Autonomic imbalance: prophet of doom or scope for hope?

[Manual spinal therapy techniques to stimulate the autonomic nervous system: a scoping review]

BACKGROUND

Physical interventions or manual therapeutic techniques (MTTe) such as mobilisation, manipulation or soft tissue techniques not only have an influence on the target tissue with improvement of metabolism or reduction of hypertonic muscles. They are also used for balance regulation in central nervous changes of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). To date, there is a lack of empirical evidence on impact mechanisms and target locations of MTTe on the ANS. This scoping review aims to provide an overview of the evidence on the application of MTTe at diverse levels of the spine with a view to the ANS.

METHOD

A systematic literature search was conducted on CENTRAL, Google Scholar, Osteopathic Research Web, PEDro and PubMed. The scope and content of the literature were documented. The results of the included and referenced studies were summarised in a narrative approach with the focus being on the most significant clinical aspects.

RESULTS

MTTe was described as manipulations, mobilisations, myofascial techniques and cervical traction. In 27 out of 35 studies, therapeutic treatments were carried out on healthy volunteers. Ten studies analysed immediate effects in patients, while two studies were designed as longitudinal studies in patients with hypertension. Over a period of four to eight weeks, the frequency of intervention was between one and three MTTe sessions a week.

CONCLUSION

The study results proved to be heterogeneous. For this reason, it is not possible to draw definitive, explicit and generally valid statements regarding the type and intensity as well as the segmental level at which MTTe should be applied in order to trigger specific positive ANS response mechanisms. Consequently, longitudinal studies with follow-up are recommended for future studies. In addition, comprehensive effects of MTTe should be evaluated in groups of patients with different characteristics.

Role of insulin resistance in the association between resting heart rate and type 2 diabetes: A prospective study

BACKGROUND

Elevated resting heart rate (RHR) is a predictor of incident type 2 diabetes (T2D). Insulin resistance is thought to play a role in this association; however, the extent to which insulin resistance mediates this association is unclear.

METHODS

1309 Japanese individuals without diabetes were recruited during 2009-2012 and followed for 5 years, of whom 78 developed T2D, as diagnosed by the 75 g oral glucose tolerance test. Supine RHR was measured by electrocardiography. Using logistic regression analysis, we examined the association between RHR and incident T2D, and interaction with the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index. Causal mediation analysis was applied to decompose the effect of RHR on the outcome and estimate the proportion mediated by the HOMA-IR index.

RESULTS

The sex- and age-adjusted cumulative incidence rate of T2D increased with increasing RHR. After adjustment for sex, age, waist circumference, current smoking status, alcohol use, habitual exercise, and cardiovascular disease medications, individuals with a RHR ≥80 bpm, compared with <60 bpm, showed an increased risk of incident T2D [odds ratio (OR), 2.89; 95 % confidence interval (CI), 1.07 to 7.80]. Multivariate adjusted OR for the total effect per 1 SD increase in RHR on incident T2D was 1.37 (95 % CI, 1.01 to 1.74) in the mediation analysis, and the proportion of the total indirect effect mediated by the HOMA-IR index was 27.5 % (95 % CI, 1.5 to 53.5).

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately 30 % of the effect of RHR on incident T2D was explained by the indirect effect of insulin resistance.

The cardiac autonomic response to acute psychological stress in type 2 diabetes

Background

Impaired cardiac autonomic control is common among people with type 2 diabetes. The autonomic nervous system and its regulatory influence on the cardiovascular system also play a key role in the physiological response to psychosocial stressors. It is unclear whether the disease-related impairment of cardiac autonomic control in people with type 2 diabetes affects the stress response. The aim of this study was therefore to examine the cardiac autonomic and the psychological stress response of people with type 2 diabetes compared to healthy control participants.

Methods

We used the trier social stress test to induce stress in n = 51 participants with type 2 diabetes and n = 47 healthy controls. We assessed heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) using six ECG samples before, during and after the stress test. We measured participants’ psychological stress response using visual analogue scales.

Results

Longitudinal multilevel models showed an attenuated HR increase in response to the stress test combined with a slower HR recovery after the stress test, in people with type 2 diabetes. This pattern was accompanied by significantly lower low frequency HRV but no differences in high frequency HRV between the groups. Additionally, people with type 2 diabetes showed an increased level of self-reported psychological tension 45 minutes after the stress test.

Conclusions

The impairment of the autonomic nervous system found in people with type 2 diabetes is reflected in the HR response to stress—but not in the HRV response—and partially mirrored in the psychological stress response. Our results underline the importance of considering the interplay of psychosocial stress and disease-related changes in the physiological stress response system in research and treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Diagnostic Tools, Biomarkers, and Treatments in Diabetic polyneuropathy and Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy

The various manifestations of diabetic neuropathy, including distal symmetric sensorimotor polyneuropathy (DSPN) and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN), are among the most prevalent chronic complications of diabetes. Major clinical complications of diabetic neuropathies, such as neuropathic pain, chronic foot ulcers, and orthostatic hypotension, are associated with considerable morbidity, increased mortality, and diminished quality of life. Despite the substantial individual and socioeconomic burden, the strategies to diagnose and treat diabetic neuropathies remain insufficient. This review provides an overview of the current clinical aspects and recent advances in exploring local and systemic biomarkers of both DSPN and CAN assessed in human studies (such as biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress) for better understanding of the underlying pathophysiology and for improving early detection. Current therapeutic options for DSPN are (I) causal treatment, including lifestyle modification, optimal glycemic control, and multifactorial risk intervention, (II) pharmacotherapy derived from pathogenetic concepts, and (III) analgesic treatment against neuropathic pain. Recent advances in each category are discussed, including non-pharmacological approaches, such as electrical stimulation. Finally, the current therapeutic options for cardiovascular autonomic complications are provided. These insights should contribute to a broader understanding of the various manifestations of diabetic neuropathies from both the research and clinical perspectives.

Updates on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Autonomic Neuropathies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Autonomic neuropathies are a complex group of disorders and result in diverse clinical manifestations that affect the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, urogenital, and sudomotor systems. We focus this review on the diagnosis and treatment of peripheral autonomic neuropathies. We summarize the diagnostic tools and current treatment options that will help the clinician care for individuals with peripheral autonomic neuropathies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Autonomic neuropathies occur often in conjunction with somatic neuropathies but they can also occur in isolation. The autonomic reflex screen is a validated tool to assess sympathetic postganglionic sudomotor, cardiovascular sympathetic noradrenergic, and cardiac parasympathetic (i.e., cardiovagal) function. Initial laboratory evaluation for autonomic neuropathies includes fasting glucose or oral glucose tolerance test, thyroid function tests, kidney function tests, vitamin-B12, serum, and urine protein electrophoresis with immunofixation. Other laboratory tests should be guided by the clinical context. Reduced intraepidermal nerve density on skin biopsy is a finding, not a diagnosis. Skin biopsy can be helpful in selected individuals for the diagnosis of disorders affecting small nerve fibers; however, we strongly discourage the use of skin biopsy without clinical-physiological correlation. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring may lead to early identification of patients with cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in the primary care setting. Disease-modifying therapies should be used when available in combination with nonpharmacological management and symptomatic pharmacologic therapies. Autonomic function testing can guide the therapeutic decisions and document improvement with treatment. A systematic approach guided by the autonomic history and standardized autonomic function testing may help clinicians when identifying and/or counseling patients with autonomic neuropathies. Treatment should be individualized and disease-modifying therapies should be used when available.

