell death. These results suggest that plant BI-1 has both prosurvival and prodeath effects in different physiological contexts and both depend on autophagic activity.

Unraveling the microRNA of Caragana korshinskii along a precipitation gradient on the Loess Plateau, China, using high-throughput sequencing

Drought remains one of the main factors that negatively affect plant growth and development. Caragana korshinskii is widely distributed on the Loess Plateau, China, where it mediates soil and water loss and helps prevent desertification. However, little is known about the stress response mechanisms of C. korshinskii in water-starved environments. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been implicated in the regulation of plant responses to several types of biotic and abiotic stress. Here, we describe the miRNAs of wild C. korshinskii from Huangling, Yulin, and Dalad Banner, which occur along a precipitation gradient. Using next-generation sequencing technology, we obtained a total of 13 710 681, 15 048 945, and 15 198 442 reads for each location, respectively; after filtering and BLAST analysis, 490 conserved miRNAs and 96 novel miRNAs were characterized from the sRNAome data, with key functions determined using Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses. We also designed stem-loop qRT-PCR to validate the expression patterns of 5 conserved miRNAs (miR390, miR398, miR530, miR2119, and miR5559) that obviously responded to water stress in plants grown both under natural and experimental water stress conditions and found that the expression levels of miR2119 and miR5559 were negatively correlated with their predicted target genes. This study is the first to identify miRNAs from wild C. korshinskii and provides a basis for future studies of miRNA-mediated gene regulation of stress responses in C. korshinskii.

Assembly of Dynamic P450-Mediated Metabolons-Order Versus Chaos

Purpose of Review

We provide an overview of the current knowledge on cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism organized as metabolons and factors that facilitate their stabilization. Essential parameters will be discussed including those that are commonly disregarded using the dhurrin metabolon from Sorghum bicolor as a case study.

Recent Findings

Sessile plants control their metabolism to prioritize their resources between growth and development, or defense. This requires fine-tuned complex dynamic regulation of the metabolic networks involved. Within the recent years, numerous studies point to the formation of dynamic metabolons playing a major role in controlling the metabolic fluxes within such networks.

Summary

We propose that P450s and their partners interact and associate dynamically with POR, which acts as a charging station possibly in concert with Cytb5. Solvent environment, lipid composition, and non-catalytic proteins guide metabolon formation and thereby activity, which have important implications for synthetic biology approaches aiming to produce high-value specialized metabolites in heterologous hosts.

The IRE1/bZIP60 Pathway and Bax Inhibitor 1 Suppress Systemic Accumulation of Potyviruses and Potexviruses in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana Plants

The inositol requiring enzyme (IRE1) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress sensor. When activated, it splices the bZIP60 mRNA, producing a truncated transcription factor that upregulates genes involved in the unfolded protein response. Bax inhibitor 1 (BI-1) is another ER stress sensor that regulates cell death in response to environmental assaults. The potyvirus 6K2 and potexvirus TGB3 proteins are known to reside in the ER, serving, respectively, as anchors for the viral replicase and movement protein complex. This study used green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), Plantago asiatica mosaic virus (PlAMV), Potato virus Y (PVY), and Potato virus X (PVX) to determine that the IRE1/bZIP60 pathway and BI-1 machinery are induced early in virus infection in Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana benthamiana, and Solanum tuberosum. Agrodelivery of only the potyvirus 6K2 or TGB3 genes into plant cells activated bZIP60 and BI-1 expression in Arabidopsis thaliana, N. benthamiana, and S. tuberosum. Homozygous ire1a-2, ire1b-4, and ire1a-2/ire1b-4 mutant Arabidopsis plants were inoculated with TuMV-GFP or PlAMV-GFP. PlAMV accumulates to a higher level in ire1a-2 or ire1a-2/ire1b-4 mutant plants than in ire1b-4 or wild-type plants. TuMV-GFP accumulates to a higher level in ire1a-2, ire1b-4, or ire1a-2/ire1b-4 compared with wild-type plants, suggesting that both isoforms contribute to TuMV-GFP infection. Gene silencing was used to knock down bZIP60 and BI-1 expression in N. benthamiana. PVX-GFP and PVY-GFP accumulation was significantly elevated in these silenced plants compared with control plants. This study demonstrates that two ER stress pathways, namely IRE1/bZIP60 and the BI-1 pathway, limit systemic accumulation of potyvirus and potexvirus infection. Silencing BI-1 expression also resulted in systemic necrosis. These data suggest that ER stress-activated pathways, led by IRE1 and BI-1, respond to invading potyvirus and potexviruses to restrict virus infection and enable physiological changes enabling plants to tolerate virus assault.

