Selective intermediate-/small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (KCNN4) blockers are potent and effective therapeutics in experimental brain oedema and traumatic brain injury caused by acute subdural haematoma

Clotrimazole ameliorates chronic mild stress-induced depressive-like behavior in rats; crosstalk between the HPA, NLRP3 inflammasome, and Wnt/β-catenin pathways

Depression is a major emotional disorder that has a detrimental effect on quality of life. The chronic mild stress (CMS)-depression model was adopted in rats to evaluate the neurotherapeutic effect of Clotrimazole (CLO) and investigate the possible mechanisms of its antidepressant action via its impact on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and the stress hormone, cortisol. It was found that azole antifungals affect steroidogenesis and the HPA axis. Behavioral, histopathological, inflammatory, and apoptotic pathways were assessed. Serum cortisol, inflammasome biomarkers, hippocampal NLRP3, caspase-1, and IL-18, and the canonical Wnt/β-catenin neurogenesis biomarkers, Wnt3a, and non-phosphorylated β-catenin levels were also determined. Different stressors were applied for 28 days to produce depressive-like symptoms, and CLO was administered at a daily dose of 30 mg/kg body weight. Subsequently, behavioral and biochemical tests were carried out to assess the depressive-like phenotype in rats. Stressed rats showed increased immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST), decreased grooming time in the splash test (ST), increased serum cortisol levels, increased inflammasome biomarkers, and decreased neurogenesis. However, administration of CLO produced significant antidepressant-like effects in rats, which were accompanied by a significant decrease in immobility time in FST, an increase in grooming time in ST, a decrease in serum cortisol level, a decrease in inflammasome biomarkers, and an increase in neurogenesis biomarkers. The antidepressant mechanism of CLO involves the HPA axis and the anti-inflammatory effect, followed by neurogenesis pathway activation. Therefore, CLO may have the potential to be a novel antidepressant candidate.

The contribution of ion channels to shaping macrophage behaviour

The expanding roles of macrophages in physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms now include normal tissue homeostasis, tissue repair and regeneration, including neuronal tissue; initiation, progression, and resolution of the inflammatory response and a diverse array of anti-microbial activities. Two hallmarks of macrophage activity which appear to be fundamental to their diverse cellular functionalities are cellular plasticity and phenotypic heterogeneity. Macrophage plasticity allows these cells to take on a broad spectrum of differing cellular phenotypes in response to local and possibly previous encountered environmental signals. Cellular plasticity also contributes to tissue- and stimulus-dependent macrophage heterogeneity, which manifests itself as different macrophage phenotypes being found at different tissue locations and/or after different cell stimuli. Together, plasticity and heterogeneity align macrophage phenotypes to their required local cellular functions and prevent inappropriate activation of the cell, which could lead to pathology. To execute the appropriate function, which must be regulated at the qualitative, quantitative, spatial and temporal levels, macrophages constantly monitor intracellular and extracellular parameters to initiate and control the appropriate cell signaling cascades. The sensors and signaling mechanisms which control macrophages are the focus of a considerable amount of research. Ion channels regulate the flow of ions between cellular membranes and are critical to cell signaling mechanisms in a variety of cellular functions. It is therefore surprising that the role of ion channels in the macrophage biology has been relatively overlooked. In this review we provide a summary of ion channel research in macrophages. We begin by giving a narrative-based explanation of the membrane potential and its importance in cell biology. We then report on research implicating different ion channel families in macrophage functions. Finally, we highlight some areas of ion channel research in macrophages which need to be addressed, future possible developments in this field and therapeutic potential.

Senicapoc treatment in COVID-19 patients with severe respiratory insufficiency-A randomized, open-label, phase II trial

BACKGROUND

The aim of the current study was to determine if treatment with senicapoc, improves the PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio in patients with COVID-19 and severe respiratory insufficiency.

METHODS

Investigator-initiated, randomized, open-label, phase II trial in four intensive care units (ICU) in Denmark. We included patients aged ≥18 years and admitted to an ICU with severe respiratory insufficiency due to COVID-19. The intervention consisted of 50 mg enteral senicapoc administered as soon as possible after randomization and again after 24 h. Patients in the control group received standard care only. The primary outcome was the PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio at 72 h.

RESULTS

Twenty patients were randomized to senicapoc and 26 patients to standard care. Important differences existed in patient characteristics at baseline, including more patients being on non-invasive/invasive ventilation in the control group (54% vs. 35%). The median senicapoc concentration at 72 h was 62.1 ng/ml (IQR 46.7-71.2). The primary outcome, PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio at 72 h, was significantly lower in the senicapoc group (mean 19.5 kPa, SD 6.6) than in the control group (mean 24.4 kPa, SD 9.2) (mean difference -5.1 kPa [95% CI -10.2, -0.04] p = .05). The 28-day mortality in the senicapoc group was 2/20 (10%) compared with 6/26 (23%) in the control group (OR 0.36 95% CI 0.06-2.07, p = .26).

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with senicapoc resulted in a significantly lower PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio at 72 h with no differences for other outcomes.

Treatment with senicapoc, a KCa3.1 channel blocker, alleviates hypoxemia in a mouse model for acute respiratory distress syndrome

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is characterized by pulmonary oedema and severe hypoxaemia. We investigated whether genetic deficit or blockade of calcium-activated potassium (KCa3.1) channels would counteract pulmonary oedema and hypoxaemia in ventilator-induced lung injury, an experimental model for ARDS.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

KCa3.1 channel knockout mice were exposed to ventilator-induced lung injury. Control mice exposed to ventilator-induced lung injury were treated with the KCa3.1 channel inhibitor, senicapoc. The outcomes were oxygenation (PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio), lung compliance, lung wet-to-dry weight, and protein and cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF).

KEY RESULTS

Ventilator-induced lung injury resulted in lung oedema, decreased lung compliance, a severe drop in PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio, increased protein, neutrophils, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) in BALF from wild-type mice compared to KCa3.1 knockout mice. Pre-treatment with senicapoc (10-70 mg/kg) prevented the reduction in PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio, decrease in lung compliance, increased protein, and TNFα. Senicapoc (30 mg/kg) reduced histopathological lung injury score and neutrophils in BALF. After injurious ventilation, administration of 30 mg/kg senicapoc also improved the PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio and reduced lung injury score and neutrophils in the BALF compared to vehicle-treated mice. In human lung epithelial cells, senicapoc decreased TNFα-induced permeability.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Genetic deficiency of KCa3.1 channels and senicapoc improved the PaO₂ /FiO₂ ratio and decreased the cytokines after a ventilator-induced lung injury. Moreover, senicapoc directly affects lung epithelial cells and blocks neutrophil infiltration of the injured lung. These findings open the perspective that blocking KCa3.1 channels is a potential treatment in ARDS-like disease.

Treatment with senicapoc in a porcine model of acute respiratory distress syndrome

Background

Senicapoc is a potent and selective blocker of KCa3.1, a calcium-activated potassium channel of intermediate conductance. In the present study, we investigated whether there is a beneficial effect of senicapoc in a large animal model of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The primary end point was the PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio.

Methods

ARDS was induced in female pigs (42–49 kg) by repeated lung lavages followed by injurious mechanical ventilation. Animals were then randomly assigned to vehicle (n = 9) or intravenous senicapoc (10 mg, n = 9) and received lung-protective ventilation for 6 h.

Results

Final senicapoc plasma concentrations were 67 ± 18 nM (n = 9). Senicapoc failed to change the primary endpoint PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio (senicapoc, 133 ± 23 mmHg; vehicle, 149 ± 68 mmHg). Lung compliance remained similar in the two groups. Senicapoc reduced the level of white blood cells and neutrophils, while the proinflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were unaltered 6 h after induction of the lung injury. Senicapoc-treatment reduced the level of neutrophils in the alveolar space but with no difference between groups in the cumulative lung injury score. Histological analysis of pulmonary hemorrhage indicated a positive effect of senicapoc on alveolar–capillary barrier function, but this was not supported by measurements of albumin content and total protein in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

Conclusions

In summary, senicapoc failed to improve the primary endpoint PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio, but reduced pulmonary hemorrhage and the influx of neutrophils into the lung. These findings open the perspective that blocking KCa3.1 channels is a potential treatment to reduce alveolar neutrophil accumulation and improve long-term outcome in ARDS.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40635-021-00381-z.

