Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in toddlers starting at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus. A multicenter analysis of 104 patients from 63 centres in Germany and Austria

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2024

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Care in Diabetes" includes the ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, an interprofessional expert committee, are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations and a full list of Professional Practice Committee members, please refer to Introduction and Methodology. Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Care in Diabetes" includes the ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, a multidisciplinary expert committee, are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations and a full list of Professional Practice Committee members, please refer to Introduction and Methodology. Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2022

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes" includes the ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, a multidisciplinary expert committee (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc22-SPPC), are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations, please refer to the Standards of Care Introduction (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc22-SINT). Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

Comparing continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion and multiple daily injections in children with Type 1 diabetes in Sweden from 2011 to 2016-A longitudinal study from the Swedish National Quality Register (SWEDIABKIDS)

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to compare metabolic control measured as hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), the risk of severe hypoglycemia, and body composition measured as body mass index standard deviation scores (BMI-SDS) in a nationwide sample of children and adolescents with Type 1 diabetes with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) and multiple daily injections (MDI), respectively.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Longitudinal data from 2011 to 2016 were extracted from the Swedish National Quality Register (SWEDIABKIDS) with both cross-sectional (6 years) and longitudinal (4 years) comparisons. Main end points were changes in HbA1c, BMI-SDS, and incidence of severe hypoglycemia.

RESULTS

Data were available from 35,624 patient-years (54% boys). In general, HbA1c decreased approximately 0.5% (2-5 mmol/mol) from 2011 to 2016 (p_trend  < 0.001) and the use of CSII increased in both sexes and all age groups. Mean HbA1c was 0.1% (0.7-1.5 mmol/mol) lower in the CSII treated group. Teenagers, especially girls, using CSII tended to have higher BMI-SDS. There was no difference in the number of hypoglycemias between CSII and MDI over the years 2011-2016.

CONCLUSIONS

There was a small decrease in HbA1c with CSII treatment but of little clinical relevance. Overall, mean HbA1c decreased in both sexes and all age groups without increasing the episodes of severe hypoglycemia, indicating that other factors than insulin method contributed to a better metabolic control.

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2021

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes" includes the ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, a multidisciplinary expert committee (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-SPPC), are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations, please refer to the Standards of Care Introduction (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-SINT). Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

The durability and effectiveness of sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy in pediatric and young adult patients with type 1 diabetes

PURPOSE

Despite the prevalent use of insulin pump therapy worldwide, few studies have been conducted among young patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) in Korea. We investigated the durability and effectiveness of insulin pump therapy among Korean pediatric and young adult patients with T1D.

METHODS

This study included 54 patients with T1D diagnosed at pediatric ages (range, 1.1-14.1 years) who initiated insulin pump therapy during 2016-2019 at Seoul National University Children's Hospital and Seoul National University Bundang Hospital. Clinical and biochemical data, including anthropometric measurements, insulin dose, and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels were obtained from T1D diagnosis to last follow-up.

RESULTS

Forty-four patients (81.5%) continued insulin pump therapy with a median pump use duration of 2.9 years (range, 0.2-3.5 years); 10 discontinued the therapy within 12 months (<1 month, n=6; 1-6 months, n=1; and 6-12 months, n=3) due to physical interferences or financial problems. Older age (≥10 years of age) and longer diabetes duration (≥2 years) at the initiation of pump therapy were associated with discontinuation (P<0.05 for both). For patients continuing pump therapy, HbA1c levels significantly decreased after 1 year of therapy (from 8.9% to 8.1%, P<0.001) without changes in the body mass index z-scores or insulin dose. Although 4 patients experienced diabetic ketoacidosis, all recovered without complications.

CONCLUSION

Insulin pump therapy was effective in improving glycemic control in T1D patients during 12 months of treatment. Early initiation of insulin pump therapy after T1D diagnosis was helpful for continuing therapy.

Insulin Pump Therapy

BACKGROUND

Advances in pump technology have increased the popularity of this treatment modality among patients with type 1 diabetes and recently also among patients with type 2 diabetes.

AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY

Four decades after the incorporation of the insulin pump in clinical use, questions regarding its efficacy, occurrence rate of short-term complications as hypoglycemia and diabetes ketoacidosis, timing of pump initiation, and selected populations for use remain unanswered.