CB5C affects the glucosinolate profile in Arabidopsis thaliana

Cytochrome b5 (CB5) proteins are small heme-binding proteins, that influence cytochrome P450 activity. While only one CB5 isoform is found in mammals, higher plants have several isoforms of these proteins. The roles of the many CB5 isoforms in plants remain unknown. We hypothesized that CB5 proteins support the cytochrome P450 enzymes of plant specialized metabolism and found CB5C from Arabidopsis thaliana to co-express with glucosinolate biosynthetic genes. We characterized the glucosinolate profiles of 2 T-DNA insertion mutants of CB5C, and found that long-chained aliphatic glucosinolates were reduced in one of the mutant lines - a phenotype that was exaggerated upon methyl-jasmonate treatment. These results support the hypothesis, that CB5C influences glucosinolate biosynthesis, however, the mode of action remains unknown. Furthermore, the mutants differed in their biomass response to methyl jasmonate treatment. Thereby, our results highlight the varying effects of T-DNA insertion sites, as the 2 analyzed alleles show different phenotypes.

Plasma Membrane Microdomains Are Essential for Rac1-RbohB/H-Mediated Immunity in Rice

Numerous plant defense-related proteins are thought to congregate in plasma membrane microdomains, which consist mainly of sphingolipids and sterols. However, the extent to which microdomains contribute to defense responses in plants is unclear. To elucidate the relationship between microdomains and innate immunity in rice (Oryza sativa), we established lines in which the levels of sphingolipids containing 2-hydroxy fatty acids were decreased by knocking down two genes encoding fatty acid 2-hydroxylases (FAH1 and FAH2) and demonstrated that microdomains were less abundant in these lines. By testing these lines in a pathogen infection assay, we revealed that microdomains play an important role in the resistance to rice blast fungus infection. To illuminate the mechanism by which microdomains regulate immunity, we evaluated changes in protein composition, revealing that microdomains are required for the dynamics of the Rac/ROP small GTPase Rac1 and respiratory burst oxidase homologs (Rbohs) in response to chitin elicitor. Furthermore, FAHs are essential for the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) after chitin treatment. Together with the observation that RbohB, a defense-related NADPH oxidase that interacts with Rac1, is localized in microdomains, our data indicate that microdomains are required for chitin-induced immunity through ROS signaling mediated by the Rac1-RbohB pathway.

How Very-Long-Chain Fatty Acids Could Signal Stressful Conditions in Plants?

Although encountered in minor amounts in plant cells, very-long-chain fatty acids exert crucial functions in developmental processes. When their levels are perturbed by means of genetic approaches, marked phenotypic consequences that range from severe growth retardation to embryo lethality was indeed reported. More recently, a growing body of findings has also accumulated that points to a potential role for these lipids as signals in governing both biotic and abiotic stress outcomes. In the present work, we discuss the latter theory and explore the ins and outs of very-long-chain fatty acid-based signaling in response to stress, with an attempt to reconcile two supposedly antagonistic parameters: the insoluble nature of fatty acids and their signaling function. To explain this apparent dilemma, we provide new interpretations of pre-existing data based on the fact that sphingolipids are the main reservoir of very-long-chain fatty acids in leaves. Thus, three non-exclusive, molecular scenarii that involve these lipids as membrane-embedded and free entities are proposed.

Plant Sphingolipid Metabolism and Function

Sphingolipids, a once overlooked class of lipids in plants, are now recognized as abundant and essential components of plasma membrane and other endomembranes of plant cells. In addition to providing structural integrity to plant membranes, sphingolipids contribute to Golgi trafficking and protein organizational domains in the plasma membrane. Sphingolipid metabolites have also been linked to the regulation of cellular processes, including programmed cell death. Advances in mass spectrometry-based sphingolipid profiling and analyses of Arabidopsis mutants have enabled fundamental discoveries in sphingolipid structural diversity, metabolism, and function that are reviewed here. These discoveries are laying the groundwork for the tailoring of sphingolipid biosynthesis and catabolism for improved tolerance of plants to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Overexpression of BAX INHIBITOR-1 Links Plasma Membrane Microdomain Proteins to Stress