Oxidative Stress in Takotsubo Syndrome-Is It Essential for an Acute Attack? Indirect Evidences Support Multisite Impact Including the Calcium Overload-Energy Failure Hypothesis

Indirect evidences in reviews and case reports on Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) support the fact that the existence of oxidative stress (OS) might be its common feature in the pre-acute stage. The sources of OS are exogenous (environmental factors including pharmacological and toxic influences) and endogenous, the combination of both may be present, and they are being discussed in detail. OS is associated with several pathological conditions representing TTS comorbidities and triggers. The dominant source of OS electrones are mitochondria. Our analysis of drug therapy related to acute TTS shows many interactions, e.g., cytostatics and glucocorticoids with mitochondrial cytochrome P450 and other enzymes important for OS. One of the most frequently discussed mechanisms in TTS is the effect of catecholamines on myocardium. Yet, their metabolic influence is neglected. OS is associated with the oxidation of catecholamines leading to the synthesis of their oxidized forms - aminochromes. Under pathological conditions, this pathway may dominate. There are evidences of interference between OS, catecholamine/aminochrome effects, their metabolism and antioxidant protection. The OS offensive may cause fast depletion of antioxidant protection including the homocystein-methionine system, whose activity decreases with age. The alteration of effector subcellular structures (mitochondria, sarco/endoplasmic reticulum) and subsequent changes in cellular energetics and calcium turnover may also occur and lead to the disruption of cellular function, including neurons and cardiomyocytes. On the organ level (nervous system and heart), neurocardiogenic stunning may occur. The effects of OS correspond to the effect of high doses of catecholamines in the experiment. Intensive OS might represent "conditio sine qua non" for this acute clinical condition. TTS might be significantly more complex pathology than currently perceived so far.

The influence of cardiac rehabilitation on heart rate variability indices in men with type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease

METHOD

The study population included 141 male CAD patients prospectively and consecutively admitted to an outpatient comprehensive CR program. Twenty-seven patients with type-2 diabetes were compared with 114 males without diabetes. The participants performed a 45-min cycle ergometer interval training alternating 4-min workload and a 2-min active restitution three times a week for 8 weeks. The training intensity was adjusted so that the patient's heart rate achieved the training heart rate calculated according to the Karvonen formula. At the baseline and after 8 weeks, all the patients underwent the HRV assessment.

RESULTS

HRV indices in the patients with diabetes were significantly lower as compared to the patients without diabetes in SDNN, TP, LF parameters, both at the baseline and after 8 weeks of CR. After 8 weeks of CR, a significant improvement of TP, SDNN, pNN50% and HF occurred in the patients without diabetes, whereas in the patients with diabetes only HF component improved significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

As regards HRV indices, CR seems to be less effective in patients with CAD and type-2 diabetes.

Time in Nature Associated with Decreased Fatigue in UK Truck Drivers

Heavy goods vehicle (HGV) driving is recognised as a highly hazardous occupation due to the long periods of sedentary behaviour, low levels of physical activity and unhealthy food options when working. These risk factors combine with shift work and concomitant irregular sleep patterns to increase the prevalence of fatigue. Fatigue is closely linked with stress and, subsequently, poor physiological and psychological health. In parallel, a wealth of evidence has demonstrated the health and wellbeing benefits of spending time in nature. Here, we sought to examine whether spending time in nature was associated with lower levels of fatigue, anxiety and depression in HGV drivers. 89 long-distance drivers (98.9% male, mean ± SD age: 51.0 ± 9 years, body mass index: 29.8 ± 4.7 kg/m²) participating in a wider health promotion programme reported time spent in nature (during and before the Covid-19 pandemic) and symptoms of occupational fatigue, depression and anxiety. After controlling for covariates, truck drivers who visited nature at least once a week exhibited 16% less chronic fatigue prior to the pandemic, and 23% less chronic fatigue and 20% less acute fatigue during the pandemic. No significant differences were observed for either anxiety or depression. As fatigue has a range of physical and mental health sequelae, we propose that increased exposure to natural settings may make a valuable contribution to interventions to promote the health and wellbeing of this underserved group.

Interplay Between Systemic Metabolic Cues and Autonomic Output: Connecting Cardiometabolic Function and Parasympathetic Circuits

There is consensus that the heart is innervated by both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. However, the role of the parasympathetic nervous system in controlling cardiac function has received significantly less attention than the sympathetic nervous system. New neuromodulatory strategies have renewed interest in the potential of parasympathetic (or vagal) motor output to treat cardiovascular disease and poor cardiac function. This renewed interest emphasizes a critical need to better understand how vagal motor output is generated and regulated. With clear clinical links between cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, addressing this gap in knowledge is undeniably critical to our understanding of the interaction between metabolic cues and vagal motor output, notwithstanding the classical role of the parasympathetic nervous system in regulating gastrointestinal function and energy homeostasis. For this reason, this review focuses on the central, vagal circuits involved in sensing metabolic state(s) and enacting vagal motor output to influence cardiac function. It will review our current understanding of brainstem vagal circuits and their unique position to integrate metabolic signaling into cardiac activity. This will include an overview of not only how metabolic cues alter vagal brainstem circuits, but also how vagal motor output might influence overall systemic concentrations of metabolic cues known to act on the cardiac tissue. Overall, this review proposes that the vagal brainstem circuits provide an integrative network capable of regulating and responding to metabolic cues to control cardiac function.

Decreased glomerular filtration rate and increased albuminuria for identification of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in subjects with and without diabetes

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

From October 2008 to May 2011, we enrolled 218 patients with diabetes and 62 nondiabetic subjects. Heart rate variability was represented as the maximal heart rate minus the minimal heart rate (HR_max-min) during a one-minute deep breathing test. Normal, impaired cardiovascular autonomic function and CAN were defined as s HR_max-min > 15 beats/min, HR_max-min of 10-15 beats/min and HR_max-min < 10 beats/min, respectively. CKD was diagnosed if the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was <60/min/1.73 m² or albuminuria.

