Volume-sensitive chloride channels in mouse cortical neurons: characterization and role in volume regulation

Ion Channel Dysregulation Following Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Injury to the brain after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) results from numerous complex cellular mechanisms. At present, effective therapy for ICH is limited and a better understanding of the mechanisms of brain injury is necessary to improve prognosis. There is increasing evidence that ion channel dysregulation occurs at multiple stages in primary and secondary brain injury following ICH. Ion channels such as TWIK-related K+ channel 1, sulfonylurea 1 transient receptor potential melastatin 4 and glutamate-gated channels affect ion homeostasis in ICH. They in turn participate in the formation of brain edema, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, and the generation of neurotoxicity. In this review, we summarize the interaction between ions and ion channels, the effects of ion channel dysregulation, and we discuss some therapeutics based on ion-channel modulation following ICH.

Brief and diverse excitotoxic insults cause an increase in neuronal nuclear membrane permeability in the neonatal brain

Neuronal swelling after excitotoxic insults is implicated in neuronal injury and death in the developing brain, yet mitigating brain edema with osmotic and surgical interventions yields poor clinical outcomes. Importantly, neuronal swelling and its downstream consequences during early brain development remain poorly investigated. Using multiphoton Ca2+ imaging in vivo (P12-17) and in acute brain slices (P8-12), we explored Ca2+-dependent downstream effects after neuronal cytotoxic edema. We observed the translocation of cytosolic GCaMP6s into the nucleus of a subpopulation of neurons minutes after various excitotoxic insults. We used automated morphology-detection algorithms for neuronal segmentation and quantified the nuclear translocation of GCaMP6s as the ratio of nuclear and cytosolic intensity (N/C ratio). Elevated neuronal N/C ratios were correlated to higher Ca2+ loads and could occur independently of neuronal swelling. Electron microscopy revealed that the nuclear translocation was associated with increased nuclear pore size. Inhibiting calpains prevented elevated N/C ratios and neuronal swelling. Thus, our results indicate altered nuclear transport in a subpopulation of neurons shortly after injury in the developing brain, which can be used as an early biomarker of acute neuronal injury.

Physiology of the volume-sensitive/regulatory anion channel VSOR/VRAC. Part 1: from its discovery and phenotype characterization to the molecular entity identification

The volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying or volume-regulated anion channel, VSOR/VRAC, which was discovered in 1988, is expressed in most vertebrate cell types and is essentially involved in cell volume regulation after swelling and in the induction of cell death. This series of review articles describes what is already known and what remains to be uncovered about the functional and molecular properties as well as the physiological and pathophysiological roles of VSOR/VRAC. This Part 1 review article describes, from the physiological standpoint, first its discovery and significance in cell volume regulation, second its phenotypical properties, and third its molecular identification. Although the pore-forming core molecules and the volume-sensing subcomponent of VSOR/VRAC were identified as LRRC8 members and TRPM7 in 2014 and 2021, respectively, it is stressed that the identification of the molecular entity of VSOR/VRAC is still not complete enough to explain the full set of phenotypical properties.

Mechanisms of Activation of Brain's Drainage during Sleep: The Nightlife of Astrocytes

The study of functions, mechanisms of generation, and pathways of movement of cerebral fluids has a long history, but the last decade has been especially productive. The proposed glymphatic hypothesis, which suggests a mechanism of the brain waste removal system (BWRS), caused an active discussion on both the criticism of some of the perspectives and our intensive study of new experimental facts. It was especially found that the intensity of the metabolite clearance changes significantly during the transition between sleep and wakefulness. Interestingly, at the cellular level, a number of aspects of this problem have been focused on, such as astrocytes-glial cells, which, over the past two decades, have been recognized as equal partners of neurons and perform many important functions. In particular, an important role was assigned to astrocytes within the framework of the glymphatic hypothesis. In this review, we return to the "astrocytocentric" view of the BWRS function and the explanation of its activation during sleep from the viewpoint of new findings over the last decade. Our main conclusion is that the BWRS's action may be analyzed both at the systemic (whole-brain) and at the local (cellular) level. The local level means here that the neuro-glial-vascular unit can also be regarded as the smallest functional unit of sleep, and therefore, the smallest functional unit of the BWRS.

Hepatocyte growth factor pretreatment boosts functional recovery after spinal cord injury through human iPSC-derived neural stem/progenitor cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem/progenitor cell (hiPSC-NS/PC)-based cell transplantation has emerged as a groundbreaking method for replacing damaged neural cells and stimulating functional recovery, but its efficacy is strongly influenced by the state of the injured spinal microenvironment. This study evaluates the impact of a dual therapeutic intervention utilizing hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and hiPSC-NS/PC transplantation on motor function restoration following spinal cord injury (SCI).

METHODS

Severe contusive SCI was induced in immunocompromised rats, followed by continuous administration of recombinant human HGF protein into the subarachnoid space immediately after SCI for two weeks. Acute-phase histological and RNA sequencing analyses were conducted. Nine days after the injury, hiPSC-NS/PCs were transplanted into the lesion epicenter of the injured spinal cord, and the functional and histological outcomes were determined.

RESULTS

The acute-phase HGF-treated group exhibited vascularization, diverse anti-inflammatory effects, and activation of endogenous neural stem cells after SCI, which collectively contributed to tissue preservation. Following cell transplantation into a favorable environment, the transplanted NS/PCs survived well, facilitating remyelination and neuronal regeneration in host tissues. These comprehensive effects led to substantial enhancements in motor function in the dual-therapy group compared to the single-treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that the combined therapeutic approach of HGF preconditioning and hiPSC-NS/PC transplantation enhances locomotor functional recovery post-SCI, highlighting a highly promising therapeutic strategy for acute to subacute SCI.

Astrocytes: new evidence, new models, new roles

Astrocytes have been in the limelight of active research for about 3 decades now. Over this period, ideas about their function and role in the nervous system have evolved from simple assistance in energy supply and homeostasis maintenance to a complex informational and metabolic hub that integrates data on local neuronal activity, sensory and arousal context, and orchestrates many crucial processes in the brain. Rapid progress in experimental techniques and data analysis produces a growing body of data, which can be used as a foundation for formulation of new hypotheses, building new refined mathematical models, and ultimately should lead to a new level of understanding of the contribution of astrocytes to the cognitive tasks performed by the brain. Here, we highlight recent progress in astrocyte research, which we believe expands our understanding of how low-level signaling at a cellular level builds up to processes at the level of the whole brain and animal behavior. We start our review with revisiting data on the role of noradrenaline-mediated astrocytic signaling in locomotion, arousal, sensory integration, memory, and sleep. We then briefly review astrocyte contribution to the regulation of cerebral blood flow regulation, which is followed by a discussion of biophysical mechanisms underlying astrocyte effects on different brain processes. The experimental section is closed by an overview of recent experimental techniques available for modulation and visualization of astrocyte dynamics. We then evaluate how the new data can be potentially incorporated into the new mathematical models or where and how it already has been done. Finally, we discuss an interesting prospect that astrocytes may be key players in important processes such as the switching between sleep and wakefulness and the removal of toxic metabolites from the brain milieu.