BAX INHIBITOR-1 (BI-1) is a cell death suppressor widely conserved in plants and animals. Overexpression of BI-1 enhances tolerance to stress-induced cell death in plant cells, although the molecular mechanism behind this enhancement is unclear. We recently found that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) BI-1 is involved in the metabolism of sphingolipids, such as the synthesis of 2-hydroxy fatty acids, suggesting the involvement of sphingolipids in the cell death regulatory mechanism downstream of BI-1. Here, we show that BI-1 affects cell death-associated components localized in sphingolipid-enriched microdomains of the plasma membrane in rice (Oryza sativa) cells. The amount of 2-hydroxy fatty acid-containing glucosylceramide increased in the detergent-resistant membrane (DRM; a biochemical counterpart of plasma membrane microdomains) fraction obtained from BI-1-overexpressing rice cells. Comparative proteomics analysis showed quantitative changes of DRM proteins in BI-1-overexpressing cells. In particular, the protein abundance of FLOTILLIN HOMOLOG (FLOT) and HYPERSENSITIVE-INDUCED REACTION PROTEIN3 (HIR3) markedly decreased in DRM of BI-1-overexpressing cells. Loss-of-function analysis demonstrated that FLOT and HIR3 are required for cell death by oxidative stress and salicylic acid, suggesting that the decreased levels of these proteins directly contribute to the stress-tolerant phenotypes in BI-1-overexpressing rice cells. These findings provide a novel biological implication of plant membrane microdomains in stress-induced cell death, which is negatively modulated by BI-1 overexpression via decreasing the abundance of a set of key proteins involved in cell death.

The Bax inhibitor MrBI-1 regulates heat tolerance, apoptotic-like cell death, and virulence in Metarhizium robertsii

Bax inhibitor 1 (BI-1) is a highly conserved protein originally identified as a suppressor of the proapoptotic protein Bax to inhibit cell death in animals and plants. The orthologs of BI-1 are widely distributed in filamentous fungi but their functions remain largely unknown. Herein, we report the identification and characterizations of MrBI-1, an ortholog of BI-1, in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii. First, we found that MrBI-1 could partially rescue mammalian Bax-induced cell death in yeast. Deletion of MrBI-1 impaired fungal development, virulence and heat tolerance in M. robertsii. We also demonstrated that inactivation of MrBI-1 reduced fungal resistance to farnesol but not to hydrogen peroxide, suggesting that MrBI-1 contributes to antiapoptotic-like cell death via the endoplasmic reticulum stress-signaling pathway rather than the classical mitochondrium-dependent pathway. In particular, we found that unlike the observations in yeasts and plants, expression of mammalian Bax did not lead to a lethal effect in M. robertsii; however, it did aggravate the fungal apoptotic effect of farnesol. The results of this study advance our understanding of BI-1-like protein functions in filamentous fungi.

Involvement of Iron-Containing Proteins in Genome Integrity in Arabidopsis Thaliana

The Arabidopsis genome encodes numerous iron-containing proteins such as iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster proteins and hemoproteins. These proteins generally utilize iron as a cofactor, and they perform critical roles in photosynthesis, genome stability, electron transfer, and oxidation-reduction reactions. Plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to maintain iron homeostasis for the assembly of functional iron-containing proteins, thereby ensuring genome stability, cell development, and plant growth. Over the past few years, our understanding of iron-containing proteins and their functions involved in genome stability has expanded enormously. In this review, I provide the current perspectives on iron homeostasis in Arabidopsis, followed by a summary of iron-containing protein functions involved in genome stability maintenance and a discussion of their possible molecular mechanisms.

Unsaturation of very-long-chain ceramides protects plant from hypoxia-induced damages by modulating ethylene signaling in Arabidopsis