RESULTS

In our sample, 19.4% of nondiabetic subjects and 49.5% of diabetic subjects had CKD. The prevalence of CAN was higher among patients with diabetes than among nondiabetic subjects (26.4 vs. 4.9%). A significant association was observed between eGFR and HR_max-min. CAN was independently associated with CKD with an adjusted odds ratio of 2.77 (95% CI, 1.15-6.68) in diabetic patients. A positive linear trend was observed for the odds of CAN with increasing CKD severity in diabetes. The areas under the curve (AUCs) for the predictive ability of eGFR for the risk of impaired cardiovascular autonomic function for nondiabetic group and CAN for the diabetic group were 0.734 and 0.703, respectively. Adding age, sex, body mass index, and albuminuria to the prediction model increased the AUCs to 0.852 and 0.791, respectively.

CONCLUSION

CKD is associated with the risk of CAN in both nondiabetic and diabetic subjects. eGFR and albuminuria improve the prediction of CAN.

Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: inter-relation of risk factors and treatment

Background

The diabetes mellitus prevalence is still advancing and increasingly becoming one of the globally most severe and expensive chronic illnesses. The strong correlation between diabetes as well as the most prominent reason for diabetes and death in diabetic patients is cardiovascular disorders. Health conditions like dyslipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and other factors of risk like the risk of cardiovascular are frequent in diabetic persons and raise the likelihood of heart attacks.

Main text

In particular, several researchers have found diabetes mellitus-related biochemical pathways that raise the likelihood of cardiovascular disorder in people with diabetes individually. This review describes diabetes-cardiovascular disorder relationships, explores potential therapeutic mechanisms, addresses existing treatment, care, and describes the directions for the future for study.

Conclusion

Thus, in individuals with diabetes, it is important to concentrate on cardiovascular threat variables to reduce the illness’s lasting cardiovascular complications. Further work to enhance knowledge of the disease state and its impact on cardiovascular function is required to boost medical treatment and cardiovascular disorders result in people with diabetes.

Influence of Insulin Resistance on the Association Between Physical Activity and Heart Rate Variability: The Toon Health Study

BACKGROUND

Autonomic activity is possibly influenced by physical activity (PA). However, it remains unclear whether this association is modified by insulin resistance.

METHODS

This population-based study between 2009 and 2012 included 2016 men and women aged 30-79 years. The PA was assessed using a validated questionnaire based on sleep, occupation, transportation, household characteristics, and leisure-time PA. Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in the sitting position were determined from 5-minute recordings of pulse waves detected by a fingertip sensor. The HRV was calculated as frequency (standard deviation of normal-to-normal [NN] intervals [SDNN]), root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), and percentage differences between normal NN intervals >50 milliseconds [pNN50]) and time domains. Insulin resistance was evaluated using the homeostasis model assessment index (HOMA-IR).

RESULTS

HR, RMSSD, and pNN50 were related to the total and moderate/vigorous PA tertiles in models that included HOMA-IR. The partial regression coefficient of total PA per 1-SD increase was .05 (P = .019) for log-transformed RMSSD and 1.86 (P = .001) for pNN50. No interactive associations were observed between PA and HOMA-IR.

CONCLUSIONS

Low total PA was associated with increased HR and low levels of RMSSD and pNN50, reflecting parasympathetic modulation that was not modified by insulin resistance.

Awareness of hypoglycemia and spectral analysis of heart rate variability in type 1 diabetes

AIMS

To investigate the relationship of unawareness of hypoglycemia with spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) and clinical variables in type 1 diabetes (T1D) individuals.

METHODS

Participants with type 1 diabetes mellitus (type 1 diabetes) were prospectively assessed for hypoglycemia awareness using the Pedersen-Bjergaard method and were classified as normal hypoglycemia awareness, impaired hypoglycemia awareness and hypoglycemia unawareness. Indices of HRV in frequency domain were evaluated and Ewing tests were used for the diagnosis of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN).

RESULTS

Ninety-eight participants with T1D (mean age 26 years, average diabetes duration 13 years, and mean HbA1c 8.4%) were included in this study. The prevalence of hypoglycemia unawareness was 28%. No significant difference was observed on the prevalence of CAN among groups of different hypoglycemia awareness (p = 0.740). On regression analyses, abnormal results of HRV in frequency domain were not associated with unawareness of hypoglycemia. On univariable regression analysis, age, diabetes duration and estimated creatinine clearance were associated with unawareness of hypoglycemia.

CONCLUSION

CAN as assessed by Ewing tests and spectral analysis of HRV is not associated with unawareness of hypoglycemia. There is association of age, diabetes duration and renal deficit with unawareness of hypoglycemia.

Autonomic function in gastroparesis and chronic unexplained nausea and vomiting: Relationship with etiology, gastric emptying, and symptom severity

BACKGROUND

Autonomic dysfunction can be present in patients with idiopathic and diabetic gastroparesis. The role of autonomic dysfunction relating to gastric emptying and upper gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with gastroparesis and chronic unexplained nausea and vomiting (CUNV) remains unclear. The aim of our study is to evaluate autonomic function in patients with gastroparesis and CUNV with respect to etiology, gastric emptying and symptom severity.

METHODS

We studied 242 patients with chronic gastroparetic symptoms recruited at eight centers. All patients had a gastric emptying scintigraphy within 6 months of the study. Symptom severity was assessed using the gastroparesis cardinal symptom index. Autonomic function testing was performed at baseline enrollment using the ANX 3.0 autonomic monitoring system which measures heart rate variability and respiratory activity measurements.

KEY RESULTS

Low sympathetic response to challenge (Valsalva or standing) was the most common abnormality seen impacting 89% diabetic and 74% idiopathic patients. Diabetics compared to idiopathics, exhibited greater global hypofunction with sympathetic (OR = 4.7, 95% CI 2.2-10.3; P < .001) and parasympathetic (OR = 7.2, 95% CI 3.4-15.0; P < .001) dysfunction. Patients with delayed gastric emptying were more likely to have paradoxic parasympathetic excessive during sympathetic challenge [(Valsalva or standing) 40% vs. 26%, P = .05]. Patients with more severe symptoms exhibited greater parasympathetic dysfunction compared to those with mild-moderate symptoms: resting sympathovagal balance [LFa/RFa 1.8 (1.0-3.1) vs. 1.2 (0.6-2.3), P = .006)] and standing parasympathetic activity [0.4 (0.1-0.8) vs. 0.6 (0.2-1.7); P = .03].

CONCLUSIONS

Autonomic dysfunction was common in patients with gastroparesis and CUNV. Parasympathetic dysfunction was associated with delayed gastric emptying and more severe upper gastrointestinal symptoms. Conversely, sympathetic hypofunction was associated with milder symptoms.

INFERENCES

Gastroparesis and CUNV may be a manifestation of GI autonomic dysfunction or imbalance, such that sympathetic dysfunction occurs early on in the manifestation of chronic upper GI symptoms, while parasympathetic dysfunction results in more severe symptoms and delayed gastric emptying.