A SWELL time to develop the molecular pharmacology of the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC)

Newly emerging roles of LRRC8 volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC) raise important questions about the therapeutic potential of VRAC in the treatment of epilepsy, type 2 diabetes, and other human diseases. A critical barrier to evaluating whether VRAC represents a viable drug target is the lack of potent and specific small-molecule inhibitors and activators of the channel. Here we review recent progress in developing the molecular pharmacology of VRAC made by screening a library of FDA-approved drugs for novel channel modulators. We discuss the discovery and characterization of cysteinyl leukotriene receptor antagonists Pranlukast and Zafirlukast as novel VRAC inhibitors, and zinc pyrithione (ZPT), which apparently activates VRAC through a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent mechanism. These ongoing efforts set the stage for developing a pharmacological toolkit for probing the integrative physiology, molecular pharmacology, and therapeutic potential of VRAC.

Taurine and Astrocytes: A Homeostatic and Neuroprotective Relationship

Taurine is considered the most abundant free amino acid in the brain. Even though there are endogenous mechanisms for taurine production in neural cells, an exogenous supply of taurine is required to meet physiological needs. Taurine is required for optimal postnatal brain development; however, its brain concentration decreases with age. Synthesis of taurine in the central nervous system (CNS) occurs predominantly in astrocytes. A metabolic coupling between astrocytes and neurons has been reported, in which astrocytes provide neurons with hypotaurine as a substrate for taurine production. Taurine has antioxidative, osmoregulatory, and anti-inflammatory functions, among other cytoprotective properties. Astrocytes release taurine as a gliotransmitter, promoting both extracellular and intracellular effects in neurons. The extracellular effects include binding to neuronal GABAA and glycine receptors, with subsequent cellular hyperpolarization, and attenuation of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA)-mediated glutamate excitotoxicity. Taurine intracellular effects are directed toward calcium homeostatic pathway, reducing calcium overload and thus preventing excitotoxicity, mitochondrial stress, and apoptosis. However, several physiological aspects of taurine remain unclear, such as the existence or not of a specific taurine receptor. Therefore, further research is needed not only in astrocytes and neurons, but also in other glial cells in order to fully comprehend taurine metabolism and function in the brain. Nonetheless, astrocyte’s role in taurine-induced neuroprotective functions should be considered as a promising therapeutic target of several neuroinflammatory, neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases in the near future. This review provides an overview of the significant relationship between taurine and astrocytes, as well as its homeostatic and neuroprotective role in the nervous system.

Leucine-rich repeat containing 8A contributes to the expansion of The potential role of leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 8A in central nervous system: current situation and prospect

Cell swelling usually initiates the regulatory volume decrease (RVD) process mediated mainly by volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs), which are formed by multiple different leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 8 (LRRC8) family members. VRAC currents have been widely recorded in astrocytes, neurons and microglia in the brain, and VRACs have been suggested to be involved in the important pathogenesis of cell swelling-related central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as ischemic stroke, epilepsy and epileptogenesis, glioblastoma (GBM), and so on. Recently, the increasing studies started to focus on LRRC8A (SWELL1), an obligatory subunit of VRAC indentified in 2014, which may be the key target to regulate the VRAC functions. After cerebral ischemia, the swollen astrocytes, neurons and microglia can activate LRRC8A-dependent VRACs, which may respectively promote the release of excitatory amino acids (EAA), interaction with ionotropic glutamate receptors, and regulating inflammation, suggesting the pleiotropic roles of LRRC8A in swollen brain cells. For the treatment of cell swelling-related CNS diseases, specific targeting LRRC8A may be a superior strategy to inhibit swollen-induced VRAC hyperactivity without blocking the normal VRAC function.

Glibenclamide does not improve outcome following severe collagenase-induced intracerebral hemorrhage in rats

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating insult with few effective treatments. Edema and raised intracranial pressure contribute to poor outcome after ICH. Glibenclamide blocks the sulfonylurea 1 transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (Sur1-Trpm4) channel implicated in edema formation. While glibenclamide has been found to improve outcome and reduce mortality in animal models of severe ischemic stroke, in ICH the effects are less clear. In our previous study, we found no benefit after a moderate-sized bleed, while others have reported benefit. Here we tested the hypothesis that glibenclamide may only be effective in severe ICH, where edema is an important contributor to outcome. Glibenclamide (10 μg/kg loading dose, 200 ng/h continuous infusion) was administered 2 hours post-ICH induced by collagenase injection into the striatum of adult rats. A survival period of 24 hours was maintained for experiments 1-3, and 72 hours for experiment 4. Glibenclamide did not affect hematoma volume (~81 μL) or other safety endpoints (e.g., glucose levels), suggesting the drug is safe. However, glibenclamide did not lessen striatal edema (~83% brain water content), ionic dyshomeostasis (Na+, K+), or functional impairment (e.g., neurological deficits (median = 10 out of 14), etc.) at 24 hours. It also did not affect edema at 72 h (~86% brain water content), or overall mortality rates (25% and 29.4% overall in vehicle vs. glibenclamide-treated severe strokes). Furthermore, glibenclamide appears to worsen cytotoxic edema in the peri-hematoma region (cell bodies were 46% larger at 24 h, p = 0.0017), but no effect on cell volume or density was noted elsewhere. Overall, these findings refute our hypothesis, as glibenclamide produced no favorable effects following severe ICH.

Cell Death Induction and Protection by Activation of Ubiquitously Expressed Anion/Cation Channels. Part 1: Roles of VSOR/VRAC in Cell Volume Regulation, Release of Double-Edged Signals and Apoptotic/Necrotic Cell Death

Cell volume regulation (CVR) is essential for survival and functions of animal cells. Actually, normotonic cell shrinkage and swelling are coupled to apoptotic and necrotic cell death and thus called the apoptotic volume decrease (AVD) and the necrotic volume increase (NVI), respectively. A number of ubiquitously expressed anion and cation channels are involved not only in CVD but also in cell death induction. This series of review articles address the question how cell death is induced or protected with using ubiquitously expressed ion channels such as swelling-activated anion channels, acid-activated anion channels and several types of TRP cation channels including TRPM2 and TRPM7. The Part 1 focuses on the roles of the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channels (VSOR), also called the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC), which is activated by cell swelling or reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a manner dependent on intracellular ATP. First we describe phenotypical properties, the molecular identity, and physical pore dimensions of VSOR/VRAC. Second, we highlight the roles of VSOR/VRAC in the release of organic signaling molecules, such as glutamate, glutathione, ATP and cGAMP, that play roles as double-edged swords in cell survival. Third, we discuss how VSOR/VRAC is involved in CVR and cell volume dysregulation as well as in the induction of or protection from apoptosis, necrosis and regulated necrosis under pathophysiological conditions.

Intracellular Cl- dysregulation causing and caused by pathogenic neuronal activity

The intracellular Cl- concentration ([Cl-]i) is tightly regulated in brain neurons for stabilizing brain performance. The [Cl-]i in mature neurons is determined by the balance between the rate of Cl- extrusion mainly mediated by the neuron-specific type 2 K+-Cl- cotransporter (KCC2) and the rate of Cl- entry through various Cl- channels including GABAA receptors during neuronal activity. Disturbance of the balance causes instability of brain circuit performance and may lead to epileptic seizures. In the first part of this review, we discuss how genetic alterations in KCC2 in humans cause infantile migrating focal seizures, based on our previous report and others. Depolarization of the membrane potential increases the driving force for Cl- entry into neurons. Thus, the duration of action potential spike generation and the frequency of excitatory synaptic inputs are the crucial factors for determining the total amount of Cl- entry and the equilibrium [Cl-]i in neurons. Moreover, there is also a significant interdependence between the neuronal activity and the KCC2 expression. In the second part, we discuss plausible mechanisms by which excessive neuronal activity due to excitotoxic brain insults or other epilepsy-associated gene mutations may cause the Cl- imbalance in neurons and lead to epileptic discharges over the brain, using the schematic "unifying foci" model based on literature.