Lipid remodeling is crucial for hypoxic tolerance in animals, whilst little is known about the hypoxia-induced lipid dynamics in plants. Here we performed a mass spectrometry-based analysis to survey the lipid profiles of Arabidopsis rosettes under various hypoxic conditions. We observed that hypoxia caused a significant increase in total amounts of phosphatidylserine, phosphatidic acid and oxidized lipids, but a decrease in phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Particularly, significant gains in the polyunsaturated species of PC, PE and phosphatidylinositol, and losses in their saturated and mono-unsaturated species were evident during hypoxia. Moreover, hypoxia led to a remarkable elevation of ceramides and hydroxyceramides. Disruption of ceramide synthases LOH1, LOH2 and LOH3 enhanced plant sensitivity to dark submergence, but displayed more resistance to submergence under light than wild type. Consistently, levels of unsaturated very-long-chain (VLC) ceramide species (22:1, 24:1 and 26:1) predominantly declined in the loh1, loh2 and loh3 mutants under dark submergence. In contrast, significant reduction of VLC ceramides in the loh1-1 loh3-1 knockdown double mutant and lacking of VLC unsaturated ceramides in the ads2 mutants impaired plant tolerance to both dark and light submergences. Evidence that C24:1-ceramide interacted with recombinant CTR1 protein and inhibited its kinase activity in vitro, enhanced ER-to-nucleus translocation of EIN2-GFP and stabilization of EIN3-GFP in vivo, suggests a role of ceramides in modulating CTR1-mediated ethylene signaling. The dark submergence-sensitive phenotypes of loh mutants were rescued by a ctr1-1 mutation. Thus, our findings demonstrate that unsaturation of VLC ceramides is a protective strategy for hypoxic tolerance in Arabidopsis.

Arabidopsis Bax inhibitor-1 promotes sphingolipid synthesis during cold stress by interacting with ceramide-modifying enzymes

Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is a widely conserved cell death suppressor localized in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Our previous results revealed that Arabidopsis BI-1 (AtBI-1) interacts with not only Arabidopsis cytochrome b 5 (Cb5), an electron transfer protein, but also a Cb5-like domain (Cb5LD)-containing protein, Saccharomyces cerevisiae fatty acid 2-hydroxylase 1, which 2-hydroxylates sphingolipid fatty acids. We have now found that AtBI-1 binds Arabidopsis sphingolipid Δ8 long-chain base (LCB) desaturases AtSLD1 and AtSLD2, which are Cb5LD-containing proteins. The expression of both AtBI-1 and AtSLD1 was increased by cold exposure. However, different phenotypes were observed in response to cold treatment between an atbi-1 mutant and a sld1sld2 double mutant. To elucidate the reasons behind the difference, we analyzed sphingolipids and found that unsaturated LCBs in atbi-1 were not altered compared to wild type, whereas almost all LCBs in sld1sld2 were saturated, suggesting that AtBI-1 may not be necessary for the desaturation of LCBs. On the other hand, the sphingolipid content in wild type increased in response to low temperature, whereas total sphingolipid levels in atbi-1 were unaltered. In addition, the ceramide-modifying enzymes AtFAH1, sphingolipid base hydroxylase 2 (AtSBH2), acyl lipid desaturase 2 (AtADS2) and AtSLD1 were highly expressed under cold stress, and all are likely to be related to AtBI-1 function. These findings suggest that AtBI-1 contributes to synthesis of sphingolipids during cold stress by interacting with AtSLD1, AtFAH1, AtSBH2 and AtADS2.

Association of cytochrome b5 with ETR1 ethylene receptor signaling through RTE1 in Arabidopsis

Ethylene plays important roles in plant growth, development and stress responses, and is perceived by a family of receptors that repress ethylene responses when ethylene is absent. Repression by the ethylene receptor ETR1 depends on an integral membrane protein, REVERSION TO ETHYLENE SENSITIVITY1 (RTE1), which acts upstream of ETR1 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and Golgi apparatus. To investigate RTE1 function, we screened for RTE1-interacting proteins using the yeast split-ubiquitin assay, which yielded the ER-localized cytochrome b(5) (Cb5) isoform D. Cb5s are small hemoproteins that perform electron transfer reactions in all eukaryotes, but their roles in plants are relatively uncharacterized. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC), we found that all four ER-localized Arabidopsis Cb5 isoforms (AtCb5–B, -C, -D and -E) interact with RTE1 in plant cells. In support of this interaction, atcb5 mutants exhibited phenotypic parallels with rte1 mutants in Arabidopsis. Phenotypes included partial suppression of etr1–2 ethylene insensitivity, and no suppression of RTE1-independent ethylene receptor isoforms. The single loss-of-function mutants atcb5–b, -c and -d appeared similar to the wild-type, but double mutant combinations displayed slight ethylene hypersensitivity. Over-expression of AtCb5–D conferred reduced ethylene sensitivity similar to that conferred by RTE1 over-expression, and genetic analyses suggested that AtCb5–D acts upstream of RTE1 in the ethylene response. These findings suggest an unexpected role for Cb5, in which Cb5 and RTE1 are functional partners in promoting ETR1-mediated repression of ethylene signaling.