Effect of the KCa3.1 blocker, senicapoc, on cerebral edema and cardiovascular function after cardiac arrest - A randomized experimental rat study

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Senicapoc was successfully administered intravenously.

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Senicapoc did not reduce cerebral edema 4 h after cardiac arrest.

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Senicapoc did not increase mean arterial pressure within 4 h from resuscitation.

Aim

Formation of cerebral edema and cardiovascular dysfunction may worsen brain injury following cardiac arrest. We hypothesized that administration of the intermediate calcium-activated potassium (KCa3.1) channel blocker, senicapoc, would reduce cerebral edema and augment mean arterial pressure in the early post-resuscitation period.

Method

Male Sprague-Dawley rats, aged 11–15 weeks, were utilized in the study. Rats were exposed to 8 min of asphyxial cardiac arrest. Shortly after resuscitation, rats were randomized to receive either vehicle or senicapoc (10 mg/kg) intravenously. The primary outcome was cerebral wet to dry weight ratio 4 h after resuscitation. Secondary outcomes included mean arterial pressure, cardiac output, norepinephrine dose, inflammatory cytokines and neuron specific enolase levels. Additionally, a sub-study was conducted to validate intravenous administration of senicapoc.

Results

The sub-study revealed that senicapoc-treated rats maintained a significantly higher mean arterial pressure during administration of SKA-31 (a KCa3.1 channel opener).

The plasma concentration of senicapoc was 1060 ± 303 ng/ml 4 h after administration. Senicapoc did not reduce cerebral edema or augment mean arterial pressure 4 h after resuscitation. Likewise, cardiac function and norepinephrine dose did not vary between groups. Inflammatory cytokines and neuron specific enolase levels increased in both groups after resuscitation with no difference between groups. Senicapoc enhanced the PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio significantly 4 h after resuscitation.

Conclusion

Senicapoc was successfully administered intravenously after resuscitation, but did not reduce cerebral edema or increase mean arterial pressure in the early post-resuscitation period.

Short review of SEC, a potential dexamethasone-sparing regimen for glioblastoma: Spironolactone, ecallantide, clotrimazole

This paper presents a short review of data supporting a dexamethasone sparing regimen, SEC, to reduce glioblastoma related brain edema. The conclusion of the reviewed data is that the rationale and risk/benefit ratio favors a pilot study to determine if the three drug regimen of SEC can reduce need for corticosteroid use during the course of glioblastoma. Details of how selected pathophysiological aspects of brain edema occurring during the course of glioblastoma and its treatment intersect with the established action of the three old drugs of SEC indicate that they can be repurposed to reduce that edema. Current first-line treatment of this edema is dexamethasone or related corticosteroids. There are multiple negative prognostic implications of both the edema itself and of dexamethasone, prime among them shortened survival, making a dexamethasone sparing regimen highly desirable. SEC uses spironolactone, an antihypertensive potassium-sparing diuretic acting by mineralocorticoid receptor inhibition, ecallantide acting to inhibit kallikrein activation marketed to treat hereditary angioedema, and clotrimazole, an old antifungal drug that inhibits intermediate conductance Ca++ activated K+ channel (KCa3.1). These three old drugs are well known to most clinicians, have a well-tolerated safety history, and have a robust preclinical database showing their potential to reduce the specific edema of glioblastoma. Additionally, these three drugs were chosen by virtue of each having preclinical evidence of glioblastoma growth and/or migration inhibition independent of their edema reduction action. A clinical study of SEC is being planned.

Ion channels and transporters in microglial function in physiology and brain diseases

Microglial cells interact with all components of the central nervous system (CNS) and are increasingly recognized to play essential roles during brain development, homeostasis and disease pathologies. Functions of microglia include maintaining tissue integrity, clearing cellular debris and dead neurons through the process of phagocytosis, and providing tissue repair by releasing anti-inflammatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors. Changes of microglial ionic homeostasis (Na⁺, Ca²⁺, K⁺, H⁺, Cl^-) are important for microglial activation, including proliferation, migration, cytokine release and reactive oxygen species production, etc. These are mediated by ion channels and ion transporters in microglial cells. Here, we review the current knowledge about the role of major microglial ion channels and transporters, including several types of Ca²⁺ channels (store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) channels, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels (VGCCs)) and Na⁺ channels (voltage-gated Na⁺ channels (Nav) and acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs)), K⁺ channels (inward rectifier K⁺ channels (K_ir), voltage-gated K⁺ channels (K_V) and calcium-activated K⁺ channels (K_Ca)), proton channels (voltage-gated proton channel (Hv1)), and Cl^- channels (volume (or swelling)-regulated Cl^- channels (VRCCs) and chloride intracellular channels (CLICs)). In addition, ion transporter proteins such as Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX), Na⁺-K⁺-Cl^- cotransporter (NKCC1), and Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE1) are also involved in microglial function in physiology and brain diseases. We discussed microglial activation and neuroinflammation in relation to the ion channel/transporter stimulation under brain disease conditions and therapeutic aspects of targeting microglial ion channels/transporters for neurodegenerative disease, ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury and neuropathic pain.

Astroglia in Leukodystrophies

Leukodystrophies are genetically determined disorders affecting the white matter of the central nervous system. The combination of MRI pattern recognition and next-generation sequencing for the definition of novel disease entities has recently demonstrated that many leukodystrophies are due to the primary involvement and/or mutations in genes selectively expressed by cell types other than the oligodendrocytes, the myelin-forming cells in the brain. This has led to a new definition of leukodystrophies as genetic white matter disorders resulting from the involvement of any white matter structural component. As a result, the research has shifted its main focus from oligodendrocytes to other types of neuroglia. Astrocytes are the housekeeping cells of the nervous system, responsible for maintaining homeostasis and normal brain physiology and to orchestrate repair upon injury. Several lines of evidence show that astrocytic interactions with the other white matter cellular constituents play a primary pathophysiologic role in many leukodystrophies. These are thus now classified as astrocytopathies. This chapter addresses how the crosstalk between astrocytes, other glial cells, axons and non-neural cells are essential for the integrity and maintenance of the white matter in health. It also addresses the current knowledge of the cellular pathomechanisms of astrocytic leukodystrophies, and specifically Alexander disease, vanishing white matter, megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts and Aicardi-Goutière Syndrome.

Pharmacology of Small- and Intermediate-Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels

The three small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (K_Ca2) channels and the related intermediate-conductance K_Ca3.1 channel are voltage-independent K⁺ channels that mediate calcium-induced membrane hyperpolarization. When intracellular calcium increases in the channel vicinity, it calcifies the flexible N lobe of the channel-bound calmodulin, which then swings over to the S4-S5 linker and opens the channel. K_Ca2 and K_Ca3.1 channels are highly druggable and offer multiple binding sites for venom peptides and small-molecule blockers as well as for positive- and negative-gating modulators. In this review, we briefly summarize the physiological role of K_Ca channels and then discuss the pharmacophores and the mechanism of action of the most commonly used peptidic and small-molecule K_Ca2 and K_Ca3.1 modulators. Finally, we describe the progress that has been made in advancing K_Ca3.1 blockers and K_Ca2.2 negative- and positive-gating modulators toward the clinic for neurological and cardiovascular diseases and discuss the remaining challenges.

KCa3.1 Channel Modulators as Potential Therapeutic Compounds for Glioblastoma

Background

The intermediate-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel KCa3.1 is widely expressed in cells of the immune system such as T- and B-lymphocytes, mast cells, macrophages and microglia, but also found in dedifferentiated vascular smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts and many cancer cells including pancreatic, prostate, leukemia and glioblastoma. In all these cell types K_Ca3.1 plays an important role in cellular activation, migration and proliferation by regulating membrane potential and Ca²⁺ signaling.