Cell Volume-Activated and Volume-Correlated Anion Channels in Mammalian Cells: Their Biophysical, Molecular, and Pharmacological Properties

There are a number of mammalian anion channel types associated with cell volume changes. These channel types are classified into two groups: volume-activated anion channels (VAACs) and volume-correlated anion channels (VCACs). VAACs can be directly activated by cell swelling and include the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channel (VSOR), which is also called the volume-regulated anion channel; the maxi-anion channel (MAC or Maxi-Cl); and the voltage-gated anion channel, chloride channel (ClC)-2. VCACs can be facultatively implicated in, although not directly activated by, cell volume changes and include the cAMP-activated cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) anion channel, the Ca2+-activated Cl- channel (CaCC), and the acid-sensitive (or acid-stimulated) outwardly rectifying anion channel. This article describes the phenotypical properties and activation mechanisms of both groups of anion channels, including accumulating pieces of information on the basis of recent molecular understanding. To that end, this review also highlights the molecular identities of both anion channel groups; in addition to the molecular identities of ClC-2 and CFTR, those of CaCC, VSOR, and Maxi-Cl were recently identified by applying genome-wide approaches. In the last section of this review, the most up-to-date information on the pharmacological properties of both anion channel groups, especially their half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50 values) and voltage-dependent blocking, is summarized particularly from the standpoint of pharmacological distinctions among them. Future physiologic and pharmacological studies are definitely warranted for therapeutic targeting of dysfunction of VAACs and VCACs.

Cell Volume Control in Healthy Brain and Neuropathologies

Regulation of cellular volume is a critical homeostatic process that is intimately linked to ionic and osmotic balance in the brain tissue. Because the brain is encased in the rigid skull and has a very complex cellular architecture, even minute changes in the volume of extracellular and intracellular compartments have a very strong impact on tissue excitability and function. The failure of cell volume control is a major feature of several neuropathologies, such as hyponatremia, stroke, epilepsy, hyperammonemia, and others. There is strong evidence that such dysregulation, especially uncontrolled cell swelling, plays a major role in adverse pathological outcomes. To protect themselves, brain cells utilize a variety of mechanisms to maintain their optimal volume, primarily by releasing or taking in ions and small organic molecules through diverse volume-sensitive ion channels and transporters. In principle, the mechanisms of cell volume regulation are not unique to the brain and share many commonalities with other tissues. However, because ions and some organic osmolytes (e.g., major amino acid neurotransmitters) have a strong impact on neuronal excitability, cell volume regulation in the brain is a surprisingly treacherous process, which may cause more harm than good. This topical review covers the established and emerging information in this rapidly developing area of physiology.

Hippocampal and Cortical Pyramidal Neurons Swell in Parallel with Astrocytes during Acute Hypoosmolar Stress

Normal nervous system function is critically dependent on the balance of water and ions in the extracellular space (ECS). Pathological reduction in brain interstitial osmolarity results in osmotically-driven flux of water into cells, causing cellular edema which reduces the ECS and increases neuronal excitability and risk of seizures. Astrocytes are widely considered to be particularly susceptible to cellular edema due to selective expression of the water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4). The apparent resistance of pyramidal neurons to osmotic swelling has been attributed to lack of functional water channels. In this study we report rapid volume changes in CA1 pyramidal cells in hypoosmolar ACSF (hACSF) that are equivalent to volume changes in astrocytes across a variety of conditions. Astrocyte and neuronal swelling was significant within 1 min of exposure to 17 or 40% hACSF, was rapidly reversible upon return to normosmolar ACSF, and repeatable upon re-exposure to hACSF. Neuronal swelling was not an artifact of patch clamp, occurred deep in tissue, was similar at physiological vs. room temperature, and occurred in both juvenile and adult hippocampal slices. Neuronal swelling was neither inhibited by TTX, nor by antagonists of NMDA or AMPA receptors, suggesting that it was not occurring as a result of excitotoxicity. Surprisingly, genetic deletion of AQP4 did not inhibit, but rather augmented, astrocyte swelling in severe hypoosmolar conditions. Taken together, our results indicate that neurons are not osmoresistant as previously reported, and that osmotic swelling is driven by an AQP4-independent mechanism.

Turning down the volume: Astrocyte volume change in the generation and termination of epileptic seizures

Approximately 1% of the global population suffers from epilepsy, a class of disorders characterized by recurrent and unpredictable seizures. Of these cases roughly one-third are refractory to current antiepileptic drugs, which typically target neuronal excitability directly. The events leading to seizure generation and epileptogenesis remain largely unknown, hindering development of new treatments. Some recent experimental models of epilepsy have provided compelling evidence that glial cells, especially astrocytes, could be central to seizure development. One of the proposed mechanisms for astrocyte involvement in seizures is astrocyte swelling, which may promote pathological neuronal firing and synchrony through reduction of the extracellular space and elevated glutamate concentrations. In this review, we discuss the common conditions under which astrocytes swell, the resultant effects on neural excitability, and how seizure development may ultimately be influenced by these effects.

Chloride Dysregulation, Seizures, and Cerebral Edema: A Relationship with Therapeutic Potential

Pharmacoresistant seizures and cytotoxic cerebral edema are serious complications of ischemic and traumatic brain injury. Intraneuronal Cl^- concentration ([Cl^-]_i) regulation impacts on both cell volume homeostasis and Cl^--permeable GABA_A receptor-dependent membrane excitability. Understanding the pleiotropic molecular determinants of neuronal [Cl^-]_i - cytoplasmic impermeant anions, polyanionic extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins, and plasmalemmal Cl^- transporters - could help the identification of novel anticonvulsive and neuroprotective targets. The cation/Cl^- cotransporters and ECM metalloproteinases may be particularly druggable targets for intervention. We establish here a paradigm that accounts for recent data regarding the complex regulatory mechanisms of neuronal [Cl^-]_i and how these mechanisms impact on neuronal volume and excitability. We propose approaches to modulate [Cl^-]_i that are relevant for two common clinical sequela of brain injury: edema and seizures.

Water diffusion closely reveals neural activity status in rat brain loci affected by anesthesia

Diffusion functional MRI (DfMRI) reveals neuronal activation even when neurovascular coupling is abolished, contrary to blood oxygenation level—dependent (BOLD) functional MRI (fMRI). Here, we show that the water apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) derived from DfMRI increased in specific rat brain regions under anesthetic conditions, reflecting the decreased neuronal activity observed with local field potentials (LFPs), especially in regions involved in wakefulness. In contrast, BOLD signals showed nonspecific changes, reflecting systemic effects of the anesthesia on overall brain hemodynamics status. Electrical stimulation of the central medial thalamus nucleus (CM) exhibiting this anesthesia-induced ADC increase led the animals to transiently wake up. Infusion in the CM of furosemide, a specific neuronal swelling blocker, led the ADC to increase further locally, although LFP activity remained unchanged, and increased the current threshold awakening the animals under CM electrical stimulation. Oppositely, induction of cell swelling in the CM through infusion of a hypotonic solution (−80 milliosmole [mOsm] artificial cerebrospinal fluid [aCSF]) led to a local ADC decrease and a lower current threshold to wake up the animals. Strikingly, the local ADC changes produced by blocking or enhancing cell swelling in the CM were also mirrored remotely in areas functionally connected to the CM, such as the cingulate and somatosensory cortex. Together, those results strongly suggest that neuronal swelling is a significant mechanism underlying DfMRI.