Homologous electron transport components fail to increase fatty acid hydroxylation in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana

Ricinoleic acid, a hydroxylated fatty acid (HFA) present in castor ( Ricinus communis) seeds, is an important industrial commodity used in products ranging from inks and paints to polymers and fuels. However, due to the deadly toxin ricin and allergens also present in castor, it would be advantageous to produce ricinoleic acid in a different agricultural crop. Unfortunately, repeated efforts at heterologous expression of the castor fatty acid hydroxylase (RcFAH12) in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have produced only 17-19% HFA in the seed triacylglycerols (TAG), whereas castor seeds accumulate up to 90% ricinoleic acid in the endosperm TAG. RcFAH12 requires an electron supply from NADH:cytochrome b5 reductase (CBR1) and cytochrome b5 (Cb5) to synthesize ricinoleic acid. Previously, our laboratory found a mutation in the Arabidopsis CBR1 gene, cbr1-1, that caused an 85% decrease in HFA levels in the RcFAH12 Arabidopsis line. These results raise the possibility that electron supply to the heterologous RcFAH12 may limit the production of HFA. Therefore, we hypothesized that by heterologously expressing RcCb5, the reductant supply to RcFAH12 would be improved and lead to increased HFA accumulation in Arabidopsis seeds. Contrary to this proposal, heterologous expression of the top three RcCb5 candidates did not increase HFA accumulation. Furthermore, coexpression of RcCBR1 and RcCb5 in RcFAH12 Arabidopsis also did not increase in HFA levels compared to the parental lines. These results demonstrate that the Arabidopsis electron transfer system is supplying sufficient reductant to RcFAH12 and that there must be other bottlenecks limiting the accumulation of HFA.

Homologous electron transport components fail to increase fatty acid hydroxylation in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana

Ricinoleic acid, a hydroxylated fatty acid (HFA) present in castor ( Ricinus communis) seeds, is an important industrial commodity used in products ranging from inks and paints to polymers and fuels. However, due to the deadly toxin ricin and allergens also present in castor, it would be advantageous to produce ricinoleic acid in a different agricultural crop. Unfortunately, repeated efforts at heterologous expression of the castor fatty acid hydroxylase (RcFAH12) in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have produced only 17-19% HFA in the seed triacylglycerols (TAG), whereas castor seeds accumulate up to 90% ricinoleic acid in the endosperm TAG. RcFAH12 requires an electron supply from NADH:cytochrome b5 reductase (CBR1) and cytochrome b5 (Cb5) to synthesize ricinoleic acid. Previously, our laboratory found a mutation in the Arabidopsis CBR1 gene, cbr1-1, that caused an 85% decrease in HFA levels in the RcFAH12 Arabidopsis line. These results raise the possibility that electron supply to the heterologous RcFAH12 may limit the production of HFA. Therefore, we hypothesized that by heterologously expressing RcCb5, the reductant supply to RcFAH12 would be improved and lead to increased HFA accumulation in Arabidopsis seeds. Contrary to this proposal, heterologous expression of the top three RcCb5 candidates did not increase HFA accumulation. Furthermore, coexpression of RcCBR1 and RcCb5 in RcFAH12 Arabidopsis also did not increase in HFA levels compared to the parental lines. These results demonstrate that the Arabidopsis electron transfer system is supplying sufficient reductant to RcFAH12 and that there must be other bottlenecks limiting the accumulation of HFA.

Co-immunoprecipitation-based identification of putative BAX INHIBITOR-1-interacting proteins involved in cell death regulation and plant-powdery mildew interactions