DATA SOURCES

A review of the literature was performed using the PubMed database to identify all articles published up till December 2018, with the search terms including insulin pump therapy/continuous subcutaneous insulin delivery. The Cochrane database was searched for meta-analysis evaluating controlled randomized trials. Consensuses guidelines published by the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes, American Diabetes Association, and Advanced Technologies and Treatments for Diabetes year books were additionally reviewed for relevant cited articles.

THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES

Insulin pump therapy offers flexible management of diabetes. It enables adjustment of basal insulin to daily requirements and circadian needs, offers more precise treatment for meals and physical activity, and, when integrated with continuous glucose monitoring, allows glucose responsive insulin delivery. The ability to download and transmit data for analysis allow for treatment optimization. Newer pumps are simple to operate and increase user experience. Studies support the efficacy of pump therapy in improving glycemic control and reducing the occurrence of hypoglycemia without increasing episodes of diabetes ketoacidosis. They also improve quality of life. Recent evidence suggests a role for pump therapy in reducing microvascular and macrovascular diabetes-related complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Insulin pump therapy appears to be effective and safe in people with T1D regardless of age. Future advancements will include incorporation of closed loop and various decision support systems to aid and improve metabolic control and quality of life.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus management in young children: implementation of current technologies

The use of advanced technologies for diabetes management is on the rise among pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII), continuous glucose monitoring, predictive low glucose suspend, hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery systems-all enable better diabetes management and glycemic control. However, when used by children, and especially very young children, specific aspects must be taken into consideration, including technical parameters, ease of use, parental stress, and satisfaction. The unique characteristics of T1D in children aged <6 years are reviewed and studies of the pros and cons of different technologies in this specific age group are presented. Addressing such issues when implementing advanced technologies among very young children with T1D will enable better diabetes management and will hopefully ease a tremendous burden of both children and families.

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2020

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes" includes the ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, a multidisciplinary expert committee (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-SPPC), are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations, please refer to the Standards of Care Introduction (https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-SINT). Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

[Insulin pump therapy in children, adolescents and adults, guidelines (Update 2019)]

This position statement is based on current evidence available on the safety and benefits of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy (CSII, pump therapy) in diabetes with an emphasis on the effects of CSII on glycemic control, hypoglycaemia rates, occurrence of ketoacidosis, quality of life and the use of insulin pump therapy in pregnancy. The current article represents the recommendations of the Austrian Diabetes Association for the clinical praxis of insulin pump treatment in children, adolescents and adults.

7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2019

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) "Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes" includes ADA's current clinical practice recommendations and is intended to provide the components of diabetes care, general treatment goals and guidelines, and tools to evaluate quality of care. Members of the ADA Professional Practice Committee, a multidisciplinary expert committee, are responsible for updating the Standards of Care annually, or more frequently as warranted. For a detailed description of ADA standards, statements, and reports, as well as the evidence-grading system for ADA's clinical practice recommendations, please refer to the Standards of Care Introduction Readers who wish to comment on the Standards of Care are invited to do so at professional.diabetes.org/SOC.

Experiences and decision making during paediatric transitions to continuous sub-cutaneous insulin infusion (CSII): A mixed method study

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to improve the decision quality and outcomes for families with children or adolescents with diabetes considering continuous sub-cutaneous insulin infusion (CSII).

METHODS

A mixed method study involved three focus groups with youth, parents and clinicians to provide experience information as background to the development of a decision aid (DA). A pre-test (T1) and post-test (T2) evaluation of the DA with a convenience sample of five families considering initiating CSII.

RESULTS

The focus group data showed that families found the move to CSII to be generally empowering with adolescents engaging with the technology quickly, and that experiential information from others was important in the process. Participants increased their knowledge and decreased decisional conflict after using the DA from T1 to T2. Preferred option measurement indicated that at T1, three participants were 'unsure' and two participants' preferred option was CSII. After exposure to the DA at T2, those who were previously unsure had a preferred option of CSII with a resulting five people with a preferred option of CSII.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from this study suggest that transitioning to CSII for paediatric and adolescent patients and their carers may be assisted by a DA and that participants felt empowered to a make decision regarding CSII when using the PANDANI DA. The quasi-experimental design without randomisation or control group was a study limitation caused by the small number of participants. Expanding this pilot research into a randomised control trial would decrease the threat to validity from other possible explanations for the improvement in decisional conflict, such as nurse educators.