Neuromodulating Influence of Two Electroacupuncture Treatments on Heart Rate Variability, Stress, and Vagal Activity

Introduction: Although the clinical use of electro-acupuncture is widespread, the neuromodulating influence of various applied frequencies is not well established. Objectives: Heart rate variability (HRV), stress and parasympathetic recovery are closely related to health, longevity and vitality in humans. This study was undertaken to determine the influence of different electro-therapy frequencies on various autonomic nervous system markers when applied to a Battlefield Acupuncture Protocol (BFA). Design: A detailed comparison of autonomic nervous system (ANS) response to low frequency (LF) 2.5 Hz electro-acupuncture and mid-frequency (MF) 15 Hz electro-acupuncture applied by point stimulation to acupuncture points was undertaken on 2 groups of 12 patients. Interventions: Both LFEA and MFEA were applied to Battlefield Acupuncture protocol, consisting of five (5) key acupuncture ear (auricular) points that isolate the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and central nervous system's role in the chronic/acute pain cycle. Evaluations entailed an advanced status of autonomic nervous system (ANS) function through Electro-Cardiogram (ECG) baseline markers reflecting: sympathetic stress (SI); parasympathetic vagal tone (high frequency [HF]) and heart rate variability (HRV = total power). All were repeated subsequent to electro-therapy using 2 separate electro-modalities of low-frequency (2.5 Hz) electro-acupuncture (LFEA) and Mid-Frequency (15 Hz) electro-acupuncture (MFEA). All 24 patients received one (1) elector-acupuncture session. Results: The autonomic nervous system response to LFEA (2.5 Hz) reflected a statistically significant pre-post improvement in three of the markers collected: heart rate variability (HRV) improved by 61% [p = 0.002]; sympathetic stress (SI) reduced 42% [p = 0.002]; and parasympathetic vagal tone (HF) increased 56% [p = 0.017]. In contrast, MFEA (15 Hz) showed positive but non-significant changes in outcomes in all nervous system markers. Conclusions: The autonomic nervous system response with LFEA showed a measurable reduction in sympathetic stress with subsequent improvement in vagal tone, and HRV. This positive sympathetic nervous system deactivation from LFEA application shown in this study could have a major impact on other pathologies related to human health and longevity. Further cohort studies are warranted to determine the validity of these outcomes.

Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy in Obesity, the Metabolic Syndrome and Prediabetes: A Narrative Review

Cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) is a major complication of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T1DM and T2DM). The increased morbidity, cardiovascular and all-cause mortality associated with CAN is established from numerous epidemiological studies. However, CAN is increasingly recognised in people with prediabetes (pre-DM) and the metabolic syndrome (MetS) with a reported prevalence up to 11% and 24% respectively. CAN is associated with components of MetS including hypertension and obesity, predating hyperglycaemia. The aetiology of CAN is multifactorial and there is a reciprocal relationship with insulin resistance and MetS. Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is also associated with CAN possibly through MetS and an independent mechanism. An estimated global prevalence of the impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) form of pre-DM of 587 million people by 2045 means CAN will become a major clinical problem. CAN is independently associated with silent myocardial ischaemia, major cardiovascular events, myocardial dysfunction and cardiovascular mortality. Screening for CAN in pre-DM using risk scores with analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) or Sudoscan is important to allow earlier treatment at a reversible stage. The link between obesity and CAN highlights the therapeutic potential of lifestyle interventions including diet and physical activity to reverse MetS and prevent CAN. Weight loss achieved using these dietary and exercise lifestyle interventions improves the sympathetic and parasympathetic HRV indices of cardiac autonomic function. Further research is needed to identify high-risk populations of people with pre-DM or obesity that might benefit from targeted pharmacotherapy including metformin, sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogues. Bariatric surgery also improves HRV through weight loss which might also prevent CAN in severe obesity. This article reviews the literature on CAN in obesity, pre-DM and MetS, to help determine a rationale for screening, early intervention treatment and formulate future research questions in this highly prevalent condition.

Autonomic modulation following an acute bout of bench press with and without blood flow restriction

PURPOSE

Traditional resistance exercise decreases vagal tone up to 30 min after an acute bout of resistance exercise, which may increase the risk of cardiovascular events. However, the effects of resistance exercise with blood flow restriction (BFR) on autonomic modulation are unclear. To evaluate autonomic modulation after resistance exercise with and without BFR in resistance-trained men.

METHODS

Eleven young men volunteered for the study. Autonomic modulation was assessed at rest, 15 (Rec 1), and 25 (Rec 2) minutes after low-load bench press with BFR (LL-BFR), traditional high-load bench press (HL), and a control (CON). Autonomic modulation assessments were expressed as natural logarithm (Ln), and included total power (LnTP), low-frequency power (LnLF), high-frequency power (LnHF), sympathovagal balance (LnLF/LnHF ratio), root mean square of the successive differences (LnRMSSD), and the proportion of intervals differing by > 50 ms from the preceding intervals (LnPNN50). A repeated measures ANOVA was used to evaluate conditions (LL-BFR, HL and CON) across time (Rest, Rec1, and Rec2) on autonomic modulation.

RESULTS

There were significant condition by time interactions for LnTP, LnHF, and LnRMSSD such that they were reduced during recovery after LL-BFR and HL compared to Rest and CON. There were no interactions in the LnLF, LnLF/LnHF ratio, and LnPNN50.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that LL-BFR and HL significantly alter autonomic modulation up to 30 min after exercise with significant reduction after HL compared to LL-BFR when exercise volume is equated.

Changes in excitability and ion channel expression in neurons of the major pelvic ganglion in female type II diabetic mice

Bladder cystopathy and autonomic dysfunction are common complications of diabetes, and have been associated with changes in ganglionic transmission and some measures of neuronal excitability in male mice. To determine whether type II diabetes also impacts excitability of ganglionic neurons in females, we investigated neuronal excitability and firing properties, as well as underlying ion channel expression, in major pelvic ganglion (MPG) neurons in control, 10-week, and 21-week Lepr^db/db mice. Type II diabetes in Lepr^db/db animals caused a non-linear change in excitability and firing properties of MPG neurons. At 10 weeks, cells exhibited increased excitability as demonstrated by an increased likelihood of firing multiple spikes upon depolarization, decreased rebound spike latency, and overall narrower action potential half-widths as a result of increased depolarization and repolarization slopes. Conversely, at 21 weeks MPG neurons of Lepr^db/db mice reversed these changes, with spiking patterns and action-potential properties largely returning to control levels. These changes are associated with numerous time-specific changes in calcium, sodium, and potassium channel subunit mRNA levels. However, Principal Components Analysis of channel expression patterns revealed that rectification of excitability is not simply a return to control levels, but rather a distinct ion channel expression profile in 21-week Lepr^db/db neurons. These data indicate that type II diabetes can impact the excitability of post-ganglionic, autonomic neurons of female mice, and suggest that the non-linear progression of these properties with diabetes may be the result of compensatory changes in channel expression that act to rectify disrupted firing patterns of Lepr^db/db MPG neurons.