Methods and Results

KCa3.1 therefore constitutes an attractive therapeutic target for diseases involving excessive proliferation or activation of one more of these cell types and researchers both in academia and in the pharmaceutical industry have developed several potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of K_Ca3.1. This article will briefly review the available compounds (TRAM-34, senicapoc, NS6180), their binding sites and mechanisms of action, and then discuss the potential usefulness of these compounds for the treatment of brain tumors based on their brain penetration and their efficacy in reducing microglia activation in animal models of ischemic stroke and Alzheimer’s disease.

Conclusion

Senicapoc, which has previously been in Phase III clinical trials, would be available for repurposing, and could be used to quickly translate findings made with other K_Ca3.1 blocking tool compounds into clinical trials.

Functional Roles of the Ca2+-activated K+ Channel, KCa3.1, in Brain Tumors

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma is the most aggressive and deadly brain tumor, with low disease-free period even after surgery and combined radio and chemotherapies. Among the factors contributing to the devastating effect of this tumor in the brain are the elevated proliferation and invasion rate, and the ability to induce a local immunosuppressive environment. The intermediateconductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel KCa3.1 is expressed in glioblastoma cells and in tumorinfiltrating cells.

METHODS

We first describe the researches related to the role of KCa3.1 channels in the invasion of brain tumor cells and the regulation of cell cycle. In the second part we review the involvement of KCa3.1 channel in tumor-associated microglia cell behaviour.

RESULTS

In tumor cells, the functional expression of KCa3.1 channels is important to substain cell invasion and proliferation. In tumor infiltrating cells, KCa3.1 channel activity is required to regulate their activation state. Interfering with KCa3.1 activity can be an adjuvant therapeutic approach in addition to classic chemotherapy and radiotherapy, to counteract tumor growth and prolong patient's survival.

CONCLUSION

In this mini-review we discuss the evidence of the functional roles of KCa3.1 channels in glioblastoma biology.

The potassium channel KCa3.1 constitutes a pharmacological target for astrogliosis associated with ischemia stroke

Background

Reactive astrogliosis is one of the significantly pathological features in ischemic stroke accompanied with changes in gene expression, morphology, and proliferation. KCa3.1 was involved in TGF-β-induced astrogliosis in vitro and also contributed to astrogliosis-mediated neuroinflammation in neurodegeneration disease.

Methods

Wild type mice and KCa3.1^−/− mice were subjected to permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) to evaluate the infarct areas by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium hydrochloride staining and neurological deficit. KCa3.1 channels expression and cell localization in the brain of pMCAO mice model were measured by immunoblotting and immunostaining. Glia activation and neuron loss was measured by immunostaining. DiBAC4 (3) and Fluo-4AM were used to measure membrane potential and cytosolic Ca²⁺ level in oxygen-glucose deprivation induced reactive astrocytes in vitro.

Results

Immunohistochemistry on pMCAO mice infarcts showed strong upregulation of KCa3.1 immunoreactivity in reactive astrogliosis. KCa3.1^−/− mice exhibited significantly smaller infarct areas on pMCAO and improved neurological deficit. Both activated gliosis and neuronal loss were attenuated in KCa3.1^−/− pMCAO mice. In the primary cultured astrocytes, the expressions of KCa3.1 and TRPV4 were increased associated with upregulation of astrogliosis marker GFAP induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation. The activation of KCa3.1 hyperpolarized membrane potential and, by promoting the driving force for calcium, induced calcium entry through TRPV4, a cation channel of the transient receptor potential family. Double-labeled staining showed that KCa3.1 and TRPV4 channels co-localized in astrocytes. Blockade of KCa3.1 or TRPV4 inhibited the phenotype switch of reactive astrogliosis.

Conclusions

Our data suggested that KCa3.1 inhibition might represent a promising therapeutic strategy for ischemia stroke.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-017-0973-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

KCa3.1 channels modulate the processing of noxious chemical stimuli in mice

Intermediate conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (K_Ca3.1) have been recently implicated in pain processing. However, the functional role and localization of K_Ca3.1 in the nociceptive system are largely unknown. We here characterized the behavior of mice lacking K_Ca3.1 (K_Ca3.1^-/-) in various pain models and analyzed the expression pattern of K_Ca3.1 in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and the spinal cord. K_Ca3.1^-/- mice demonstrated normal behavioral responses in models of acute nociceptive, persistent inflammatory, and persistent neuropathic pain. However, their behavioral responses to noxious chemical stimuli such as formalin and capsaicin were increased. Accordingly, formalin-induced nociceptive behavior was increased in wild-type mice after administration of the K_Ca3.1 inhibitor TRAM-34. In situ hybridization experiments detected K_Ca3.1 in most DRG satellite glial cells, in a minority of DRG neurons, and in ependymal cells lining the central canal of the spinal cord. Together, our data point to a specific inhibitory role of K_Ca3.1 for the processing of noxious chemical stimuli.

Treatment with the KCa3.1 inhibitor TRAM-34 during diabetic ketoacidosis reduces inflammatory changes in the brain

BACKGROUND

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) causes brain injuries in children ranging from subtle to life-threatening. Previous studies suggest that DKA-related brain injury may involve both stimulation of Na-K-Cl cotransport and microglial activation. Other studies implicate the Na-K-Cl cotransporter and the Ca-activated K channel KCa3.1 in activation of microglia and ischemia-induced brain edema. In this study, we determined whether inhibiting cerebral Na-K-Cl cotransport or KCa3.1 could reduce microglial activation and decrease DKA-related inflammatory changes in the brain.

METHODS

Using immunohistochemistry, we investigated cellular alterations in brain specimens from juvenile rats with DKA before, during and after insulin and saline treatment. We compared findings in rats treated with and without bumetanide (an inhibitor of Na-K-Cl cotransport) or the KCa3.1 inhibitor TRAM-34.

RESULTS

Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) staining intensity was increased in the hippocampus during DKA, suggesting reactive astrogliosis. OX42 staining intensity was increased during DKA in the hippocampus, cortex and striatum, indicating microglial activation. Treatment with TRAM-34 decreased both OX42 and GFAP intensity suggesting a decreased inflammatory response to DKA. Treatment with bumetanide did not significantly alter OX42 or GFAP intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhibiting KCa3.1 activity with TRAM-34 during DKA treatment decreases microglial activation and reduces reactive astrogliosis, suggesting a decreased inflammatory response.

The Potassium Channel KCa3.1 Represents a Valid Pharmacological Target for Astrogliosis-Induced Neuronal Impairment in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive decline of cognitive function. Astrogliosis plays a critical role in AD by instigating neuroinflammation, which leads ultimately to cognition decline. We previously showed that the intermediate-conductance Ca²⁺-activated potassium channel (KCa3.1) is involved in astrogliosis-induced by TGF-β in vitro. In the present study, we investigated the contribution of KCa3.1 channels to astrogliosis-mediated neuroinflammation, using Tg^APP/PS1 mice as a model for AD. We found that KCa3.1 expression was increased in reactive astrocytes as well as in neurons in the brains of both Tg^APP/PS1 mice and AD patients. Pharmacological blockade of KCa3.1 significantly reduced astrogliosis, microglial activation, neuronal loss, and memory deficits. KCa3.1 blockade inhibited astrocyte activation and reduced brain levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2. Furthermore, we used primary co-cultures of cortical neurons and astrocytes to demonstrate an important role for KCa3.1 in the process of astrogliosis-induced neuroinflammatory responses during amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced neuronal loss. KCa3.1 was found to be involved in the Aβ-induced activated biochemical profile of reactive astrocytes, which included activation of JNK MAPK and production of reactive oxygen species. Pharmacological blockade of KCa3.1 attenuated Aβ-induced reactive astrocytes and indirect, astrogliosis-mediated damage to neurons. Our data clearly indicate a role for astrogliosis in AD pathogenesis and suggest that KCa3.1 inhibition might represent a good therapeutic target for the treatment of AD. Highlights: (1) Blockade of KCa3.1 in APP/PS1 transgenic mice attenuated astrogliosis and neuron loss, and an attenuation of memory deficits. (2) Blockade of KCa3.1 attenuated Aβ-induced indirect, astrogliosis-mediated damage to neurons in vitro via activation of JNK and ROS.