[Insulin pump therapy in children, adolescents and adults]

This position statement is based on the current evidence available on the safety and benefits of continuous subcutaneous insulin pump therapy (CSII) in diabetes with an emphasis on the effects of CSII on glycemic control, hypoglycaemia rates, occurrence of ketoacidosis, quality of life and the use of insulin pump therapy in pregnancy. The current article represents the recommendations of the Austrian Diabetes Association for the clinical praxis of insulin pump treatment in children, adolescents and adults.

Polymorphic basal rates of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion among Taiwanese children with type 1 diabetes

Introduction. The basal dose of insulin, proportion of total daily insulin, and circadian variation during continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) therapy among children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) have not been fully elucidated. Materials and Methods. A total of 45 childhood patients with T1D receiving CSII therapy at Pediatrics Department of Chang Gung Memorial Hospital between 2004 and 2012 were analyzed. Patients were classified according to Tanner stage. Results. HbA1c was significantly reduced in all Tanner groups within three months of CSII therapy (from 67 mmol/mol (8.3%) to 54 mmol/mol (7.1%), P < 0.05). The actual basal proportion of total daily insulin use was 34–40%. The circadian distribution of basal insulin differed markedly between the five Tanner groups. Basal insulin requirement was highest between 3:00 and 7:00 h in Tanner stages 1-2. In stages 3-4, a lower nocturnal basal insulin that increased gradually until daytime was noted. Adolescents (stage 5) displayed a high insulin peak between 6:00 and 11:00 h, and a smaller peak between 19:00 and 23:00 h. Conclusions. A smaller proportion of basal insulin to total daily insulin use, as well as varied circadian patterns of insulin use, characterized these children with T1D.

Improved metabolic control in pediatric patients with type 1 diabetes: a nationwide prospective 12-year time trends analysis

BACKGROUND

This study estimated temporal trends of metabolic control over 12 years in a national cohort of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Data from the prospective childhood-onset diabetes register, which included 886 case subjects from 0 to 17.99 years of age at diagnosis and at least 1 year of follow-up until the age of 22.99 years, were analyzed using multivariable linear and logistic regression models in the observational period between 2000 and 2011.

RESULTS

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) significantly decreased over 12 years, from 78 mmol/mol (interquartile range [IQR], 68-88 mmol/mol) (9.26% [IQR, 8.41-10.24%]) in the year 2000 to 61 mmol/mol (IQR, 55-67 mmol/mol) (7.75% [IQR, 7.20-8.30%]) in the year 2011 (P<0.001). HbA1c was significantly associated with age, treatment modality, and duration of diabetes (P<0.001), with females having on average 1.02% higher HbA1c (P=0.01; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.005-1.035). The overall use of insulin pumps was 74%. The incidence rate of severe acute complications was low: 1.07 per 100 patient-years for severe diabetic ketoacidosis (95% CI 0.81-1.40) and 1.21 per 100 patient-years for severe (requiring intravenous or intramuscular therapy) hypoglycemia (95% CI 0.81-1.40).

CONCLUSIONS

The metabolic control of the entire nationwide pediatric type 1 diabetes population significantly improved during the 12-year observational period with a low rate of severe acute complications events. The improvement was associated with the treatment modality. Additional efforts and solutions are necessary to further improve metabolic control and the quality of life of young people with type 1 diabetes.

[Insulin treatment in children with type one diabetes]

In all age groups, the aim of insulin treatment will be as close to physiological insulin replacement as possible in order to obtain optimum metabolic control. Rapid and long acting insulin analogs represent some improvement in the care of diabetes in children by improving glycaemic control and decreasing the occurrence of hypoglycaemia. Insulin dosage will be determined to allow appropriate insulin levels throughout the twenty-four hours to cover basal requirements and higher levels of insulin in an attempt to match the glycaemic effect of meals. The distribution of insulin dose across the days shows great individual variations and daily insulin dosage varies greatly between individuals end changes over time. Regardless of mode of insulin therapy, doses should be adapted based on the daily pattern of blood glucose and therefore require regular review and assessment. The device used for insulin administration must be adapted for paediatric patients. Whatever insulin regimen is chosen it must be supported by comprehensive education adapted for the age, maturity and individual needs of the child and family.