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident BAX INHIBITOR-1 (BI-1) protein is one of a few cell death suppressors known to be conserved in animals and plants. The function of BI-1 proteins in response to various biotic and abiotic stress factors is well established. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. We conducted co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) experiments to identify Arabidopsis thaliana BI-1-interacting proteins to obtain a potentially better understanding of how BI-1 functions during plant-pathogen interactions and as a suppressor of cell death. Liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) identified 95 proteins co-immunoprecipitated with green fluorescing protein (GFP)-tagged BI-1. Five selected candidate proteins, a RIBOPHORIN II (RPN2) family protein, VACUOLAR ATP SYNTHASE SUBUNIT A (VHA-A), cytochrome P450 83A1 (CYP83A1), H(+) -ATPASE 1 (AHA1) and PROHIBITIN 2 (PHB2), were further investigated with regard to their role in BI-1-associated processes. To this end, we analysed a set of Arabidopsis mutants in the interaction with the adapted powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe cruciferarum and on cell death-inducing treatments. Two independent rpn2 knock-down mutants tended to better support powdery mildew, and a phb2 mutant showed altered responses to cell death-inducing Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici (AAL) toxin treatment. Two independent cyp83a1 mutants showed a strong powdery mildew resistance phenotype and enhanced sensitivity to AAL toxin. Moreover, co-localization studies and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments suggested a direct interaction of BI-1 with CYP83A1 at the ER.

LIFEGUARD proteins support plant colonization by biotrophic powdery mildew fungi

Pathogenic microbes manipulate eukaryotic cells during invasion and target plant proteins to achieve host susceptibility. BAX INHIBITOR-1 (BI-1) is an endoplasmic reticulum-resident cell death suppressor in plants and animals and is required for full susceptibility of barley to the barley powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei. LIFEGUARD (LFG) proteins resemble BI-1 proteins in terms of predicted membrane topology and cell-death-inhibiting function in metazoans, but display clear sequence-specific distinctions. This work shows that barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and Arabidopsis thaliana genomes harbour five LFG genes, HvLFGa-HvLFGe and AtLFG1-AtLFG5, whose functions are largely uncharacterized. As observed for HvBI-1, single-cell overexpression of HvLFGa supports penetration success of B. graminis f.sp. hordei into barley epidermal cells, while transient-induced gene silencing restricts it. In penetrated barley epidermal cells, a green fluorescent protein-tagged HvLFGa protein accumulates at the site of fungal entry, around fungal haustoria and in endosomal or vacuolar membranes. The data further suggest a role of LFG proteins in plant-powdery mildew interactions in both monocot and dicot plants, because stable overexpression or knockdown of AtLFG1 or AtLFG2 also support or delay development of the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe cruciferarum on the respective Arabidopsis mutants. Together, this work has identified new modulators of plant-powdery mildew interactions, and the data further support functional similarities between BI-1 and LFG proteins beyond cell death regulation.

Plant sphingolipids: function follows form

Plant sphingolipids are structurally diverse molecules that are important as membrane components and bioactive molecules. An appreciation of the relationship between structural diversity and functional significance of plant sphingolipids is emerging through characterization of Arabidopsis mutants coupled with advanced analytical methods. It is increasingly apparent that modifications such as hydroxylation and desaturation of the sphingolipid nonpolar long-chain bases and fatty acids influence their metabolic routing to particular complex sphingolipid classes and their functions in signaling pathways and other cellular processes, such as membrane protein targeting. Here, we review recent reports investigating some of the more prevalent sphingolipid structural modifications and their functional importance in plants.

The role of plant Bax inhibitor-1 in suppressing H2O2-induced cell death

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is known to be a typical endogenous signaling molecule that triggers programmed cell death in plants and metazoan. In this respect, they seem to share the mechanism of cell death caused by H2O2 and other reactive oxygen species (ROS). Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is a well-conserved protein in plants and animals that serves as the inhibitor of mammalian proapoptotic proteins as well as plant ROS-induced cell death. As a target of H2O2, mitochondrion is considered to be an organelle of the primary ROS generation and perception. Thus, analysis of mitochondrial behavior in relation to functional roles of regulatory proteins (e.g., BI-1) will lead us to understand the core mechanisms of cell death regulation conserved in eukaryotes. In this chapter, we first introduce techniques of analyzing H2O2- (and ROS-) mediated changes in mitochondrial behavior. Next, we describe our understanding of the functions of plant BI-1 in regulation of ROS-induced cell death, with a technical basis for assessment of tolerance to ROS-mediated cell death in model plant systems.