It has been reported that neuronal activation results in a decrease of water diffusion in activated neural tissue. This new approach, known as diffusion functional MRI (DfMRI), has high potential for functional imaging of the brain, as the currently widespread blood oxygenation level—dependent (BOLD)-functional MRI (fMRI) method, which is based on neurovascular coupling, remains an indirect marker of neuronal activation. Here, we show that the water apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) derived from DfMRI increased in specific rat brain regions under anesthetic conditions, reflecting the decreased neuronal activity, especially in regions involved in wakefulness. Electrical stimulation of the central medial (CM) thalamic nucleus exhibiting this anesthesia-induced ADC increase led the animals to transiently wake up. Infusion of the CM with furosemide—a specific blocker of neuronal swelling—led the ADC to increase further locally and increased the current threshold for waking the animals. Conversely, induction of cell swelling in the CM through infusion of a hypotonic solution led to a local ADC decrease and a lower current threshold to wake the animals. Strikingly, the local ADC changes produced by blocking or enhancing cell swelling in the CM were also mirrored remotely in areas functionally connected to the CM, such as the cingulate and somatosensory cortex. Those results strongly suggest that neuronal swelling is a significant mechanism underlying DfMRI.

Phase-amplitude coupled persistent theta and gamma oscillations in rat primary motor cortex in vitro

In vivo, theta (4-7 Hz) and gamma (30-80 Hz) neuronal network oscillations are known to coexist and display phase-amplitude coupling (PAC). However, in vitro, these oscillations have for many years been studied in isolation. Using an improved brain slice preparation technique we have, using co-application of carbachol (10 μM) and kainic acid (150 nM), elicited simultaneous theta (6.6 ± 0.1 Hz) and gamma (36.6 ± 0.4 Hz) oscillations in rodent primary motor cortex (M1). Each oscillation showed greatest power in layer V. Using a variety of time series analyses we detected significant cross-frequency coupling in 74% of slice preparations. Differences were observed in the pharmacological profile of each oscillation. Thus, gamma oscillations were reduced by the GABA_A receptor antagonists, gabazine (250 nM and 2 μM), and picrotoxin (50 μM) and augmented by AMPA receptor antagonism with SYM2206 (20 μM). In contrast, theta oscillatory power was increased by gabazine, picrotoxin and SYM2206. GABA_B receptor blockade with CGP55845 (5 μM) increased both theta and gamma power, and similar effects were seen with diazepam, zolpidem, MK801 and a series of metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonists. Oscillatory activity at both frequencies was reduced by the gap junction blocker carbenoxolone (200 μM) and by atropine (5 μM). These data show theta and gamma oscillations in layer V of rat M1 in vitro are cross-frequency coupled, and are mechanistically distinct. The development of an in vitro model of phase-amplitude coupled oscillations will facilitate further mechanistic investigation of the generation and modulation of coupled activity in mammalian cortex.

Anions Govern Cell Volume: A Case Study of Relative Astrocytic and Neuronal Swelling in Spreading Depolarization

Cell volume changes are ubiquitous in normal and pathological activity of the brain. Nevertheless, we know little about the dynamics of cell and tissue swelling, and the differential changes in the volumes of neurons and glia during pathological states such as spreading depolarizations (SD) under ischemic and non–ischemic conditions, and epileptic seizures. By combining the Hodgkin–Huxley type spiking dynamics, dynamic ion concentrations, and simultaneous neuronal and astroglial volume changes into a comprehensive model, we elucidate why glial cells swell more than neurons in SD and the special case of anoxic depolarization (AD), and explore the relative contributions of the two cell types to tissue swelling. Our results demonstrate that anion channels, particularly Cl⁻, are intrinsically connected to cell swelling and blocking these currents prevents changes in cell volume. The model is based on a simple and physiologically realistic description. We introduce model extensions that are either derived purely from first physical principles of electroneutrality, osmosis, and conservation of particles, or by a phenomenological combination of these principles and known physiological facts. This work provides insights into numerous studies related to neuronal and glial volume changes in SD that otherwise seem contradictory, and is broadly applicable to swelling in other cell types and conditions.

Volume-regulated anion channel--a frenemy within the brain

The volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC) is a ubiquitously expressed yet highly enigmatic member of the superfamily of chloride/anion channels. It is activated by cellular swelling and mediates regulatory cell volume decrease in a majority of vertebrate cells, including those in the central nervous system (CNS). In the brain, besides its crucial role in cellular volume regulation, VRAC is thought to play a part in cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and release of physiologically active molecules. Although these roles are not exclusive to the CNS, the relative significance of VRAC in the brain is amplified by several unique aspects of its physiology. One important example is the contribution of VRAC to the release of the excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate. This latter process is thought to have impact on both normal brain functioning (such as astrocyte-neuron signaling) and neuropathology (via promoting the excitotoxic death of neuronal cells in stroke and traumatic brain injury). In spite of much work in the field, the molecular nature of VRAC remained unknown until less than 2 years ago. Two pioneer publications identified VRAC as the heterohexamer formed by the leucine-rich repeat-containing 8 (LRRC8) proteins. These findings galvanized the field and are likely to result in dramatic revisions to our understanding of the place and role of VRAC in the brain, as well as other organs and tissues. The present review briefly recapitulates critical findings in the CNS and focuses on anticipated impact on the LRRC8 discovery on further progress in neuroscience research.

Non-linear leak currents affect mammalian neuron physiology

In their seminal works on squid giant axons, Hodgkin, and Huxley approximated the membrane leak current as Ohmic, i.e., linear, since in their preparation, sub-threshold current rectification due to the influence of ionic concentration is negligible. Most studies on mammalian neurons have made the same, largely untested, assumption. Here we show that the membrane time constant and input resistance of mammalian neurons (when other major voltage-sensitive and ligand-gated ionic currents are discounted) varies non-linearly with membrane voltage, following the prediction of a Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz-based passive membrane model. The model predicts that under such conditions, the time constant/input resistance-voltage relationship will linearize if the concentration differences across the cell membrane are reduced. These properties were observed in patch-clamp recordings of cerebellar Purkinje neurons (in the presence of pharmacological blockers of other background ionic currents) and were more prominent in the sub-threshold region of the membrane potential. Model simulations showed that the non-linear leak affects voltage-clamp recordings and reduces temporal summation of excitatory synaptic input. Together, our results demonstrate the importance of trans-membrane ionic concentration in defining the functional properties of the passive membrane in mammalian neurons as well as other excitable cells.