Morbidity and mortality of diabetic ketoacidosis with and without insulin pump care

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is one of the most common, costly, and dangerous acute complications in people with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Although DKA has been reported to occur with less frequency than severe hypoglycemia, it is associated with a higher mortality rate and is the leading cause of diabetes-related deaths in children and adolescents. The most common risk factor for DKA is lack of adherence to insulin treatment. Other factors include underinsurance, psychiatric disorders, occlusion of insulin pump infusion sets, and illness. It has been suggested that use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy may increase the risk for DKA, although clinical trials have not supported this claim. Expert care within a T1D specialty clinic may help reduce the risk of DKA mortality. Further advances are needed in developing new technologies and methods to improve glycemic control in intensively treated patients without increasing the risk of acute complications. The purpose of this review is to discuss DKA morbidity and mortality in youth with T1D, particularly in relation to insulin pump use.

Which factors predict glycemic control in children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes before 6.5 years of age?

Predictors of long-term glycemic control and growth patterns in children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes (T1D) before 6.5 years of age were evaluated. One hundred seventy-three children (84 boys) with a mean diabetes duration of 4.9 ± 2.8 years participated in this observational study. Medical charts were reviewed for background, disease- and treatment-related parameters, and growth parameters. Study endpoints were HbA1c value, rates of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis events, and growth patterns. Mean HbA1c for the total duration of diabetes (HbA1c-TDD) was 7.9 ± 0.8%. Comparison of the study variables between patients with HbA1c-TDD <7.5% (n = 53) or ≥7.5% yielded a significantly shorter duration of diabetes (P = 0.01) and lower rate of diabetic ketoacidosis (P = 0.02) in those with HbA1C-TDD <7.5%, without differences between these groups in age at diabetes onset, insulin regimens, daily glucose measurements, and rate of severe hypoglycemia. Factors significantly predicting achievement of the mean target HbA1c-TDD <7.5% were lower HbA1c at 0.5 years and 1 year after diabetes diagnosis (P = 0.002 and P < 0.001, respectively). Patients followed for at least 5 years (n = 48) showed a significant decrease in height-SDS (P < 0.001) and a significant increase in weight-SDS (P = 0.004) from diabetes diagnosis to the last follow-up visit, without a significant change in weight-SDS from 0.5 years after diagnosis to the last follow-up visit. Our results suggest that in patients with T1D diagnosed during the preschool-age, mean HbA1c level in the first year is a strong predictor of achieving target HbA1c level in the subsequent years, regardless the type of insulin regimen. This "metabolic tracking" emphasizes the importance of achieving early optimal control even in younger children.

Does the timing of insulin pump therapy initiation after type 1 diabetes onset have an impact on glycemic control?

BACKGROUND

Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) mimics physiologic insulin release better than multiple daily injection (MDI) therapy and allows for greater flexibility in food intake and physical activity. Given these benefits, it raises the question "Is it required to wait to offer CSII to patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D) only after MDI therapy has failed"? This study sought to determine if starting CSII in patients with T1D within 1 year of diagnosis results in better long-term glycemic control than starting it later.

METHODS

This retrospective observational study was conducted in a tertiary-care medical center. The charts of 488 patients with T1D (273 females) 2.6-39 years old (mean, 19.9 ± 7.7 years) who started CSII in 1998-2008 and used it for at least 1 year were reviewed for background, disease-related, and treatment-related variables. Study end points were glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level, rate of severe hypoglycemia, and diabetic ketoacidosis events during CSII use. Findings were compared between patients who started CSII within 1 year of diagnosis (Group 1, n=93) or later (Group 2, n=395).

RESULTS

Compared with Group 2, Group 1 patients were characterized by a significantly younger age at CSII initiation (10.7±5.7 vs. 16.4±7.0 years, P<0.001), more frequent blood glucose monitoring (5.4 ± 1.8 vs. 3.9 ± 1.5 times per day, P<0.001), and shorter total duration of diabetes (4.3 ± 2.1 vs. 11.9 ± 6.4 years, P<0.001) and of CSII therapy (3.6 ± 2.1 vs. 4.7 ± 2.5 years, P<0.001). There were no significant between-group differences in patient gender or ethnicity, indications for initiating CSII, mean HbA1c level, attainment of target HbA1c, or rates of severe hypoglycemia or ketoacidosis events after CSII initiation.

CONCLUSIONS

Starting pump therapy at an early disease stage has no added benefit for glycemic control over time than starting later. The timing of CSII initiation should be tailored to the individual patient by the diabetes care team.