Emerging roles of calcium-activated K channels and TRPV4 channels in lung oedema and pulmonary circulatory collapse

It has been suggested that the transient receptor potential cation (TRP) channel subfamily V (vanilloid) type 4 (TRPV4) and intermediate conductance calcium-activated potassium (KCa3.1) channels contribute to endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Here, we summarize very recent evidence for a synergistic interplay of TRPV4 and KCa3.1 channels in lung disease. Among the endothelial Ca²⁺ -permeable TRPs, TRPV4 is best characterized and produces arterial dilation by stimulating Ca²⁺ -dependent nitric oxide synthesis and endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization. Besides these roles, some TRP channels control endothelial/epithelial barrier functions and vascular integrity, while KCa3.1 channels provide the driving force required for Cl^- and water transport in some cells and most secretory epithelia. The three conditions, increased pulmonary venous pressure caused by left heart disease, high inflation pressure and chemically induced lung injury, may lead to activation of TRPV4 channels followed by Ca²⁺ influx leading to activation of KCa3.1 channels in endothelial cells ultimately leading to acute lung injury. We find that a deficiency in KCa3.1 channels protects against TRPV4-induced pulmonary arterial relaxation, fluid extravasation, haemorrhage, pulmonary circulatory collapse and cardiac arrest in vivo. These data identify KCa3.1 channels as crucial molecular components in downstream TRPV4 signal transduction and as a potential target for the prevention of undesired fluid extravasation, vasodilatation and pulmonary circulatory collapse.

Inhibition of the potassium channel KCa3.1 by senicapoc reverses tactile allodynia in rats with peripheral nerve injury

Neuropathic pain is a debilitating, chronic condition with a significant unmet need for effective treatment options. Recent studies have demonstrated that in addition to neurons, non-neuronal cells such as microglia contribute to the initiation and maintenance of allodynia in rodent models of neuropathic pain. The Ca²⁺- activated K⁺ channel, K_Ca3.1 is critical for the activation of immune cells, including the CNS-resident microglia. In order to evaluate the role of K_Ca3.1 in the maintenance of mechanical allodynia following peripheral nerve injury, we used senicapoc, a stable and highly potent K_Ca3.1 inhibitor. In primary cultured microglia, senicapoc inhibited microglial nitric oxide and IL-1β release. In vivo, senicapoc showed high CNS penetrance and when administered to rats with peripheral nerve injury, it significantly reversed tactile allodynia similar to the standard of care, gabapentin. In contrast to gabapentin, senicapoc achieved efficacy without any overt impact on locomotor activity. Together, the data demonstrate that the K_Ca3.1 inhibitor senicapoc is effective at reducing mechanical hypersensitivity in a rodent model of peripheral nerve injury.

Differential Kv1.3, KCa3.1, and Kir2.1 expression in "classically" and "alternatively" activated microglia

Microglia are highly plastic cells that can assume different phenotypes in response to microenvironmental signals. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) promote differentiation into classically activated M1-like microglia, which produce high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide and are thought to contribute to neurological damage in ischemic stroke and Alzheimer's disease. IL-4 in contrast induces a phenotype associated with anti-inflammatory effects and tissue repair. We here investigated whether these microglia subsets vary in their K⁺ channel expression by differentiating neonatal mouse microglia into M(LPS) and M(IL-4) microglia and studying their K⁺ channel expression by whole-cell patch-clamp, quantitative PCR and immunohistochemistry. We identified three major types of K⁺ channels based on their biophysical and pharmacological fingerprints: a use-dependent, outwardly rectifying current sensitive to the K_V 1.3 blockers PAP-1 and ShK-186, an inwardly rectifying Ba²⁺ -sensitive K_ir 2.1 current, and a Ca²⁺ -activated, TRAM-34-sensitive K_Ca 3.1 current. Both K_V 1.3 and K_Ca 3.1 blockers inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokine production and iNOS and COX2 expression demonstrating that K_V 1.3 and K_Ca 3.1 play important roles in microglia activation. Following differentiation with LPS or a combination of LPS and IFN-γ microglia exhibited high K_V 1.3 current densities (∼50 pA/pF at 40 mV) and virtually no K_Ca 3.1 and K_ir currents, while microglia differentiated with IL-4 exhibited large K_ir 2.1 currents (∼ 10 pA/pF at -120 mV). K_Ca 3.1 currents were generally low but moderately increased following stimulation with IFN-γ or ATP (∼10 pS/pF). This differential K⁺ channel expression pattern suggests that K_V 1.3 and K_Ca 3.1 inhibitors could be used to inhibit detrimental neuroinflammatory microglia functions. GLIA 2016;65:106-121.

KCa3.1 constitutes a pharmacological target for astrogliosis associated with Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and is characterized by a progression from decline of episodic memory to a global impairment of cognitive function. Astrogliosis is a hallmark feature of AD, and reactive gliosis has been considered as an important target for intervention in various neurological disorders. We previously found in astrocyte cultures that the expression of the intermediate conductance calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 was increased in reactive astrocytes induced by TGF-β, while pharmacological blockade or genetic deletion of KCa3.1 attenuated astrogliosis. In this study, we sought to suppress reactive gliosis in the context of AD by inhibiting KCa3.1 and evaluate its effects on the cognitive impairment using murine animal models such as the senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) model that exhibits some AD-like symptoms. We found KCa3.1 expression was increased in reactive astrocytes as well as neurons in the brains of both SAMP8 mice and Alzheimer's disease patients. Blockade of KCa3.1 with the selective inhibitor TRAM-34 in SAMP8 mice resulted in a decrease in astrogliosis as well as microglia activation, and moreover an attenuation of memory deficits. Using KCa3.1 knockout mice, we further confirmed that deletion of KCa3.1 reduced the activation of astrocytes and microglia, and rescued the memory loss induced by intrahippocampal Aβ_1-42 peptide injection. We also found in astrocyte cultures that blockade of KCa3.1 or deletion of KCa3.1 suppressed Aβ oligomer-induced astrogliosis. Our data suggest that KCa3.1 inhibition might represent a promising therapeutic strategy for AD treatment.

Human neuronal changes in brain edema and increased intracranial pressure

Functional and molecular changes associated with pathophysiological conditions are relatively easily detected based on tissue samples collected from patients. Population specific cellular responses to disease might remain undiscovered in samples taken from organs formed by a multitude of cell types. This is particularly apparent in the human cerebral cortex composed of a yet undefined number of neuron types with a potentially different involvement in disease processes. We combined cellular electrophysiology, anatomy and single cell digital PCR in human neurons identified in situ for the first time to assess mRNA expression and corresponding functional changes in response to edema and increased intracranial pressure. In single pyramidal cells, mRNA copy numbers of AQP1, AQP3, HMOX1, KCNN4, SCN3B and SOD2 increased, while CACNA1B, CRH decreased in edema. In addition, single pyramidal cells increased the copy number of AQP1, HTR5A and KCNS1 mRNAs in response to increased intracranial pressure. In contrast to pyramidal cells, AQP1, HMOX1and KCNN4 remained unchanged in single cell digital PCR performed on fast spiking cells in edema. Corroborating single cell digital PCR results, pharmacological and immunohistochemical results also suggested the presence of KCNN4 encoding the α-subunit of KCa3.1 channels in edema on pyramidal cells, but not on interneurons. We measured the frequency of spontaneous EPSPs on pyramidal cells in both pathophysiological conditions and on fast spiking interneurons in edema and found a significant decrease in each case, which was accompanied by an increase in input resistances on both cell types and by a drop in dendritic spine density on pyramidal cells consistent with a loss of excitatory synapses. Our results identify anatomical and/or physiological changes in human pyramidal and fast spiking cells in edema and increased intracranial pressure revealing cell type specific quantitative changes in gene expression. Some of the edema/increased intracranial pressure modulated and single human pyramidal cell verified gene products identified here might be considered as novel pharmacological targets in cell type specific neuroprotection.