Direct cardiovascular impact of SGLT2 inhibitors: mechanisms and effects

Diabetes is a global epidemic and a leading cause of death with more than 422 million patients worldwide out of whom around 392 million alone suffer from type 2 diabetes (T2D). Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are novel and effective drugs in managing glycemia of T2D patients. These inhibitors gained recent clinical and basic research attention due to their clinically observed cardiovascular protective effects. Although interest in the study of various SGLT isoforms and the effect of their inhibition on cardiovascular function extends over the past 20 years, an explanation of the effects observed clinically based on available experimental data is not forthcoming. The remarkable reduction in cardiovascular (CV) mortality (38%), major CV events (14%), hospitalization for heart failure (35%), and death from any cause (32%) observed over a period of 2.6 years in patients with T2D and high CV risk in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial involving the SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin (Empa) have raised the possibility that potential novel, more specific mechanisms of SGLT2 inhibition synergize with the known modest systemic improvements, such as glycemic, body weight, diuresis, and blood pressure control. Multiple studies investigated the direct impact of SGLT2i on the cardiovascular system with limited findings and the pathophysiological role of SGLTs in the heart. The direct impact of SGLT2i on cardiac homeostasis remains controversial, especially that SGLT1 isoform is the only form expressed in the capillaries and myocardium of human and rodent hearts. The direct impact of SGLT2i on the cardiovascular system along with potential lines of future research is summarized in this review.

Central activation of cardiac vagal nerve by α2-adrenergic stimulation is impaired in streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic rats

To elucidate the abnormality of cardiac vagal control in streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic rats, we measured left ventricular myocardial interstitial acetylcholine (ACh) release in response to α₂-adrenergic stimulation as an index of in vivo cardiac vagal nerve activity. A cardiac microdialysis technique was applied to the rat left ventricle, and the effect of α₂-adrenergic stimulation by intravenous medetomidine (100 μg/kg) on myocardial interstitial ACh levels was examined in anesthetized diabetic rats (4-6 weeks after intraperitoneal streptozotocin) and age-matched control rats (protocol 1). The effect of electrical vagal nerve stimulation on ACh levels was also examined in separate rats (protocol 2). In protocol 1, medetomidine increased the ACh levels in control (from 1.76 ± 0.65 to 3.13 ± 1.41 nM, P < 0.05, n = 7) but not in diabetic rats (from 2.01 ± 0.47 to 1.62 ± 0.34 nM, not significant, n = 7). In protocol 2, electrical vagal nerve stimulation at 20 Hz significantly increased the ACh levels in both control (from 1.49 ± 0.26 to 6.39 ± 1.81 nM, P < 0.001, n = 6) and diabetic rats (from 1.77 ± 0.54 to 6.98 ± 1.38 nM, P < 0.001, n = 6). In conclusion, medetomidine-induced central vagal activation was impaired in diabetic rats, whereas peripheral cardiac vagal control of ACh release was preserved. The impairment of central vagal activation may lead to relative sympathetic predominance and promote cardiovascular complications in diabetes.

Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy in Diabetes: A Predictor of Cardiometabolic Events

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) imbalance manifesting as cardiac autonomic neuropathy in the diabetic population is an important predictor of cardiovascular events. Symptoms and signs of ANS dysfunction, such as resting heart rate elevations, diminished blood pressure responses to standing, and altered time and frequency domain measures of heart rate variability in response to deep breathing, standing, and the Valsalva maneuver, should be elicited from all patients with diabetes and prediabetes. With the recognition of the presence of ANS imbalance or for its prevention, a rigorous regime should be implemented with lifestyle modification, physical activity, and cautious use of medications that lower blood glucose. Rather than intensifying diabetes control, a regimen tailored to the individual risk of autonomic imbalance should be implemented. New agents that may improve autonomic function, such as SGLT2 inhibitors, should be considered and the use of incretins monitored. One of the central mechanisms of dysfunction is disturbance of the hypothalamic cardiac clock, a consequence of dopamine deficiency that leads to sympathetic dominance, insulin resistance, and features of the metabolic syndrome. An improvement in ANS balance may be critical to reducing cardiovascular events, cardiac failure, and early mortality in the diabetic population.

Oral adenosine 5'-triphosphate supplementation improved hemodynamic and autonomic parameters after exercise in hypertensive women

The aim of this study was to verify the autonomic modulation and blood pressure after adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) supplementation associated to acute aerobic exercise in hypertensive women. Eleven hypertensive women (age, 61.8±5.0 years) completed a randomized, double blind trial: ATP supplement condition (ATP=400 mg) or placebo. After 30 min of supplementation or placebo intake, the subjects performed 30 min of aerobic exercise (70%-75% of maximum heart rate). The autonomic modulation was assessed by heart rate variability during rest and recovery (postexercise until 30 min of recovery), the square root of the mean squared difference between adjacent RR intervals (RMSSD), standard deviation of successive values (SDNN), low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF) were measured. The blood pressure (systolic blood pressure [SBP] and diastolic blood pressure, mmHg) were recorded at rest, immediately postexercise, post-10, post-20, and post-30 min after exercise. For RMSSD, there was statistically significant difference during recovery, with higher RMSSD for ATP compared to placebo (rest=16.4±8.5 vs. placebo=11.6±4.0; ATP=18.5±9.7 msec; P=0.020). When analyzing the delta (recovery minus rest), the RMSSD (ATP=2.1± 7.2 msec vs. placebo=-4.7±7.5 msec; P=0.009), LF (ATP=-19.8±122.7 vs. placebo=-94.1±200.2 msec2; P=0.02), and SDNN (ATP=-2.8±12.2 msec vs. placebo=-10.6±10.5 msec; P=0.010) were higher for ATP than placebo. Furthermore, there was a greater postexercise hypotension at 20 min for ATP (SBP: ATP=-13.2±8.4 mmHg vs. placebo=-6.1±9.9 mmHg; P=0.006). Acute ATP supplementation promoted greater postexercise hypotension for systolic blood pressure and induced faster recovery of heart rate variability in hypertensive women.