Temperature sensitivity of acid-sensitive outwardly rectifying (ASOR) anion channels in cortical neurons is involved in hypothermic neuroprotection against acidotoxic necrosis

The acid-sensitive outwardly rectifying (ASOR) anion channel has been found in non-neuronal cell types and was shown to be involved in acidotoxic death of epithelial cells. We have recently shown that the ASOR channel is sensitive to temperature. Here, we extend those results to show that temperature-sensitive ASOR anion channels are expressed in cortical neurons and involved in acidotoxic neuronal cell death. In cultured mouse cortical neurons, reduction of extracellular pH activated anionic currents exhibiting phenotypic properties of the ASOR anion channel. The neuronal ASOR currents recorded at pH 5.25 were augmented by warm temperature, with a threshold temperature of 26 °C and the Q(10) value of 5.6. After 1 h exposure to acidic solution at 37 °C, a large population of neurons suffered from necrotic cell death which was largely protected not only by ASOR channel blockers but also by reduction of temperature to 25 °C. Thus, it is suggested that high temperature sensitivity of the neuronal ASOR anion channel provides, at least in part, a basis for hypothermic neuroprotection under acidotoxic situations associated with a number of pathological brain states.

Angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE): structure, biological roles, and molecular basis for chloride ion dependence

Somatic angiotensin-I converting enzyme (sACE) has an essential role in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte fluid homeostasis. It is a zinc protease that cleaves angiotensin-I (AngI), bradykinin, and a broad range of other signalling peptides. The enzyme activity is provided by two homologous domains (N- and C-), which display clear differences in substrate specificities and chloride activation. The presence of chloride ions in sACE and its unusual role in activity was identified early on in the characterisation of the enzyme. The molecular mechanisms of chloride activation have been investigated thoroughly through mutagenesis studies and shown to be substrate-dependent. Recent results from X-ray crystallography structural analysis have provided the basis for the intricate interactions between ACE, its substrate and chloride ions. Here we describe the role of chloride ions in human ACE and its physiological consequences. Insights into the chloride activation of the N- and C-domains could impact the design of improved domain-specific ACE inhibitors.

Neuroprotective Mechanisms of Taurine against Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke exhibits a multiplicity of pathophysiological mechanisms. To address the diverse pathophysiological mechanisms observed in ischemic stroke investigators seek to find therapeutic strategies that are multifaceted in their action by either investigating multipotential compounds or by using a combination of compounds. Taurine, an endogenous amino acid, exhibits a plethora of physiological functions. It exhibits antioxidative properties, stabilizes membrane, functions as an osmoregulator, modulates ionic movements, reduces the level of pro-inflammators, regulates intracellular calcium concentration; all of which contributes to its neuroprotective effect. Data are accumulating that show the neuroprotective mechanisms of taurine against stroke pathophysiology. In this review, we describe the neuroprotective mechanisms employed by taurine against ischemic stroke and its use in clinical trial for ischemic stroke.

Volume-sensitive anion channels mediate osmosensitive glutathione release from rat thymocytes

Glutathione (GSH) is a negatively charged tripeptide, which is a major determinant of the cellular redox state and defense against oxidative stress. It is assembled inside and degraded outside the cells and is released under various physiological and pathophysiological conditions. The GSH release mechanism is poorly understood at present. In our experiments, freshly isolated rat thymocytes were found to release GSH under normal isotonic conditions at a low rate of 0.82±0.07 attomol/cell/min and that was greatly enhanced under hypoosomotic stimulation to reach a level of 6.1±0.4 attomol/cell/min. The swelling-induced GSH release was proportional to the cell density in the suspension and was temperature-dependent with relatively low activation energy of 5.4±0.6 kcal/mol indicating a predominant diffusion mechanism of GSH translocation. The osmosensitive release of GSH was significantly inhibited by blockers of volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) anion channel, DCPIB and phloretin. In patch-clamp experiments, osmotic swelling activated large anionic conductance with the VSOR channel phenotype. Anion replacement studies suggested that the thymic VSOR anion channel is permeable to GSH(-) with the permeability ratio P(GSH)/P(Cl) of 0.32 for influx and 0.10 for efflux of GSH. The osmosensitive GSH release was trans-stimulated by SLCO/OATP substrates, probenecid, taurocholic acid and estrone sulfate, and inhibited by an SLC22A/OAT blocker, p-aminohippuric acid (PAH). The inhibition by PAH was additive to the effect of DCPIB or phloretin implying that PAH and DCPIB/phloretin affected separate pathways. We suggest that the VSOR anion channel constitutes a major part of the γ-glutamyl cycle in thymocytes and, in cooperation with OATP-like and OAT-like transporters, provides a pathway for the GSH efflux from osmotically swollen cells.

Short-coherence off-axis holographic phase microscopy of live cell dynamics

We demonstrate a single-shot holographic phase microscope that combines short-coherence laser pulses with an off-axis geometry. By introducing a controlled pulse front tilt, ultrashort pulses are made to interfere over a large field-of-view without loss of fringe contrast. With this microscope, quantitative phase images of live cells can be recorded in a full-field geometry without moving parts. We perform phase imaging of HEK293 cells, to study the dynamics of cell volume regulation in response to an osmotic shock.

Volume-activated chloride currents in fetal human nasopharyngeal epithelial cells

Volume-activated chloride channels have been studied by us extensively in human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. However, the chloride channels in the counterpart of the carcinoma cells have not been investigated. In this study, volume-activated chloride currents (I(cl,vol)) were characterized in normal fetal human nasopharyngeal epithelial cells using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Under isotonic conditions, nasopharyngeal epithelial cells displayed only a weak background current. Exposure to 47% hypotonic solution activated a volume-sensitive current. The reversal potential of the current was close to the calculated equilibrium potential for Cl(-). The peak values of the hypotonicity-activated current at +80 mV ranged from 0.82 to 2.71 nA in 23 cells. Further analysis indicated that the density of the hypotonicity-activated current in most cells (18/23) was smaller than 60 pA/pF. Only five cells presented a current larger than 60 pA/pF. The hypotonicity-activated current was independent of the exogenous ATP. Chloride channel inhibitors ATP, tamoxifen and 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB), inhibited the current dramatically. The anion permeability of the hypotonicity-activated chloride channels was I(-) > Br(-) > Cl(-) > gluconate. Unexpectedly, in isotonic conditions, ATP (10 mM) activated an inward-rectified current, which had not been observed in the nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. These results suggest that, under hypotonic challenges, fetal human nasopharyngeal epithelial cells can produce I(cl,vol), which might be involved in cell volume regulation.

Regulation of bradykinin-induced activation of volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channels by Ca2+ nanodomains in mouse astrocytes

Volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) anion channels play a key role in a variety of essential cell functions including cell volume regulation, cell death induction and intercellular communications. We previously demonstrated that, in cultured mouse cortical astrocytes, VSOR channels are activated in response to an inflammatory mediator, bradykinin, even without an increase in cell volume. Here we report that this VSOR channel activation must be mediated firstly by 'nanodomains' of high [Ca2+]i generated at the sites of both Ca2+ release from intracellular Ca2+ stores and Ca2+ entry at the plasma membrane. Bradykinin elicited a [Ca2+]i rise, initially caused by Ca2+ release and then by Ca2+ entry. Suppression of the [Ca2+]i rise by removal of extracellular Ca2+ and by depletion of Ca2+ stores suppressed the VSOR channel activation in a graded manner. Quantitative RT-PCR and suppression of gene expression with small interfering RNAs indicated that Orai1, TRPC1 and TRPC3 channels are involved in the Ca2+ entry and especially the entry through TRPC1 channels is strongly involved in the bradykinin-induced activation of VSOR channels. Moreover, Ca2+-dependent protein kinases Cα and β were found to mediate the activation after the [Ca2+]i rise through inducing generation of reactive oxygen species. Intracellular application of a slow Ca2+ chelator, EGTA, at 10 mM or a fast chelator, BAPTA, at 1 mM, however, had little effect on the VSOR channel activation. Application of BAPTA at 10 mM suppressed significantly the activation to one-third. These suggest that the VSOR channel activation induced by bradykinin is regulated by Ca2+ in the vicinity of individual Ca2+ release and entry channels, providing a basis for local control of cell volume regulation and intercellular communications.