Quantification of the functional expression of the Ca2+ -activated K+ channel KCa 3.1 on microglia from adult human neocortical tissue

The K_Ca 3.1 channel (KCNN4) is an important modulator of microglia responses in rodents, but no information exists on functional expression on microglia from human adults. We isolated and cultured microglia (max 1% astrocytes, no neurons or oligodendrocytes) from neocortex surgically removed from epilepsy patients and employed electrophysiological whole-cell measurements and selective pharmacological tools to elucidate functional expression of K_Ca 3.1. The channel expression was demonstrated as a significant increase in the voltage-independent current by NS309, a K_Ca 3.1/K_Ca 2 activator, followed by full inhibition upon co-application with NS6180, a highly selective K_Ca 3.1 inhibitor. A major fraction (79%) of unstimulated human microglia expressed K_Ca 3.1, and the difference in current between full activation and inhibition (ΔK_Ca 3.1) was estimated at 292 ± 48 pA at -40 mV (n = 75), which equals at least 585 channels per cell. Serial K_Ca 3.1 activation/inhibition significantly hyperpolarized/depolarized the membrane potential. The isolated human microglia were potently activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) shown as a prominent increase in TNF-α production. However, incubation with LPS neither changed the K_Ca 3.1 current nor the fraction of K_Ca 3.1 expressing cells. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 slightly increased the K_Ca 3.1 current per cell, but as the membrane area also increased, there was no significant change in channel density. A large fraction of the microglia also expressed a voltage-dependent current sensitive to the K_Ca 1.1 modulators NS1619 and Paxilline and an inward-rectifying current with the characteristics of a K_ir channel. The high functional expression of K_Ca 3.1 in microglia from epilepsy patients accentuates the need for further investigations of its role in neuropathological processes. GLIA 2016;64:2065-2078.

KCa 3.1-a microglial target ready for drug repurposing?

Over the past decade, glial cells have attracted attention for harboring unexploited targets for drug discovery. Several glial targets have attracted de novo drug discovery programs, as highlighted in this GLIA Special Issue. Drug repurposing, which has the objective of utilizing existing drugs as well as abandoned, failed, or not yet pursued clinical development candidates for new indications, might provide a faster opportunity to bring drugs for glial targets to patients with unmet needs. Here, we review the potential of the intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels KCa 3.1 as the target for such a repurposing effort. We discuss the data on KCa 3.1 expression on microglia in vitro and in vivo and review the relevant literature on the two KCa 3.1 inhibitors TRAM-34 and Senicapoc. Finally, we provide an outlook of what it might take to harness the potential of KCa 3.1 as a bona fide microglial drug target. GLIA 2016;64:1733-1741.

Ion channels in innate and adaptive immunity

Ion channels and transporters mediate the transport of charged ions across hydrophobic lipid membranes. In immune cells, divalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, and zinc have important roles as second messengers to regulate intracellular signaling pathways. By contrast, monovalent cations such as sodium and potassium mainly regulate the membrane potential, which indirectly controls the influx of calcium and immune cell signaling. Studies investigating human patients with mutations in ion channels and transporters, analysis of gene-targeted mice, or pharmacological experiments with ion channel inhibitors have revealed important roles of ionic signals in lymphocyte development and in innate and adaptive immune responses. We here review the mechanisms underlying the function of ion channels and transporters in lymphocytes and innate immune cells and discuss their roles in lymphocyte development, adaptive and innate immune responses, and autoimmunity, as well as recent efforts to develop pharmacological inhibitors of ion channels for immunomodulatory therapy.

Genetic deficit of KCa 3.1 channels protects against pulmonary circulatory collapse induced by TRPV4 channel activation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The intermediate conductance calcium/calmodulin-regulated K⁺ channel K_Ca 3.1 produces hyperpolarizing K⁺ currents that counteract depolarizing currents carried by transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, and provide the electrochemical driving force for Cl^- and fluid movements. We investigated whether a deficiency in K_Ca 3.1 (K_Ca 3.1^-/- ) protects against fatal pulmonary circulatory collapse in mice after pharmacological activation of the calcium-permeable TRP subfamily vanilloid type 4 (TRPV4) channels.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

An opener of TRPV4 channels, GSK1016790A, was infused in wild-type (wt) and K_Ca 3.1^-/- mice; haemodynamic parameters, histology and pulmonary vascular reactivity were measured; and patch clamp was performed on pulmonary arterial endothelial cells (PAEC).

KEY RESULTS

In wt mice, GSK1016790A decreased right ventricular and systemic pressure leading to a fatal circulatory collapse that was accompanied by increased protein permeability, lung haemorrhage and fluid extravasation. In contrast, K_Ca 3.1^-/- mice exhibited a significantly smaller drop in pressure to GSK1016790A infusion, no haemorrhage and fluid water extravasation, and the mice survived. Moreover, the GSK1016790A-induced relaxation of pulmonary arteries of K_Ca 3.1^-/- mice was significantly less than that of wt mice. GSK1016790A induced TRPV4 currents in PAEC from wt and K_Ca 3.1^-/- mice, which co-activated K_Ca 3.1 and disrupted membrane resistance in wt PAEC, but not in K_Ca 3.1^-/- PAEC.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our findings show that a genetic deficiency of K_Ca 3.1 channels prevented fatal pulmonary circulatory collapse and reduced lung damage caused by pharmacological activation of calcium-permeable TRPV4 channels. Therefore, inhibition of K_Ca 3.1channels may have therapeutic potential in conditions characterized by abnormal high endothelial calcium signalling, barrier disruption, lung oedema and pulmonary circulatory collapse.

IL-4 type 1 receptor signaling up-regulates KCNN4 expression, and increases the KCa3.1 current and its contribution to migration of alternative-activated microglia

The Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel, KCa3.1 (KCNN4/IK1/SK4), contributes to “classical,” pro-inflammatory activation of microglia, and KCa3.1 blockers have improved the outcome in several rodent models of CNS damage. For instance, blocking KCa3.1 with TRAM-34 rescued retinal ganglion neurons after optic nerve damage in vivo and, reduced p38 MAP kinase activation, production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and neurotoxicity by microglia in vitro. In pursuing the therapeutic potential of KCa3.1 blockers, it is crucial to assess KCa3.1 contributions to other microglial functions and activation states, especially the IL-4-induced “alternative” activation state that can counteract pro-inflammatory states. We recently found that IL-4 increases microglia migration – a crucial function in the healthy and damaged CNS – and that KCa3.1 contributes to P₂Y₂ receptor-stimulated migration. Here, we discovered that KCa3.1 is greatly increased in alternative-activated rat microglia and then contributes to an enhanced migratory capacity. IL-4 up-regulated KCNN4 mRNA (by 6 h) and greatly increased the KCa3.1 current by 1 day, and this required de novo protein synthesis. The increase in current was sustained for at least 6 days. IL-4 increased microglial migration and this was reversed by blocking KCa3.1 with TRAM-34. A panel of inhibitors of signal-transduction mediators was used to analyze contributions of IL-4-related signaling pathways. Induction of KCNN4 mRNA and KCa3.1 current was mediated specifically through IL-4 binding to the type I receptor and, surprisingly, it required JAK3, Ras/MEK/ERK signaling and the transcription factor, activator protein-1, rather than JAK2, STAT6, or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.The same receptor subtype and pathway were required for the enhanced KCa3.1-dependent migration. In providing the first direct signaling link between an IL-4 receptor, expression and roles of an ion channel, this study also highlights the potential importance of KCa3.1 in alternative-activated microglia.