Basal rates and circadian profiles in continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) differ for preschool children, prepubertal children, adolescents and young adults

OBJECTIVE

Initiation of continuous subcutaneous insulin therapy (CSII) requires an appropriate basal rate profile. Different approaches exist; however, there is a lack of evidence-based recommendations, especially in young children.

STUDY DESIGN

In this large multicenter survey, 5941 CSII patients from the German/Austrian prospective documentation system (DPV) were analyzed. Patients were divided into four age groups: <6 yr (n = 837), 6 to <12 yr (n = 1739), 12 to <18 yr (n = 2985) and 18 to <25 yr (n = 380). Basal insulin requirement and diurnal distribution were evaluated based on the most recent documentation for each patient.

RESULTS

Basal insulin requirement differed significantly between the four age groups (<6: 0.25 ± 0.12; 6 to <12: 0.33 ± 0.12; 12 to <18: 0.43 ± 0.15; 18 to <25: 0.35 ± 0.13 U/kg; p < 0.001). Circadian insulin profiles were markedly different between the younger and older age groups. In addition to age, longer diabetes duration, female gender, higher HbA1c and lower body mass index standard deviation score (BMI-SDS) were related to higher basal insulin requirement per kilogram of body weight.

CONCLUSIONS

Age of the patient is the primary factor that influences both total daily requirement and circadian distribution of basal insulin in CSII. Experience from a large database may therefore facilitate the initiation of pump therapy in pediatric patients.

Management of diabetes mellitus in infants

Diabetes mellitus diagnosed during the first 2 years of life differs from the disease in older children regarding its causes, clinical characteristics, treatment options and needs in terms of education and psychosocial support. Over the past decade, new genetic causes of neonatal diabetes mellitus have been elucidated, including monogenic β-cell defects and chromosome 6q24 abnormalities. In patients with KCNJ11 or ABCC8 mutations and diabetes mellitus, oral sulfonylurea offers an easy and effective treatment option. Type 1 diabetes mellitus in infants is characterized by a more rapid disease onset, poorer residual β-cell function and lower rate of partial remission than in older children. Insulin therapy in infants with type 1 diabetes mellitus or other monogenic causes of diabetes mellitus is a challenge, and novel data highlight the value of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in this very young patient population. Infants are entirely dependent on caregivers for insulin therapy, nutrition and glucose monitoring, which emphasizes the need for appropriate education and psychosocial support of parents. To achieve optimal long-term metabolic control with low rates of acute and chronic complications, continuous and structured diabetes care should be provided by a multidisciplinary health-care team.

Treatment of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents using modern insulin pumps

In the last decades, we are experiencing an increasing use of insulin pumps for the treatment of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. The most frequent reasons for switching from insulin injection schemes to pump therapy are frequent and/or severe hypoglycaemia, dawn phenomenon, poor glycaemic control, wish for more flexibility in daily life, and needle phobia. In toddlers and preschoolers, pumps are frequently introduced from the onset of type 1 diabetes. Pumps offer the possibility of adjusting basal insulin rates individually on an age-depended manner as well as of optimizing meal-related insulin requirements according to the meal composition by using three different kinds of boluses. Structured and intensive education of patients and their families on basics and specific requirements of insulin pump therapy is essential in order to get them familiar with the devices and their features. There is increasing evidence both from multicentre cross-sectional studies as well as from meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials in paediatric populations showing that patients with pump therapy can achieve a more favourable metabolic control accompanied with less hypoglycaemic events than those with multiple daily injections.

Metabolic control in children with diabetes mellitus who are younger than 6 years at diagnosis: continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion as a first line treatment?

OBJECTIVE

To assess long-term metabolic outcomes in children with diabetes mellitus that was diagnosed when they were <6 years old.

STUDY DESIGN

A cohort of 66 children with diabetes mellitus that had a duration of at least 5 years and was diagnosed before they were 6 years old. Thirty-four children were treated at diagnosis with multiple daily subcutaneous insulin injections (MDI), and all these children, except 3, were switched to continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII; group A). Thirty-two children received CSII as initial treatment (group B).

RESULTS

Hemoglobin A1c values were significantly lower in patients receiving CSII than MDI during all the 8 years of follow-up except one (year 1: 6.9%+/-0.9% versus 7.6%+/-1%, P=.011 ; year 4: 7.4%+/-0.8% versus 8.1%+/-0.9%, P=.006; year 7: 7.6%+/-0.5% versus 8.3%+/-0.8%, P=.001). The incidence of severe hypoglycemia was greatly decreased for the CSII group (9.8 versus 22.3 episodes/100 patient-years, P=.016). In group A, hemoglobin A1c values increased during the study period, and in group B, they increased only during the first 2 years and remained constant thereafter. Only 9.1% of patients did not use or abandoned CSII.