Volume regulated anion channel currents of rat hippocampal neurons and their contribution to oxygen-and-glucose deprivation induced neuronal death

Volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC) are widely expressed chloride channels that are critical for the cell volume regulation. In the mammalian central nervous system, the physiological expression of neuronal VRAC and its role in cerebral ischemia are issues largely unknown. We show that hypoosmotic medium induce an outwardly rectifying chloride conductance in CA1 pyramidal neurons in rat hippocampal slices. The induced chloride conductance was sensitive to some of the VRAC inhibitors, namely, IAA-94 (300 µM) and NPPB (100 µM), but not to tamoxifen (10 µM). Using oxygen-and-glucose deprivation (OGD) to simulate ischemic conditions in slices, VRAC activation appeared after OGD induced anoxic depolarization (AD) that showed a progressive increase in current amplitude over the period of post-OGD reperfusion. The OGD induced VRAC currents were significantly inhibited by inhibitors for glutamate AMPA (30 µM NBQX) and NMDA (40 µM AP-5) receptors in the OGD solution, supporting the view that induction of AD requires an excessive Na⁺-loading via these receptors that in turn to activate neuronal VRAC. In the presence of NPPB and DCPIB in the post-OGD reperfusion solution, the OGD induced CA1 pyramidal neuron death, as measured by TO-PRO-3-I staining, was significantly reduced, although DCPIB did not appear to be an effective neuronal VRAC blocker. Altogether, we show that rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons express functional VRAC, and ischemic conditions can initial neuronal VRAC activation that may contribute to ischemic neuronal damage.

V₂ receptor-mediated autocrine role of somatodendritic release of AVP in rat vasopressin neurons under hypo-osmotic conditions

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) neurons in the hypothalamus are osmosensory neurons that respond to increased or decreased plasma osmolarity by releasing more or less AVP, respectively, from their axon terminals. Here, we found that, in contrast, hypo-osmotic stress enhanced somatodendritic AVP secretion from isolated rat AVP neurons, and this somatodendritic release depended on actin depolymerization. In AVP neurons identified by transgenic expression of green fluorescent protein, hypo-osmotic stimulation led to activation of anion currents and a slow regulatory volume decrease (RVD). Bath application of AVP increased the volume-sensitive anion current and accelerated RVD; these effects were abolished by inhibition of adenylate cyclase or by a specific antagonist of the V(2)-type vasopressin receptor. The V(2) receptor antagonist slowed the RVD rate of AVP neurons even in the absence of exogenous AVP when the volume of bath solution was reduced. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunostaining both indicated that the V(2) receptor was present in AVP neurons. We conclude that somatodendritic release of AVP under hypo-osmotic conditions acts through the V(2) receptor as an autocrine signal to enhance volume-sensitive anion channel activity and thereby facilitate cell volume regulation.

Activity-dependent layer-specific changes in the extracellular chloride concentration and chloride driving force in the rat hippocampus

The transmembrane distribution of chloride anions (Cl⁻) determines the direction of the Cl⁻ flux through GABA(A) receptors; this establishes whether GABA(A) receptor-mediated responses are hyperpolarizing or depolarizing in neurons. Thus an activity-dependent reduction in the efficacy of inhibitory responses can be the result of an activity-induced reduction of the Cl⁻ driving force. Using Cl(-)-sensitive electrodes, we measured the extracellular Cl⁻ concentration ([Cl⁻](o)) in each layer of the hippocampus under control conditions and after stimulation. In the control condition, [Cl⁻](o) was lower within the CA1 region (112.9 ± 1.3 mM; mean ± SD) than the CA3/dentate gyrus areas (117.7 ± 1.2 mM). Stimulation of CA3 pyramidal cells led to an increase in the [Cl⁻](o). The maximum values were observed in the stratum lacunosum-moleculare (253.4 ± 51.1 mM) and in the hilus (261 ± 43.7 mM), whereas in the granular cell layer, it reached only 159.5 ± 41 mM. The stimulation-induced [Cl⁻](o) increase was followed by a period of decreasing [Cl⁻](o) that fell below the control values. The maximum undershoot (21.6 ± 0.7 mM) was observed in the s. radiatum. Systemic application of the gap junction blocker carbenoxolone significantly decreased the stimulation-induced Cl⁻ extrusion in the dentate gyrus but only slightly modified it in the CA1 area. Carbenoxolone also drastically reduced the Cl⁻ clearance. The time constant of the Cl⁻ clearance was similar between layers (83.4 ± 15.9 ms) but increased after carbenoxolone application (207.1 ± 44.4 ms). Stimulation-induced changes in the [Cl⁻](o) significantly decreased the Cl⁻ driving force and resulted in large fluctuations between layers (Δ = 9.4 mV). The lowest value was observed in the stratum radiatum of the CA1 and the hilar region (7.7 mV), whereas the highest value was calculated for the granule cell layer (16.3 mV). We suggest that a decrease of the extracellular space is mainly responsible for the rapid [Cl⁻](o) increase while the gap junction coupled astrocytic network plays a key role in the activity-dependent redistribution and clearance of Cl⁻ across layers of the hippocampus.

Volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying chloride channel in white adipocytes from normal and diabetic mice

The volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) chloride channel is ubiquitously expressed and involved in cell volume regulation after osmotic swelling, called regulatory volume decrease (RVD), in various cell types. In adipocytes, the expression of the VSOR channel has not been explored to date. Here, by employing the whole-cell patch-clamp technique, we examined whether or not the VSOR channel is expressed in white adipocytes freshly isolated from epididymal fat pads of normal (C57BL/6 or KK) and diabetic (KKA(y)) mice. Whole cell voltage-clamp recordings revealed that Cl(-) currents were gradually activated upon cell swelling induced by application of a hypotonic solution, both in normal and diabetic adipocytes. Although both the mean cell size (or cell capacitance) and the current magnitude in KKA(y) adipocytes were larger than those in C57BL/6 cells, the current density was significantly lower in KKA(y) adipocytes (23.32 +/- 1.94 pA in C57BL/6 adipocytes vs. 13.04 +/- 2.41 pA in KKA(y) adipocytes at +100 mV). Similarly, the current density in diabetic KKA(y) adipocytes was lower than that in adipocytes from KK mice (a parental strain of KKA(y) mice), which do not present diabetes until an older age. The current was inhibited by Cl(-) channel blockers, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB) and glibenclamide, or hypertonic solution, and showed outward rectification and inactivation kinetics at large positive potentials. These electrophysiological and pharmacological properties are consistent with those of the VSOR channel in other cell types. Moreover, adipocytes showed RVD, which was inhibited by NPPB. In KKA(y) adipocytes, RVD was significantly slower (tau; 8.42 min in C57BL/6 adipocytes vs. 11.97 min in KKA(y) adipocytes) and incomplete during the recording period (25 min). It is concluded that the VSOR channel is functionally expressed and involved in volume regulation in white adipocytes. RVD is largely impaired in adipocytes from diabetic mice, presumably as a consequence of the lower density of the functional VSOR channel in the plasma membrane.