Endothelial small-conductance and intermediate-conductance KCa channels: an update on their pharmacology and usefulness as cardiovascular targets

Most cardiovascular researchers are familiar with intermediate-conductance KCa3.1 and small-conductance KCa2.3 channels because of their contribution to endothelium-derived hyperpolarization. However, to immunologists and neuroscientists, these channels are primarily known for their role in lymphocyte activation and neuronal excitability. KCa3.1 is involved in the proliferation and migration of T cells, B cells, mast cells, macrophages, fibroblasts, and dedifferentiated vascular smooth muscle cells and is, therefore, being pursued as a potential target for use in asthma, immunosuppression, and fibroproliferative disorders. In contrast, the 3 KCa2 channels (KCa2.1, KCa2.2, and KCa2.3) contribute to the neuronal medium afterhyperpolarization and, depending on the type of neuron, are involved in determining firing rates and frequencies or in regulating bursting. KCa2 activators are accordingly being studied as potential therapeutics for ataxia and epilepsy, whereas KCa2 channel inhibitors like apamin have long been known to improve learning and memory in rodents. Given this background, we review the recent discoveries of novel KCa3.1 and KCa2.3 modulators and critically assess the potential of KCa activators for the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases by improving endothelium-derived hyperpolarizations.

NS6180, a new K(Ca) 3.1 channel inhibitor prevents T-cell activation and inflammation in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The K(Ca) 3.1 channel is a potential target for therapy of immune disease. We identified a compound from a new chemical class of K(Ca) 3.1 inhibitors and assessed in vitro and in vivo inhibition of immune responses.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We characterized the benzothiazinone NS6180 (4-[[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]methyl]-2H-1,4-benzothiazin-3(4H)-one) with respect to potency and molecular site of action on K(Ca) 3.1 channels, selectivity towards other targets, effects on T-cell activation as well as pharmacokinetics and inflammation control in colitis induced by 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid, a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

KEY RESULTS

NS6180 inhibited cloned human K(Ca) 3.1 channels (IC(50) = 9 nM) via T250 and V275, the same amino acid residues conferring sensitivity to triarylmethanes such as like TRAM-34. NS6180 inhibited endogenously expressed K(Ca) 3.1 channels in human, mouse and rat erythrocytes, with similar potencies (15-20 nM). NS6180 suppressed rat and mouse splenocyte proliferation at submicrolar concentrations and potently inhibited IL-2 and IFN-γ production, while exerting smaller effects on IL-4 and TNF-α and no effect on IL-17 production. Antibody staining showed K(Ca) 3.1 channels in healthy colon and strong up-regulation in association with infiltrating immune cells after induction of colitis. Despite poor plasma exposure, NS6180 (3 and 10 mg·kg(-1) b.i.d.) dampened colon inflammation and improved body weight gain as effectively as the standard IBD drug sulfasalazine (300 mg·kg(-1) q.d.).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

NS6180 represents a novel class of K(Ca) 3.1 channel inhibitors which inhibited experimental colitis, suggesting K(Ca) 3.1 channels as targets for pharmacological control of intestinal inflammation.

Genetic KCa3.1-deficiency produces locomotor hyperactivity and alterations in cerebral monoamine levels

Background

The calmodulin/calcium-activated K⁺ channel KCa3.1 is expressed in red and white blood cells, epithelia and endothelia, and possibly central and peripheral neurons. However, our knowledge about its contribution to neurological functions and behavior is incomplete. Here, we investigated whether genetic deficiency or pharmacological activation of KCa3.1 change behavior and cerebral monoamine levels in mice.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In the open field test, KCa3.1-deficiency increased horizontal activity, as KCa3.1^−/− mice travelled longer distances (≈145% of KCa3.1^+/+) and at higher speed (≈1.5-fold of KCa3.1^+/+). Working memory in the Y-maze was reduced by KCa3.1-deficiency. Motor coordination on the rotarod and neuromuscular functions were unchanged. In KCa3.1^−/− mice, HPLC analysis revealed that turn-over rates of serotonin were reduced in frontal cortex, striatum and brain stem, while noradrenalin turn-over rates were increased in the frontal cortex. Dopamine turn-over rates were unaltered. Plasma catecholamine and corticosterone levels were unaltered. Intraperitoneal injections of 10 mg/kg of the KCa3.1/KCa2-activator SKA-31 reduced rearing and turning behavior in KCa3.1^+/+ but not in KCa3.1^−/− mice, while 30 mg/kg SKA-31 caused strong sedation in 50% of the animals of either genotypes. KCa3.1^−/− mice were hyperactive (≈+60%) in their home cage and SKA-31-administration reduced nocturnal physical activity in KCa3.1^+/+ but not in KCa3.1^−/− mice.

Conclusions/Significance

KCa3.1-deficiency causes locomotor hyperactivity and altered monoamine levels in selected brain regions, suggesting a so far unknown functional link of KCa3.1 channels to behavior and monoaminergic neurotransmission in mice. The tranquilizing effects of low-dose SKA-31 raise the possibility to use KCa3.1/KCa2 channels as novel pharmacological targets for the treatment of neuropsychiatric hyperactivity disorders.

Microglial KCa3.1 Channels as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease

There exists an urgent need for new target discovery to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, recent clinical trials based on anti-Aβ and anti-inflammatory strategies have yielded disappointing results. To expedite new drug discovery, we propose reposition targets which have been previously pursued by both industry and academia for indications other than AD. One such target is the calcium-activated potassium channel KCa3.1 (KCNN4), which in the brain is primarily expressed in microglia and is significantly upregulated when microglia are activated. We here review the existing evidence supporting that KCa3.1 inhibition could block microglial neurotoxicity without affecting their neuroprotective phagocytosis activity and without being broadly immunosuppressive. The anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of KCa3.1 blockade would be suitable for treating AD as well as cerebrovascular and traumatic brain injuries, two well-known risk factors contributing to the dementia in AD patients presenting with mixed pathologies. Importantly, the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of several KCa3.1 blockers are well known, and a KCa3.1 blocker has been proven safe in clinical trials. It is therefore promising to reposition old or new KCa3.1 blockers for AD preclinical and clinical trials.

Therapeutic potential of KCa3.1 blockers: recent advances and promising trends

The Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel K(Ca)3.1 regulates membrane potential and calcium signaling in erythrocytes, activated T and B cells, macrophages, microglia, vascular endothelium, epithelia, and proliferating vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts. K(Ca)3.1 has therefore been suggested as a potential therapeutic target for diseases such as sickle cell anemia, asthma, coronary restenosis after angioplasty, atherosclerosis, kidney fibrosis and autoimmunity, where activation and excessive proliferation of one or more of these cell types is involved in the pathology. This article will review the physiology and pharmacology of K(Ca)3.1 and critically examine the available preclinical and clinical data validating K(Ca)3.1 as a therapeutic target.

Inhibition of the Ca²⁺-dependent K⁺ channel, KCNN4/KCa3.1, improves tissue protection and locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers inflammatory responses that involve neutrophils, macrophages/microglia and astrocytes and molecules that potentially cause secondary tissue damage and functional impairment. Here, we assessed the contribution of the calcium-dependent K⁺ channel KCNN4 (KCa3.1, IK1, SK4) to secondary damage after moderate contusion lesions in the lower thoracic spinal cord of adult mice. Changes in KCNN4 mRNA levels (RT-PCR), KCa3.1 protein expression (Western blots), and cellular expression (immunofluorescence) in the mouse spinal cord were monitored between 1 and 28 d after SCI. KCNN4 mRNA and KCa3.1 protein rapidly increased after SCI; double labeling identified astrocytes as the main cellular source accounting for this upregulation. Locomotor function after SCI, evaluated for 28 d in an open-field test using the Basso Mouse Scale, was improved in a dose-dependent manner by treating mice with a selective inhibitor of KCa3.1 channels, TRAM-34 (triarylmethane-34). Improved locomotor function was accompanied by reduced tissue loss at 28 d and increased neuron and axon sparing. The rescue of tissue by TRAM-34 treatment was preceded by reduced expression of the proinflammatory mediators, tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β in spinal cord tissue at 12 h after injury, and reduced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase at 7 d after SCI. In astrocytes in vitro, TRAM-34 inhibited Ca²⁺ signaling in response to metabotropic purinergic receptor stimulation. These results suggest that blocking the KCa3.1 channel could be a potential therapeutic approach for treating secondary damage after spinal cord injury.