Postexercise hypotension and autonomic modulation response after full versus split body resistance exercise in trained men

To investigate the effects of full versus split body resistance exercise on postexercise hypotension and autonomic modulation in trained men. Sixteen resistance recreationally trained males (age, 24.9±5.3 years) performed three randomized trials: upper body (UB), lower body (LB), and full body (FB) conditions. Blood pressure and heart rate variability were collected at rest, immediately postexercise, post-10, and post-30 min during recovery. For systolic blood pressure, delta (30 min minus rest) was lower for the FB condition compared to the UB (−10.1±7.4 mmHg [FB] vs. −3.3±12.6 mmHg [LB] vs. −1.9±8.1 mmHg [UB], P=0.004). For diastolic blood pressure (−8.2±10.9 mmHg [FB] vs. −1.5±9.8 mmHg [LB] vs. −8.7±11.4 mmHg [UB], P=0.038) and mean blood pressure delta during recovery (−11.7±14 mmHg [FB] vs. −2.2±10.6 mmHg [LB] vs. −5.2±6.8 mmHg [UB], P=0.045), there were statistically significant lower values in the FB condition in relation to the LB condition. Regarding heart rate variability, there were no significant differences between conditions, however, the square root of the mean squared difference between adjacent RR intervals presented an increase until post-30 during recovery (P<0.001), and there was a higher values of low frequency and lower values of high frequency across time (P<0.001). Postexercise hypotension was influenced by the amount of muscle mass involved in a bout of resistance exercise, with the FB condition inducing lower systolic blood pressure in relation to the UB after exercise, as well as a great decrease in postexercise diastolic and mean blood pressure compared with the LB. The autonomic modulation response was similar between conditions during recovery.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGISTS AND AMERICAN COLLEGE OF ENDOCRINOLOGY POSITION STATEMENT ON TESTING FOR AUTONOMIC AND SOMATIC NERVE DYSFUNCTION

This document represents the official position of the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American College of Endocrinology. Where there were no randomized controlled trials or specific U.S. FDA labeling for issues in clinical practice, the participating clinical experts utilized their judgment and experience. Every effort was made to achieve consensus among the committee members. Position statements are meant to provide guidance, but they are not to be considered prescriptive for any individual patient and cannot replace the judgment of a clinician.

Cardiac autonomic neuropathy: Risk factors, diagnosis and treatment

Cardiac autonomic neuropathy (CAN) is a serious complication of diabetes mellitus (DM) that is strongly associated with approximately five-fold increased risk of cardiovascular mortality. CAN manifests in a spectrum of things, ranging from resting tachycardia and fixed heart rate (HR) to development of “silent” myocardial infarction. Clinical correlates or risk markers for CAN are age, DM duration, glycemic control, hypertension, and dyslipidemia (DLP), development of other microvascular complications. Established risk factors for CAN are poor glycemic control in type 1 DM and a combination of hypertension, DLP, obesity, and unsatisfactory glycemic control in type 2 DM. Symptomatic manifestations of CAN include sinus tachycardia, exercise intolerance, orthostatic hypotension (OH), abnormal blood pressure (BP) regulation, dizziness, presyncope and syncope, intraoperative cardiovascular instability, asymptomatic myocardial ischemia and infarction. Methods of CAN assessment in clinical practice include assessment of symptoms and signs, cardiovascular reflex tests based on HR and BP, short-term electrocardiography (ECG), QT interval prolongation, HR variability (24 h, classic 24 h Holter ECG), ambulatory BP monitoring, HR turbulence, baroreflex sensitivity, muscle sympathetic nerve activity, catecholamine assessment and cardiovascular sympathetic tests, heart sympathetic imaging. Although it is common complication, the significance of CAN has not been fully appreciated and there are no unified treatment algorithms for today. Treatment is based on early diagnosis, life style changes, optimization of glycemic control and management of cardiovascular risk factors. Pathogenetic treatment of CAN includes: Balanced diet and physical activity; optimization of glycemic control; treatment of DLP; antioxidants, first of all α-lipoic acid (ALA), aldose reductase inhibitors, acetyl-L-carnitine; vitamins, first of all fat-soluble vitamin B1; correction of vascular endothelial dysfunction; prevention and treatment of thrombosis; in severe cases-treatment of OH. The promising methods include prescription of prostacyclin analogues, thromboxane A2 blockers and drugs that contribute into strengthening and/or normalization of Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase (phosphodiesterase inhibitor), ALA, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs), and the simultaneous prescription of ALA, ω-3 PUFAs and DGLA, but the future investigations are needed. Development of OH is associated with severe or advanced CAN and prescription of nonpharmacological and pharmacological, in the foreground midodrine and fludrocortisone acetate, treatment methods are necessary.

Early commitment of cardiovascular autonomic modulation in Brazilian patients with congenital generalized lipodystrophy

BACKGROUND

Metabolic abnormalities in congenital generalized lipodystrophy (CGL) are associated with microvascular complications. However, the evaluation of different types of neuropathy in these patients, including the commitment of cardiovascular autonomic modulation, is scarce. The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) in patients with CGL compared with individuals with type 1 diabetes and healthy subjects.

METHODS

Ten patients with CGL, 20 patients with type 1 diabetes and 20 healthy subjects were included in the study. Controls were paired 1:2 for age, gender, BMI and pubertal stage. Heart rate variability (HRV) was analyzed using cardiovascular autonomic reflex tests, including postural hypotension test, Valsalva (VAL), respiratory (E/I) and orthostatic (30/15) coefficients, and spectral analysis of the HRV, determining very low (VLF), low (LF) and high (HF) frequencies components. The diagnosis of CAN was defined as the presence of at least two altered tests.

RESULTS

CAN was detected in 40% of the CGL patients, 5% in type 1 diabetes patients and was absent in healthy individuals (p < 0.05). We observed a significant reduction in the E/I, VLF, LF and HF in CGL cases vs. type 1 diabetes and healthy individuals and lower levels of 30/15 and VAL in CGL vs. healthy individuals. A significant positive correlation was observed between leptin and 30/15 coefficient (r = 0.396; p = 0.036) after adjusting for insulin resistance and triglycerides. Autonomic cardiovascular tests were associated with HbA1c, HOMA-IR, triglycerides and albumin/creatinine ratio in CGL cases.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed a high prevalence of CAN in young patients with CGL, suggesting that insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia and hypoleptinemia, may have been involved in early CAN development. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the role of leptinemia in the physiopathogenesis of the condition.

Autonomic Influence on Heart Rate for Deep Breathing and Valsalva Maneuver in Healthy Subjects

INTRODUCTION

The Autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulation and integration of visceral functions. Disturbance of autonomic nervous system play crucial role in pathogenesis and clinical course of many diseases. In the present study deep breathing test and valsalva maneuver have been described to monitor parasympathetic function genderwise.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 100 subjects, aged 18-25 years, from May to November 2017, in exercise physiology laboratory, Kathmandu University School of Medical Sciences, Chaukot, Kavre. Electrocardiograph recorded by AD instrument was used to calculate the resting heart rate and the heart rate response to deep breathing test and valsalva maneuver.

RESULTS

Heart rate response to deep breathing test (31.69±14.79 Vs. 36.08±18.65, P=0.195) and valsalva ratio (1.59±0.39 Vs. 1.69±0.54, P=0.314) tend to be higher in female than male subjects but not significant. The resting heart rate of females was significantly higher than that of males (84.37 ± 11.08 Vs. 78.43 ± 12.06, P<0.05). Heart rate was significantly increased during and decreased after valsalva maneuver in both male and female subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

This study concludes that both deep breathing test and valsalva maneuver activates parasympathetic system inhealthy subjects. And also dominant parasympathetic activity was found in female comparison to male subjects.