Protection by taurine of rat brain cortical slices against oxygen glucose deprivation- and reoxygenation-induced damage

Taurine neuroinhibitory features have suggested its potential for neuroprotection. The aim of the present study was to assess whether it prevents or counteracts brain ischemia and reperfusion-induced cell injury. Rat brain cortical slices were subjected to oxygen/glucose deprivation and reperfusion. Tissue damage was assessed by measuring the release of glutamate and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) during reperfusion and by determining final tissue water gain, taken as an index of cell swelling. When added during the reperfusion period taurine did not significantly affect oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced LDH and glutamate release, while it antagonised tissue water gain in a concentration-dependent manner (IC(50)=46.5 microM). The latter effect was antagonised by 50% when a taurine transport inhibitor, 2-(guanidino)ethanesulphonic acid (GES), or a GABA(A) receptor antagonist, bicuculline, was added together with taurine, while it was completely abolished when both GES and bicuculline or the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) Cl(-) channel blocker, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB), was used. On the contrary, when present throughout the entire experiment, taurine significantly reduced oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced LDH and glutamate release with a maximal effect (45% reduction) between 5 and 20 mM. Taurine antagonised also tissue water gain according to a "U-shaped" concentration-response curve, which was significant within the range of 0.01-1.0 mM concentration. This effect was partially counteracted by GES as well as by bicuculline and fully reverted by NPPB. In conclusion, since brain edema is a major contributing factor to morbidity and mortality in stroke, the present findings give the rational basis for assessing taurine efficacy in reducing brain edema in vivo.

Bradykinin-induced astrocyte-neuron signalling: glutamate release is mediated by ROS-activated volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channels

Glial cells release gliotransmitters which signal to adjacent neurons and glial cells. Previous studies showed that in response to stimulation with bradykinin, glutamate is released from rat astrocytes and causes NMDA receptor-mediated elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) in adjacent neurons. Here, we investigate how bradykinin-induced glutamate release from mouse astrocytes signals to neighbouring neurons in co-cultures. Astrocyte-to-neuron signalling and bradykinin-induced glutamate release from mouse astrocytes were both inhibited by the anion channel blocker 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) and phloretin. Glutamate release was also sensitive to 4-(2-Butyl-6,7-dichlor-2-cyclopentylindan-1-on-5-yl) oxybutyric acid (DCPIB), a specific blocker of the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying anion channel (VSOR). Astrocytes, but not neurons, responded to bradykinin with activation of whole-cell Cl- currents. Although astrocytes stimulated with bradykinin did not undergo cell swelling, the bradykinin-activated current exhibited properties typical of VSOR: outward rectification, inhibition by osmotic shrinkage, sensitivity to DIDS, phloretin and DCPIB, dependence on intracellular ATP, and permeability to glutamate. Bradykinin increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mouse astrocytes. Pretreatment of mouse astrocytes with either a ROS scavenger or an NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor blocked bradykinin-induced activation of VSOR, glutamate release and astrocyte-to-neuron signalling. By contrast, pretreatment with BAPTA-AM or tetanus neurotoxin A failed to suppress bradykinin-induced glutamate release. Thus, VSOR activated by ROS in mouse astrocytes in response to stimulation with bradykinin, serves as the pathway for glutamate release to mediate astrocyte-to-neuron signalling. Since bradykinin is an initial mediator of inflammation, VSOR might play a role in glia-neuron communication in the brain during inflammation.

Volume-dependent osmolyte efflux from neural tissues: regulation by G-protein-coupled receptors

The CNS is particularly vulnerable to reductions in plasma osmolarity, such as occur during hyponatremia, the most commonly encountered electrolyte disorder in clinical practice. In response to a lowered plasma osmolarity, neural cells initially swell but then are able to restore their original volume through the release of osmolytes, both inorganic and organic, and the exit of osmotically obligated water. Given the importance of the maintenance of cell volume within the CNS, mechanisms underlying the release of osmolytes assume major significance. In this context, we review recent evidence obtained from our laboratory and others that indicates that the activation of specific G-protein-coupled receptors can markedly enhance the volume-dependent release of osmolytes from neural cells. Of particular significance is the observation that receptor activation significantly lowers the osmotic threshold at which osmolyte release occurs, thereby facilitating the ability of the cells to respond to small, more physiologically relevant, reductions in osmolarity. The mechanisms underlying G-protein-coupled receptor-mediated osmolyte release and the possibility that this efflux can result in both physiologically beneficial and potentially harmful pathophysiological consequences are discussed.

Disruption of ionic and cell volume homeostasis in cerebral ischemia: The perfect storm

The mechanisms of brain tissue damage in stroke are strongly linked to the phenomenon of excitotoxicity, which is defined as damage or death of neural cells due to excessive activation of receptors for the excitatory neurotransmitters glutamate and aspartate. Under physiological conditions, ionotropic glutamate receptors mediate the processes of excitatory neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. In ischemia, sustained pathological release of glutamate from neurons and glial cells causes prolonged activation of these receptors, resulting in massive depolarization and cytoplasmic Ca(2+) overload. High cytoplasmic levels of Ca(2+) activate many degradative processes that, depending on the metabolic status, cause immediate or delayed death of neural cells. This traditional view has been expanded by a number of observations that implicate Cl(-) channels and several types of non-channel transporter proteins, such as the Na(+),K(+),2Cl(-) cotransporter, Na(+)/H(+) exchanger, and Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger, in the development of glutamate toxicity. Some of these ion transporters increase tissue damage by promoting pathological cell swelling and necrotic cell death, while others contribute to a long-term accumulation of cytoplasmic Ca(2+). This brief review is aimed at illustrating how the dysregulation of various ion transport processes combine in a 'perfect storm' that disrupts neural ionic homeostasis and culminates in the irreversible damage and death of neural cells. The clinical relevance of individual transporters as targets for therapeutic intervention in stroke is also briefly discussed.

Anion channel blockers attenuate delayed neuronal cell death induced by transient forebrain ischemia

Chloride efflux is known to be involved in the progression of apoptosis in various cell types. We have recently shown that the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) anion channel serves as the pathway for apoptotic chloride efflux in some cells. In the present study, we tested the neuroprotective effects of drugs that can block the VSOR anion channel, on delayed neuronal death (DND) induced by transient forebrain ischemia. The functional expression of the VSOR anion channel was first examined in hippocampal neurons in both primary culture and hippocampal slice preparations, by the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. We then tested the channel's sensitivity to an anion channel blocker, 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), and a tyrosine kinase blocker, genistein. By histological examinations and cytochrome c release assessments, the protective effects of these drugs on the DND of hippocampal CA1 neurons in mice subjected to transient ischemia were examined. Drugs were administered via the jugular vein prior to ischemic treatment and into the peritoneal cavity after reperfusion. Hippocampal neurons were found to express the volume-sensitive Cl(-) channel, which exhibits outward rectification and is sensitive to DIDS and genistein. Administration of DIDS or genistein reduced cytochrome c release and the number of damaged neurons in the CA1 region after transient forebrain ischemia. This fact suggests that the DND induction mechanism involves the activity of the VSOR anion channel and that this channel may provide a therapeutic target for the treatment of stroke.