Arabidopsis mutants of sphingolipid fatty acid α-hydroxylases accumulate ceramides and salicylates

In Arabidopsis, the fatty acid moiety of sphingolipids is mainly α-hydroxylated. The consequences of a reduction in this modification were analysed. Mutants of both Fatty Acid Hydroxylase genes (AtFAH1 and AtFAH2) were analysed for sphingolipid profiles. To elucidate further consequences of the mutations, metabolic analyses were performed and the influence on pathogen defence was determined. Ceramide and glucosylceramide profiles of double-mutant plants showed a reduction in sphingolipids with α-hydroxylated fatty acid moieties, and an accumulation of sphingolipids without these moieties. In addition, the free trihydroxylated long-chain bases and ceramides were increased by five- and ten-fold, respectively, whereas the amount of glucosylceramides was decreased by 25%. Metabolite analysis of the double mutant revealed salicylates as enriched metabolites. Infection experiments supported the metabolic changes, as the double mutant showed an enhanced disease-resistant phenotype for infection with the obligate biotrophic pathogen Golovinomyces cichoracearum. In summary, these results suggest that fatty acid hydroxylation of ceramides is important for the biosynthesis of complex sphingolipids. Its absence leads to the accumulation of long-chain bases and ceramides as their precursors. This increases salicylate levels and resistance towards obligate biotrophic fungal pathogens, confirming a role of sphingolipids in salicylic acid-dependent defence reactions.

Plant sphingolipid fatty acid 2-hydroxylases have unique characters unlike their animal and fungus counterparts

2-Hydroxy fatty acids mainly contained in sphingolipids are synthesized by a sphingolipid fatty acid 2-hydroxylase (FAH). Recently, two FAH homologs in Arabidopsis thaliana (AtFAH1 and AtFAH2), without any cytochrome b₅(Cb5)-like domains, which are essential for the function of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mammalian FAH, were identified and both AtFAHs were shown to be activated by the interaction with Cb5. In this study, we compared FAHs of various plants, animals and fungi. Interestingly, only plants had two FAH homologs and none of plant FAHs had any Cb5-like domains. In addition, we showed from the interaction and expression analyses that AtFAHs interacted with multiple Cb5s probably in various tissues. Thus, plant FAHs may have evolved unlike animal and fungus FAHs.

Sphingolipids and plant defense/disease: the "death" connection and beyond

Sphingolipids comprise a major class of structural materials and lipid signaling molecules in all eukaryotic cells. Over the past two decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in the study of sphingolipids (i.e., sphingobiology) at an average rate of ∼1000 research articles per year. Sphingolipid studies in plants, though accounting for only a small fraction (∼6%) of the total number of publications, have also enjoyed proportionally rapid growth in the past decade. Concomitant with the growth of sphingobiology, there has also been tremendous progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of plant innate immunity. In this review, we (i) cross examine and analyze the major findings that establish and strengthen the intimate connections between sphingolipid metabolism and plant programmed cell death (PCD) associated with plant defense or disease; (ii) highlight and compare key bioactive sphingolipids involved in the regulation of plant PCD and possibly defense; (iii) discuss the potential role of sphingolipids in polarized membrane/protein trafficking and formation of lipid rafts as subdomains of cell membranes in relation to plant defense; and (iv) where possible, attempt to identify potential parallels for immunity-related mechanisms involving sphingolipids across kingdoms.

Higher plant cytochrome b5 polypeptides modulate fatty acid desaturation

BACKGROUND

Synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the endoplasmic reticulum of plants typically involves the fatty acid desaturases FAD2 and FAD3, which use cytochrome b(5) (Cb5) as an electron donor. Higher plants are reported to have multiple isoforms of Cb5, in contrast to a single Cb5 in mammals and yeast. Despite the wealth of information available on the roles of FAD2 and FAD3 in PUFA synthesis, information regarding the contributions of various Cb5 isoforms in desaturase-mediated reactions is limited.

RESULTS

The present functional characterization of Cb5 polypeptides revealed that all Arabidopsis Cb5 isoforms are not similarly efficient in ω-6 desaturation, as evidenced by significant variation in their product outcomes in yeast-based functional assays. On the other hand, characterization of Cb5 polypeptides of soybean (Glycine max) suggested that similar ω-6 desaturation efficiencies were shared by various isoforms. With regard to ω-3 desaturation, certain Cb5 genes of both Arabidopsis and soybean were shown to facilitate the accumulation of more desaturation products than others when co-expressed with their native FAD3. Additionally, similar trends of differential desaturation product accumulation were also observed with most Cb5 genes of both soybean and Arabidopsis even if co-expressed with non-native FAD3.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reports the first description of the differential nature of the Cb5 genes of higher plants in fatty acid desaturation and further suggests that ω-3/ω-6 desaturation product outcome is determined by the nature of both the Cb5 isoform and the fatty acid desaturases.