Diabetic Microvascular Disease: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement

Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes adversely affect the microvasculature in multiple organs. Our understanding of the genesis of this injury and of potential interventions to prevent, limit, or reverse injury/dysfunction is continuously evolving. This statement reviews biochemical/cellular pathways involved in facilitating and abrogating microvascular injury. The statement summarizes the types of injury/dysfunction that occur in the three classical diabetes microvascular target tissues, the eye, the kidney, and the peripheral nervous system; the statement also reviews information on the effects of diabetes and insulin resistance on the microvasculature of skin, brain, adipose tissue, and cardiac and skeletal muscle. Despite extensive and intensive research, it is disappointing that microvascular complications of diabetes continue to compromise the quantity and quality of life for patients with diabetes. Hopefully, by understanding and building on current research findings, we will discover new approaches for prevention and treatment that will be effective for future generations.

Moderate intensity exercise improves heart rate variability in obese adults with type 2 diabetes

AIM

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of moderate aerobic exercise on heart rate variability (HRV) in obese adults with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Forty-one obese adults with type 2 diabetes participated in this study. Anthropometric and metabolic parameters were measured, and resting electrocardiogram (ECG) for the HRV analysis at spontaneous respiration was recorded for 5 min in supine position before and after six months of supervised aerobic training given thrice-a-week.

RESULTS

The mean age, body mass index (BMI), and duration of diabetes of the study population were 44.1 ± 4.5 years, 30.94 ± 1.36 kg/m2, and 16.3 ± 2.7 years, respectively. In time domain variables, standard deviation of all RR intervals (SDNN), the square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of differences between adjacent RR intervals (RMSSD) and percentage of consecutive RR intervals that differ by more than 50 ms (pNN50) were significantly increased after exercise. In frequency domain variables, high frequency (HF) (ms2) and HF (nu) were significantly increased while low frequency (LF) (ms2) and LF/HF ratio were significantly decreased after exercise. But LF (nu) was unaffected after exercise.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that thrice-a-week moderate intensity aerobic exercise for six months improves cardiac rhythm regulation as measured by HRV in obese adults with type 2 diabetes.

Area asymmetry of heart rate variability signal

BACKGROUND

Heart rate fluctuates beat-by-beat asymmetrically which is known as heart rate asymmetry (HRA). It is challenging to assess HRA robustly based on short-term heartbeat interval series.

METHOD

An area index (AI) was developed that combines the distance and phase angle information of points in the Poincaré plot. To test its performance, the AI was used to classify subjects with: (i) arrhythmia, and (ii) congestive heart failure, from the corresponding healthy controls. For comparison, the existing Porta's index (PI), Guzik's index (GI), and slope index (SI) were calculated. To test the effect of data length, we performed the analyses separately using long-term heartbeat interval series (derived from >3.6-h ECG) and short-term segments (with length of 500 intervals). A second short-term analysis was further carried out on series extracted from 5-min ECG.

RESULTS

For long-term data, SI showed acceptable performance for both tasks, i.e., for task i p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.93, AUC (area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve) = 0.86; for task ii p < 0.001, d = 0.88, AUC = 0.75. AI performed well for task ii (p < 0.001, d = 1.0, AUC = 0.78); for task i, though the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001, AUC = 0.76), the effect size was small (d = 0.11). PI and GI failed in both tasks (p > 0.05, d < 0.4, AUC < 0.7 for all). However, for short-term segments, AI indicated better distinguishability for both tasks, i.e., for task i, p < 0.001, d = 0.71, AUC = 0.71; for task ii, p < 0.001, d = 0.93, AUC = 0.74. The rest three measures all failed with small effect sizes and AUC values (d < 0.5, AUC < 0.7 for all) although the difference in SI for task i was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Besides, AI displayed smaller variations across different short-term segments, indicating more robust performance. Results from the second short-term analysis were in keeping with those findings.

CONCLUSION

The proposed AI indicated better performance especially for short-term heartbeat interval data, suggesting potential in the ambulatory application of cardiovascular monitoring.

High-intensity interval training and cardiac autonomic control in individuals with metabolic syndrome: A randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance has been postulated to play a central role in the co-appearance of various cardiovascular disease risk factors constituting the metabolic syndrome (MetS). There is evidence that altered cardiac autonomic function (CAF) may precede the onset of insulin resistance. Exercise training has been shown to improve CAF in different populations, yet little is known regarding the exercise dose response for CAF. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of different volumes of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and traditional moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on CAF in participants with MetS.

METHODS

Individuals with MetS (n=56) were randomised into the following 16-week training interventions: i) MICT (n=16, 30min at 60-70%HRpeak, 5×/week); ii) 4HIIT (n=19, 4×4min bouts at 85-95%HRpeak, interspersed with 3min of active recovery at 50-70%HRpeak, 3×/week); or iii) 1HIIT (n=21, 1×4min bout at 85-95%HRpeak, 3×/week). R-R interval recorded for 5min in a supine position at pre- and post-intervention was used to derive linear (SDNN, RMSSD, pNN50, LF, HF, LF/HF) and non-linear (SD1, SD2, Alpha1, Alpha2, SampEn) heart rate variability (HRV) indices as measures of CAF. Group×time interaction effects were examined (ANCOVA) and Eta squared (η²) interaction effect sizes calculated.

RESULTS

While there were no significant between-group differences in CAF indices, there were small-to-medium group×time interaction effects on SDNN [F(2,52)=0.70, p=0.50, η²=0.02], RMSSD [F(2,52)=1.35, p=0.27, η²=0.03], HF power [F(2,52)=1.27, p=0.29, η²=0.03], SD1 [F(2,52)=0.47, p=0.63, η²=0.01], and SD2 [F(2,52)=0.41, p=0.67, η²=0.01]. The following represent the relative percentage increases across these variables for 4HIIT, MICT, and 1HIIT respectively (SDNN, +30%, +17%, 9%; RMSSD, +30%, +22%, -2%; HF power, +69%, +18%, +7%; SD1, +30%, +22%,-2%; SD2, +22%, +14%, 4%).

CONCLUSIONS

There were no significant between-group differences for the effects of exercise dose on CAF indices, however; high-volume HIIT demonstrated the greatest magnitude of effect for improving CAF in individuals with MetS.