Inflammatory pathways in spinal cord injury

Injury to the spinal cord results in direct damage to axons, neuronal cell bodies, and glia that cause functional loss below the site of injury. In addition, the injury also triggers an inflammatory response that contributes to secondary tissue damage that leads to further functional loss. Reducing inflammation after spinal cord injury (SCI) is therefore a worthy therapeutic goal. Inflammation in the injured spinal cord is a complex response that involves resident cells of the central nervous system as well as infiltrating immune cells, and is mediated by a variety of molecular pathways and signaling molecules. Here, we discuss approaches we have used to identify novel therapeutic targets to modulate the inflammatory response after SCI to reduce tissue damage and promote recovery. Effective treatments for SCI will likely require a combination of approaches to reduce inflammation and secondary damage with those that promote axon regeneration.

The KCa3.1 blocker TRAM-34 reduces infarction and neurological deficit in a rat model of ischemia/reperfusion stroke

Microglia and brain infiltrating macrophages significantly contribute to the secondary inflammatory damage in the wake of ischemic stroke. Here, we investigated whether inhibition of KCa3.1 (IKCa1/KCNN4), a calcium-activated K(+) channel that is involved in microglia and macrophage activation and expression of which increases on microglia in the infarcted area, has beneficial effects in a rat model of ischemic stroke. Using an HPLC/MS assay, we first confirmed that our small molecule KCa3.1 blocker TRAM-34 effectively penetrates into the brain and achieves micromolar plasma and brain concentrations after intraperitoneal injection. Then, we subjected male Wistar rats to 90 minutes of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and administered either vehicle or TRAM-34 (10 or 40 mg/kg intraperitoneally twice daily) for 7 days starting 12 hours after reperfusion. Both compound doses reduced infarct area by ≈ 50% as determined by hematoxylin & eosin staining on day 7 and the higher dose also significantly improved neurological deficit. We further observed a significant reduction in ED1(+)-activated microglia and TUNEL-positive neurons as well as increases in NeuN(+) neurons in the infarcted hemisphere. Our findings suggest that KCa3.1 blockade constitutes an attractive approach for the treatment of ischemic stroke because it is still effective when initiated 12 hours after the insult.

The Lymphocyte Potassium Channels Kv1.3 and KCa3.1 as Targets for Immunosuppression

The voltage-gated Kv1.3 and the calcium-activated KCa3.1 potassium channel modulate many calcium-dependent cellular processes in immune cells, including T-cell activation and proliferation, and have therefore been proposed as novel therapeutic targets for immunomodulation. Kv1.3 is highly expressed in CCR7(-) effector memory T cells and is emerging as a target for T-cell mediated diseases like multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, type-1 diabetes mellitus, allergic contact dermatitis, and psoriasis. KCa3.1 in contrast is expressed in CCR7(+) naïve and central memory T cells, as well as in mast cells, macrophages, dedifferentiated vascular smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, vascular endothelium, and airway epithelium. Given this expression pattern, KCa3.1 is a potential therapeutic target for conditions ranging from inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, and asthma to cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis and post-angioplasty restenosis. Results from animal studies have been supportive of the therapeutic potential of both Kv1.3 and KCa3.1 blockers and have also not shown any toxicities associated with pharmacological Kv1.3 and KCa3.1 blockade. To date, two compounds targeting Kv1.3 are in preclinical development but, so far, no Kv1.3 blocker has advanced into clinical trials. KCa3.1 blockers, on the other hand, have been evaluated in clinical trials for sickle cell anemia and exercise-induced asthma, but have so far not shown efficacy. However, the trial results support KCa3.1 as a safe therapeutic target, and will hopefully help enable clinical trials for other medical conditions that might benefit from KCa3.1 blockade.

Amyloid-beta protein oligomer at low nanomolar concentrations activates microglia and induces microglial neurotoxicity

Neuroinflammation and associated neuronal dysfunction mediated by activated microglia play an important role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD). Microglia are activated by aggregated forms of amyloid-β protein (Aβ), usually demonstrated in vitro by stimulating microglia with micromolar concentrations of fibrillar Aβ, a major component of amyloid plaques in AD brains. Here we report that amyloid-β oligomer (AβO), at 5-50 nm, induces a unique pattern of microglia activation that requires the activity of the scavenger receptor A and the Ca(2+)-activated potassium channel KCa3.1. AβO treatment induced an activated morphological and biochemical profile of microglia, including activation of p38 MAPK and nuclear factor κB. Interestingly, although increasing nitric oxide (NO) production, AβO did not increase several proinflammatory mediators commonly induced by lipopolyliposaccharides or fibrillar Aβ, suggesting that AβO stimulates both common and divergent pathways of microglia activation. AβO at low nanomolar concentrations, although not neurotoxic, induced indirect, microglia-mediated damage to neurons in dissociated cultures and in organotypic hippocampal slices. The indirect neurotoxicity was prevented by (i) doxycycline, an inhibitor of microglia activation; (ii) TRAM-34, a selective KCa3.1 blocker; and (iii) two inhibitors of inducible NO synthase, indicating that KCa3.1 activity and excessive NO release are required for AβO-induced microglial neurotoxicity. Our results suggest that AβO, generally considered a neurotoxin, may more potently cause neuronal damage indirectly by activating microglia in AD.

Hydrophobic interactions as key determinants to the KCa3.1 channel closed configuration. An analysis of KCa3.1 mutants constitutively active in zero Ca2+

In this study we present evidence that residue Val282 in the S6 transmembrane segment of the calcium-activated KCa3.1 channel constitutes a key determinant of channel gating. A Gly scan of the S6 transmembrane segment first revealed that the substitutions A279G and V282G cause the channel to become constitutively active in zero Ca2+. Constitutive activity was not observed when residues extending from Cys276 to Ala286, other than Ala279 and Val282, were substituted to Gly. The accessibility of Cys engineered at Val275 deep in the channel cavity was next investigated for the ion-conducting V275C/V282G mutant and closed V275C channel in zero Ca2+ using Ag+ as probe. These experiments demonstrated that internal Ag+ ions have free access to the channel cavity independently of the channel conducting state, arguing against an activation gate located at the S6 segment C-terminal end. Experiments were also conducted where Val282 was substituted by residues differing in size and/or hydrophobicity. We found a strong correlation between constitutive activity in zero Ca2+ and the hydrophobic energy for side chain burial. Single channel recordings showed finally that constitutive activation in zero Ca2+ is better explained by a model where the channel is locked in a low conducting state with a high open probability rather than resulting from a change in the open/closed energy balance that would favor channel openings to a full conducting state in the absence of Ca2+. We conclude that hydrophobic interactions involving Val282 constitute key determinants to KCa3.1 gating by modulating the ion conducting state of the selectivity filter through an effect on the S6 transmembrane segment.

Hormesis and medicine

Evidence is presented which supports the conclusion that the hormetic dose-response model is the most common and fundamental in the biological and biomedical sciences, being highly generalizable across biological model, endpoint measured and chemical class and physical agent. The paper provides a broad spectrum of applications of the hormesis concept for clinical medicine including anxiety, seizure, memory, stroke, cancer chemotherapy, dermatological processes such as hair growth, osteoporosis, ocular diseases, including retinal detachment, statin effects on cardiovascular function and tumour development, benign prostate enlargement, male sexual behaviours/dysfunctions, and prion diseases.

Genes and pathways differentially expressed in the brains of Fxr2 knockout mice

Fragile X syndrome is a common inherited form of mental retardation and originates from the absence of expression of the FMR1 gene. This gene and its two homologues, FXR1 and FXR2, encode for a family of fragile X related (FXR) proteins with similar tissue distribution, together with sequence and functional homology. Based on these characteristics, it has been suggested that these proteins might partly complement one another. To unravel the function of Fxr2 protein, the expression pattern of 12,588 genes was studied in the brains of wild-type and Fxr2 knockout mice, an animal model which shows behavioral abnormalities partly similar to those observed in Fmr1-knockout mice. By genome expression profiling and stringent significance tests we identify genes and gene groups de-regulated in the brains of Fxr2 knockout mice. Differential expression of candidate genes was validated by real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis. A number of differentially expressed genes associated with the Fxr2 phenotype have been previously involved in other memory or cognitive disorders.