Determination of hemin-binding characteristics of proteins by a combinatorial peptide library approach

Studies of the binding of heme/hemin to proteins or peptides have recently intensified as it became evident that heme serves not only as a prosthetic group, but also as a regulator and effector molecule interacting with transmembrane and cytoplasmic proteins. The iron-ion-containing heme group can associate with these proteins in different ways, with the amino acids Cys, His, and Tyr allowing individual modes of binding. Strong coordinate-covalent binding, such as in cytochrome c, is known, and reversible attachment is also discussed. Ligands for both types of binding have been reported independently, though sometimes with different affinities for similar sequences. We applied a combinatorial approach using the library (X)(4) (C/H/Y)(X)(4) to characterize peptide ligands with considerable hemin binding capacities. Some of the library-selected peptides were comparable in terms of hemin association independently of whether or not a cysteine residue was present in the sequence. Indeed, a preference for His-based (≈39 %) and Tyr-based (≈40 %) sequences over Cys-based ones (≈21 %) was detected. The binding affinities for the library-selected peptides, as determined by UV/Vis spectroscopy, were in the nanomolar range. Moreover, selected representatives efficiently competed for hemin binding with the human BK channel hSlo1, which is known to be regulated by heme through binding to its heme-binding domain.

Bax inhibitor-1: a highly conserved endoplasmic reticulum-resident cell death suppressor

In spite of fundamental differences between plant and animal cells, it is remarkable that some cell death regulators that were identified to control cell death in metazoans can also function in plants. The fact that most of these proteins do not have structural homologs in plant genomes suggests that they may be targeting a highly conserved 'core' mechanism with conserved functions that is present in all eukaryotes. The ubiquitous Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is a common cell death suppressor in eukaryotes that has provided a potential portal to this cell death core. In this review, we will update the current status of our understanding on the function and activities of this intriguing protein. Genetic, molecular and biochemical studies have so far suggested a consistent view that BI-1 is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident transmembrane protein that can interact with multiple partners to alter intracellular Ca(2+) flux control and lipid dynamics. Functionally, the level of BI-1 protein has been hypothesized to have the role of a rheostat to regulate the threshold of ER-stress inducible cell death. Further, delineation of the cell death suppression mechanism by BI-1 should shed light on an ancient cell death core-control pathway in eukaryotes, as well as novel ways to improve stress tolerance.

Replacing fossil oil with fresh oil - with what and for what?

Industrial chemicals and materials are currently derived mainly from fossil-based raw materials, which are declining in availability, increasing in price and are a major source of undesirable greenhouse gas emissions. Plant oils have the potential to provide functionally equivalent, renewable and environmentally friendly replacements for these finite fossil-based raw materials, provided that their composition can be matched to end-use requirements, and that they can be produced on sufficient scale to meet current and growing industrial demands. Replacement of 40% of the fossil oil used in the chemical industry with renewable plant oils, whilst ensuring that growing demand for food oils is also met, will require a trebling of global plant oil production from current levels of around 139 MT to over 400 MT annually. Realisation of this potential will rely on application of plant biotechnology to (i) tailor plant oils to have high purity (preferably >90%) of single desirable fatty acids, (ii) introduce unusual fatty acids that have specialty end-use functionalities and (iii) increase plant oil production capacity by increased oil content in current oil crops, and conversion of other high biomass crops into oil accumulating crops. This review outlines recent progress and future challenges in each of these areas.

Practical applications: The research reviewed in this paper aims to develop metabolic engineering technologies to radically increase the yield and alter the fatty acid composition of plant oils and enable the development of new and more productive oil crops that can serve as renewable sources of industrial feedstocks currently provided by non-renewable and polluting fossil-based resources. As a result of recent and anticipated research developments we can expect to see significant enhancements in quality and productivity of oil crops over the coming decades. This should generate the technologies needed to support increasing plant oil production into the future, hopefully of sufficient magnitude to provide a major supply of renewable plant oils for the industrial economy without encroaching on the higher priority demand for food oils. Achievement of this goal will make a significant contribution to moving to a sustainable carbon-neutral industrial society with lower emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and reduced environmental impact as a result.