In Vitro Studies on the Putative Function of N-acetylaspartate as an Osmoregulator

Efflux and tissue content of N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and amino acids were evaluated from cultured and acutely prepared hippocampal slices in response to changes in osmolarity. The osmoregulator taurine, but not NAA, was lost from both types of slices after moderate reductions in extracellular osmolarity (-60 mOsm) for 10-48 h. Hypoosmotic shock (-166 mOsm) for 5 min resulted in unselective efflux of several amino acids from acutely prepared slices. Notably, the efflux of taurine, but not NAA, was prominent also after the shock. Efflux of NAA was markedly enhanced by NMDA and high K(+), in particular after the stimulation period. The high K(+)-mediated efflux was decreased by high extracellular osmolarity and a NMDA-receptor antagonist. The results indicate that NAA efflux can be induced by a sudden non-physiological decrease in extracellular osmolarity but not by prolonged more moderate changes in osmolarity. The mechanisms behind the efflux of NAA by high K(+) are complex and may involve both swelling and activation of NMDA-receptors.

The ‘wet mind’: water and functional neuroimaging

Functional neuroimaging has emerged as an important approach to study the brain and the mind. Surprisingly, although they are based on radically different physical approaches both positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) make brain activation imaging possible through measurements involving water molecules. So far, PET and MRI functional imaging have relied on the principle that neuronal activation and blood flow are coupled through metabolism. However, a new paradigm has emerged to look at brain activity through the observation with MRI of the molecular diffusion of water. In contrast with the former approaches diffusion MRI has the potential to reveal changes in the intrinsic water physical properties during brain activation, which could be more intimately linked to the neuronal activation mechanisms and lead to an improved spatial and temporal resolution. However, this link has yet to be fully confirmed and understood. To shed light on the possible relationship between water and brain activation, this introductory paper reviews the most recent data on the physical properties of water and on the status of water in biological tissues, and evaluates their relevance to brain diffusion MRI. The biophysical mechanisms of brain activation are then reassessed to reveal their intimacy with the physical properties of water, which may come to be regarded as the 'molecule of the mind'.

Roles of volume-sensitive chloride channel in excitotoxic neuronal injury

Excitotoxicity is associated with stroke, brain trauma, and a number of neurodegenerative disorders. In the brain, during excitotoxic insults, neurons undergo rapid swelling in both the soma and dendrites. Focal swellings along the dendrites called varicosities are considered to be a hallmark of acute excitotoxic neuronal injury. However, it is not clear what pathway is involved in the neuronal anion flux that leads to the formation and resolution of excitotoxic varicosities. Here, we assessed the roles of the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying (VSOR) Cl- channel in excitotoxic responses in mouse cortical neurons. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that the VSOR Cl- channel in cultured neurons was activated by NMDA exposure. Moreover, robust expression of this channel on varicosities was confirmed by on-cell and nystatin-perforated vesicle patch techniques. VSOR channel blockers, but not blockers of GABA(A) receptors and Cl- transporters, abolished not only varicosity resolution after sublethal excitotoxic stimulation but also necrotic death after sustained varicosity formation induced by prolonged NMDA exposure in cortical neurons. The present slice-patch experiments demonstrated, for the first time, expression of the VSOR Cl- channels in somatosensory pyramidal neurons. NMDA-induced necrotic neuronal death in slice preparations was largely suppressed by a blocker of the VSOR Cl- channel but not of the GABA(A) receptor. These results indicate that VSOR Cl- channels exert dual, reciprocal actions on neuronal excitotoxicity by serving as major anionic pathways both for varicosity recovery after washout of an excitotoxic stimulant and for persistent varicosity formation under prolonged excitotoxic insults leading to necrosis in cortical neurons.

Differential dependence of regulatory volume decrease behavior in rabbit corneal epithelial cells on MAPK superfamily activation

We characterized the dependence of hypotonicity-induced regulatory volume decrease (RVD) responses on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway signaling in SV40-immortalized rabbit corneal epithelial cells (RCEC). Following calcein-AM loading, RVD was monitored using a microplate fluorescence reader. Western blot analysis determined MAPK activation. After 30 min, the RVD response restored the relative cell volume to nearly isotonic values, whereas it was inhibited when cells were bathed either in a Cl- -free solution or with the Cl- -channel inhibitors: 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid or niflumic acid. Similar declines occurred with either a high-K+ (20 mM) supplemented solution or the K+ channel inhibitor 4-aminopyridine. Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK) was time and tonicity-dependent. Stimulation of ERK and SAPK/JNK was maximized earlier than that of p38. Activation of ERK and SAPK/JNK was insensitive to Cl- and K+ channel inhibitors, whereas inhibition with either PD98059 or SP600125, respectively, blocked RVD. However, inhibition of p38 with SB203580had no effect on RVD. Suppression of RVD instead blocked p38 activation. Differences in the dependence of RVD activation on Erk1/2 and p38 signaling were validated in dominant negative (d/n)-Erk1 and d/n-p38 cells. Volume-sensitive Cl- and K+ channel activation contributes, in concert, to RVD in RCEC. Therefore, swelling-induced ERK and SAPK/JNK stimulation precedes Cl- and K+ channel activation, whereas p38 activation occurs as a consequence of RVD.

Impaired volume regulation is the mechanism of excitotoxic sensitization to complement

Previous work demonstrated that a brief, sublethal excitotoxic insult strikingly increased the sensitivity of cortical neurons to the cytotoxic effects of the terminal pathway of complement, a process termed "excitotoxic sensitization." Here, we sought to elucidate the cellular mechanism of excitotoxic sensitization in embryonic rat cortical neurons in vitro. Excitotoxic sensitization did not increase membrane attack complex deposition on cortical neurons and produced only a small reduction of membrane attack complex removal, because of a selective decrease of endocytic elimination. Membrane attack complexes and other osmotic stressors, namely hypotonic stress and glutamate, induced transient swelling of cortical neurons, followed by return to normal volume despite persistence of the stressor, a homeostatic response termed regulatory volume decrease (RVD). A minimal excitotoxic insult impaired this homeostatic response and sensitized neurons to cytotoxic effects of diverse osmotic stressors. Structurally distinct membrane-impermeable osmolytes, dextran and polyethylene glycol, prevented excitotoxic sensitization to diverse osmotic stressors including membrane attack complexes. Paraquat, a reactive oxygen species generator, alone was sufficient to impair RVD, and MnTBAP [Mn(III)tetrakis(4-benzoic acid)porphyrin chloride], a reactive oxygen species scavenger, prevented excitotoxin-mediated impairment of RVD. Together, these findings demonstrate that impairment of RVD is the mechanism of excitotoxic sensitization, that reactive oxygen species alone are sufficient to impair RVD, and that reactive oxygen species are necessary for excitotoxic sensitization-mediated impairment of RVD.