CONCLUSION

CSII in children<6 years of age enables better long-term metabolic control and lowers the risk of severe hypoglycemia better than MDI, especially when initiated at diagnosis.

Insulin pumps in young children

Insulin infusion pump therapy has dramatically improved over the past 20 years and can now address some of the specific challenges related to toddlers with diabetes. We discuss both the non-randomized and randomized controlled trials comparing continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) and multiple daily injections (MDI) in this age group. There are advantages and disadvantages related to both CSII and MDI treatments, and ultimately the decision to use CSII should be individualized for each patient and family with the guidance of their diabetes team.

Discontinuation of insulin pump treatment in children, adolescents, and young adults. A multicenter analysis based on the DPV database in Germany and Austria

BACKGROUND

Insulin pump therapy is well established in the treatment of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Most studies focus on outcome parameters like hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), hypoglycemia, and quality of life, whereas few reports address patients who discontinue pump therapy.

OBJECTIVE

This survey focuses on the discontinuation rate of insulin pump treatment in the pediatric and young adult age group.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The prospective multicenter Diabetes Patienten Verlausdokumentation (DPV) (electronic diabetes patient documentation system) database has been established since 1990 and is broadly used in Germany and Austria. All pump users among the participating centers documented since 1995 were included in this analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 11 710 patients with type 1 diabetes were recorded as treated with insulin pumps. In total, 463 patients (4%) switched from insulin pump treatment to multiple daily injections (MDI). In the group of patients who stopped with pump treatment, the mean duration of pump therapy was 1.7 yr (SE +/- 0.06 yr), 60.5% of patients were female. Subdivided into age groups, the discontinuation rate was lowest in the age group < 5 yr (0.1%), followed by the groups aged 5-10 yr (0.3%) and 15-20 yr (0.8%). The group aged 10-15 yr showed the highest rate of discontinuation (2%).

CONCLUSIONS

The discontinuation rate of insulin pump therapy is, in general, low (4%). The younger the patients at the time of initiating insulin pump treatment, the lower is the discontinuation rate. The highest rate was seen in adolescents aged 10-15 yr. Girls stopped insulin pump treatment more often than boys (60.5% vs. 39.5%).

Insulin pump therapy management in very young children with type 1 diabetes using continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion

BACKGROUND

Compared to older children and adolescents very young patients with type 1 diabetes represent a unique population. We analyzed the age-dependent characteristics and parameters of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) in children under 6 years of age with type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

We evaluated metabolic control and pump-dependent characteristics in 46 children with type 1 diabetes after 0.89 +/- 0.62 years of CSII.

RESULTS

Metabolic control significantly improved after CSII initiation (glycosylated hemoglobin, 8.12 +/- 1.24% vs. 7.30 +/- 0.67%; P < 0.05), without increased risk for diabetic ketoacidosis or hypoglycemia. Interestingly, very young patients required bigger boluses than expected, especially in the morning and at the afternoon snack.

CONCLUSIONS

These data support the need to personalize pump-dependent characteristics, especially in very young children with type 1 diabetes, in order to optimize CSII therapy in this unique age group of patients.

The honeymoon phase: intersection of metabolism and immunology

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Even though the honeymoon phase in type 1 diabetes mellitus has been well known, its underlying pathogenic mechanisms remain poorly described. The common explanation that it occurs due to 'beta-cell rest' on initiation of insulin therapy seems inadequate based on recent observations and studies and its underlying immunological aspects overlooked.

RECENT FINDINGS

In this article, we will review the metabolic and immunological aspects of the honeymoon phase and we will present our current model of the pathophysiology of this phase. Our view is that it is one of many phases of remission occurring basically due to development of adaptive immune tolerance along the course of type 1 diabetes. We will also review new findings of the interplay between metabolic factors (ambient glucose level) and immune function.

SUMMARY

The honeymoon phase provides a unique model to understand the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. Research to unravel its immune pathogenesis is needed. It may turn out that the optimum form of intervention in type 1 diabetes is one that combines enhancement of antigen-specific adaptive immune tolerance with optimized metabolic control in order to keep cytotoxic T cells anergic.