Drug therapies for stroke and traumatic brain injury often display U-shaped dose responses: occurrence, mechanisms, and clinical implications

This article explores the occurrence of U-shaped dose responses induced by neuroprotective agents in animal stroke and traumatic brain injury (TBI) screening/preclinical studies. The assessment was stimulated by suggestions that U-shaped dose responses may be common for neuroprotective agents in stroke and TBI models, and its lack of both recognition and understanding may be a factor contributing to the failure of many promising drugs to be protective in clinical trials. Over 30 agents with neuroprotective properties in animal stroke/TBI models were identified that act via U-shaped dose responses in a broad range of experimental protocols. These findings suggest that U-shaped dose responses in animal stroke/TBI models may be a general occurrence and have significant implications for drug discovery, drug development, and clinical practice.

The Ca2+-activated K+ channel KCNN4/KCa3.1 contributes to microglia activation and nitric oxide-dependent neurodegeneration

Brain damage and disease involve activation of microglia and production of potentially neurotoxic molecules, but there are no treatments that effectively target their harmful properties. We present evidence that the small-conductance Ca2+/calmodulin-activated K+ channel KCNN4/ KCa3.1/SK4/IK1 is highly expressed in rat microglia and is a potential therapeutic target for acute brain damage. Using a Transwell cell-culture system that allows separate treatment of the microglia or neurons, we show that activated microglia killed neurons, and this was markedly reduced by treating only the microglia with a selective inhibitor of KCa3.1 channels, triarylmethane-34 (TRAM-34). To assess the role of KCa3.1 channels in microglia activation and key signaling pathways involved, we exploited several fluorescence plate-reader-based assays. KCa3.1 channels contributed to microglia activation, inducible nitric oxide synthase upregulation, production of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite, and to consequent neurotoxicity, protein tyrosine nitration, and caspase 3 activation in the target neurons. Microglia activation involved the signaling pathways p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB), which are important for upregulation of numerous proinflammatory molecules, and the KCa3.1 channels were functionally linked to activation of p38 MAPK but not NF-kappaB. These in vitro findings translated into in vivo neuroprotection, because we found that degeneration of retinal ganglion cells after optic nerve transection was reduced by intraocular injection of TRAM-34. This study provides evidence that KCa3.1 channels constitute a therapeutic target in the CNS and that inhibiting this K+ channel might benefit acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders that are caused by or exacerbated by inflammation.

Lysophosphatidylcholine stimulates IL-1beta release from microglia via a P2X7 receptor-independent mechanism

IL-1beta released from activated macrophages contributes significantly to tissue damage in inflammatory, degenerative, and autoimmune diseases. In the present study, we identified a novel mechanism of IL-1beta release from activated microglia (brain macrophages) that occurred independently of P2X(7) ATP receptor activation. Stimulation of LPS-preactivated microglia with lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) caused rapid processing and secretion of mature 17-kDa IL-1beta. Neither LPC-induced IL-1beta release nor LPC-stimulated intracellular Ca(2+) increases were affected by inhibition of P2X(7) ATP receptors with oxidized ATP. Microglial LPC-induced IL-1beta release was suppressed in Ca(2+)-free medium or during inhibition of nonselective cation channels with Gd(3+) or La(3+). It was also attenuated when Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels were blocked with charybdotoxin (CTX). The electroneutral K(+) ionophore nigericin did not reverse the suppressive effects of CTX on LPC-stimulated IL-1beta release, demonstrating the importance of membrane hyperpolarization. Furthermore, LPC-stimulated caspase activity was unaffected by Ca(2+)-free medium or CTX, suggesting that secretion but not processing of IL-1beta is Ca(2+)- and voltage-dependent. In summary, these data indicate that the activity of nonselective cation channels and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels is required for optimal IL-1beta release from LPC-stimulated microglia.

Caspase-dependent cell death involved in brain damage after acute subdural hematoma in rats

Traumatic brain injury is associated with acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) that worsens outcome. Although early removal of blood can reduce mortality, patients still die or remain disabled after surgery and additional treatments are needed. The blood mass and extravasated blood induce pathomechanisms such as high intracranial pressure (ICP), ischemia, apoptosis and inflammation which lead to acute as well as delayed cell death. Only little is known about the basis of delayed cell death in this type of injury. Thus, the purpose of the study was to investigate to which extent caspase-dependent intracellular processes are involved in the lesion development after ASDH in rats. A volume of 300microL blood was infused into the subdural space under monitoring of ICP and tissue oxygen concentration. To asses delayed cell death mechanisms, DNA fragmentation was measured 1, 2, 4 and 7 days after ASDH by TUNEL staining, and the effect of the pan-caspase inhibitor zVADfmk on lesion volume was assessed 7 days post-ASDH. A peak of TUNEL-positive cells was found in the injured cortex at day 2 after blood infusion (53.4+/-11.6 cells/mm(2)). zVADfmk (160ng), applied by intracerebroventricular injection before ASDH, reduced lesion volume significantly by more than 50% (vehicle: 23.79+/-7.62mm(3); zVADfmk: 9.06+/-4.08). The data show for the first time that apoptotic processes are evident following ASDH and that caspase-dependent mechanisms play a crucial role in the lesion development caused by the blood effect on brain tissue.

Expression and modulation of the intermediate- conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel in glioblastoma GL-15 cells

We report here the expression and properties of the intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (IK(Ca)) channel in the GL-15 human glioblastoma cell line. Macroscopic IK(Ca) currents on GL-15 cells displayed a mean amplitude of 7.2+/-0.8 pA/pF at 0 mV, at day 1 after plating. The current was inhibited by clotrimazole (CTL, IC(50)=257 nM), TRAM-34 (IC(50)=55 nM), and charybdotoxin (CTX, IC(50)=10.3 nM). RT-PCR analysis demonstrated the expression of mRNA encoding the IK(Ca) channel in GL-15 cells. Unitary currents recorded using the inside-out configuration had a conductance of 25 pS, a K(D) for Ca(2+) of 188 nM at -100 mV, and no voltage dependence. We tested whether the IKCa channel expression in GL-15 cells could be the result of an increased ERK activity. Inhibition of the ERK pathway with the MEK antagonist PD98059 (25 muM, for 5 days) virtually suppressed the IK(Ca) current in GL-15 cells. PD98059 treatment also increased the length of cellular processes and up-regulated the astrocytic differentiative marker GFAP. A significant reduction of the IKCa current amplitude was also observed with time in culture, with mean currents of 7.17+/-0.75 pA/pF at 1-2 days, and 3.11+/-1.35 pA/pF at 5-6 days after plating. This time-dependent downregulation of the IK(Ca) current was not accompanied by changes in the ERK activity, as assessed by immunoblot analysis. Semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis demonstrated a ~35% reduction of the IK(Ca) channel mRNA resulting from ERK inhibition and a approximately 50% reduction with time in culture.

The distribution of intermediate-conductance, calcium-activated, potassium (IK) channels in epithelial cells

Intermediate-conductance, calcium-activated, potassium (IK) channels were first identified by their roles in cell volume regulation, and were later shown to be involved in control of proliferation of lymphocytes and to provide a K+ current for epithelial secretory activity. Until now, there has been no systematic investigation of IK channel localization within different epithelia. IK channel immunoreactivity was present in most epithelia, where it occurred in surface membranes of epithelial cells. It was found in all stratified epithelia, including skin, cornea, oral mucosa, vaginal mucosa, urothelium and the oesophageal lining. It occurred in the ducts of fluid-secreting glands, the salivary glands, lacrimal glands and pancreas, and in the respiratory epithelium. A low level of expression was seen in serous acinar cells. It was also found in other epithelia with fluid-exchange properties, the choroid plexus epithelium, the ependyma, visceral pleura and peritoneum, bile ducts and intestinal lining epithelium. However, there was little or no expression in vascular endothelial cells, kidney tubules or collecting ducts, lung alveoli, or in sebaceous glands. It is concluded that the channel is present in surface epithelia (e.g. skin) where it has a cell-protective role against osmotic challenge, and in epithelia where there is anion secretion that is facilitated by a K+ current-dependent hyperpolarization. It was also in some epithelial cells where its roles are as yet unknown.