Longitudinal Associations of Leptin and Adiponectin with Heart Rate Variability in Children

For early prevention of cardiovascular disease, early detection and risk factor insights are necessary. The autonomic balance reflects cardiovascular risk and can be measured by heart rate variability (HRV). Therefore, our purpose is to examine associations between HRV and the energy-related biomarkers leptin and adiponectin in children. Participants of this study were Belgian children recruited for the longitudinal ChiBS study (year 2010-2012). HRV was measured and fasting blood samples were taken in 249 children at baseline (4.4-11.0 y) and 223 children at follow-up (6.7-12.2 y). Cross-sectional and longitudinal linear regression analyses were separated by sex and adjusted for age, socio-economic status, body fat%, negative emotions, puberty, and mean heart rate. Leptin was a negative cross-sectional and longitudinal predictor of parasympathetic activity in boys; while leptin in girls was cross-sectionally associated with higher LF and LF/HF suggesting sympathetic predominance. Adiponectin was a negative cross-sectional and longitudinal predictor of parasympathetic activity in boys; but when adjusting for mean heart rate, this effect disappeared and adiponectin was a positive cross-sectional and longitudinal predictor of parasympathetic activity in girls. These results stress the importance of considering sex differences and adjustment for heart rate in testing HRV predictors. Leptin seemed disadvantageous for the autonomic balance, while adiponectin seemed advantageous for the autonomic balance in girls only. More research is needed to see whether leptin and adiponectin are interesting in cardiovascular screening/prevention or in determining the cardiovascular gain during weight loss follow-up.

The relationship between erythrocyte membrane fatty acid levels and cardiac autonomic function in obese children

OBJECTIVE

Childhood obesity is a worldwide health concern. Studies have shown autonomic dysfunction in obese children. The exact mechanism of this dysfunction is still unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between erythrocyte membrane fatty acid (EMFA) levels and cardiac autonomic function in obese children using heart rate variability (HRV).

METHODS

A total of 48 obese and 32 healthy children were included in this case-control study. Anthropometric and biochemical data, HRV indices, and EMFA levels in both groups were compared statistically.

RESULTS

HRV parameters including standard deviation of normal-to-normal R-R intervals (NN), root mean square of successive differences, the number of pairs of successive NNs that differ by >50 ms (NN50), the proportion of NN50 divided by the total number of NNs, high-frequency power, and low-frequency power were lower in obese children compared to controls, implying parasympathetic impairment. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid levels were lower in the obese group (p<0.001 and p=0.012, respectively). In correlation analysis, in the obese group, body mass index standard deviation and linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein levels showed a linear correlation with one or more HRV parameter, and age, eicosapentaenoic acid, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure correlated with mean heart rate. In linear regression analysis, age, dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, body mass index standard deviation, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein were related to HRV parameters, implying an effect on cardiac autonomic function.

CONCLUSION

There is impairment of cardiac autonomic function in obese children. It appears that levels of EMFAs such as linoleic acid, arachidonic acid and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid play a role in the regulation of cardiac autonomic function in obese children.

Association of Sympathovagal Imbalance With Cognitive Impairment in Type 2 Diabetes in Adults

OBJECTIVE

Sympathovagal imbalance (SVI) has been reported to be associated with metabolic derangements in type 2 diabetes. We investigated the association of SVI with cognitive impairment in patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Patients with a new diagnosis of type 2 diabetes (n=43) and age-matched healthy control subjects (n=43) were recruited for the study. Body mass index and blood pressure measurements were recorded. SVI was assessed by spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV), and cognitive function was assessed by recording the positive wave that appears in 300 milliseconds from application of stimulus in event-related potential tracing (P300). Insulin resistance was determined by the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) formula using blood glucose and insulin data, and oxidative stress was assessed by estimation of malondialdehyde. Association of various factors with cognitive impairment was evaluated by Pearson correlation analysis, and independent contributions of these factors to cognitive impairment were assessed by multiple regression analysis.

RESULTS

P300 latency was significantly prolonged in the diabetes group compared with the control group. Ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency power (LF-HF ratio) of HRV, the marker of SVI was found to be significantly correlated and linked with P300. Malondialdehyde and HOMA-IR were correlated with LF-HF ratio.

CONCLUSION

Treatment-naïve patients with type 2 diabetes have SVI and considerable cognitive impairment. Insulin resistance and oxidative stress contribute to cognitive impairment, and SVI could be the physiologic link to cognitive impairment in treatment-naïve patients with type 2 diabetes.

Cardiac Autonomic Function at Baseline and under Stress and Its Relationship to Circulatory Markers of Inflammation in Obese Compared to Nonobese Children: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) provides neurogenic control of inflammatory reactions. ANS changes in obesity may result in inflammation. This study sought to gain insight into cardiac autonomic dysfunction and inflammation in childhood obesity, and to gather pilot data on the potential relationship between altered ANS and inflammation.

METHODS

Fifteen obese children and adolescents without metabolic complications and 15 nonobese controls underwent heart rate variability and impedance cardiography testing during rest, mental stress, and physical stress. Inflammatory cytokines and immune reactivity were measured.

RESULTS

There was no statistically significant difference between groups in cardiac ANS testing at rest or in response to stress. Median high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) was higher in the obese group [obese 2.6 mg/l (IQR 1.6-11.9); nonobese 0.3 mg/l (IQR 0.2-0.7); p < 0.001]. Interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor-α were similar between groups. Immune reactivity testing (in vitro Toll-like receptor stimulation) revealed a strong, but comparable, inflammatory response in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Obese children and adolescents without metabolic complications did not have cardiac ANS dysfunction. While hsCRP was elevated, systemic cytokines were not raised. Compared to prior studies, which often focused on children with obesity and its complications, it is encouraging that obese children without metabolic complications may not yet have autonomic dysfunction.

Can coefficient of variation of time-domain analysis be valuable for detecting cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in young patients with type 1 diabetes: a case control study

Background

Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) increases morbidity and mortality in diabetes through association with a high risk of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden death, possibly related to silent myocardial ischemia. During the sub-clinical stage, CAN can be detected through reduction in heart rate variability (HRV). The aim of our study was to estimate if the time and frequency-domain analysis can be valuable for detecting CAN in young patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM).

Methods

For this case control study of evaluation of cardiovascular autonomic function the 15–25 years age group of patients with duration of T1DM more than 9 years (n = 208, 89 males and 119 females) were selected. 67 patients with confirmed CAN were assigned to the “case group” and 141 patients without CAN served as a control group, the duration of T1DM was similar (15.07 ± 4.89 years vs.13.66 ± 4.02 years; p = 0.06) in both groups. Cardiovascular autonomic reflex tests and time and frequency domains analysis of HRV were performed for all subjects.

Results

Time domain measures were significantly lower in CAN group compared with control (p < 0.05). R-R max / R-R min ratio and coefficient of variation (CV) were the lowest during deep breathing among T1DM patients with CAN. Receivers operating characteristic (ROC) curves were constructed to compare the accuracies of the parameters of time-domain analysis for diagnosing CAN. We estimated a more reliable cut-off value of parameters of time-domain. The CV values in supine position <1.65, reflected sensitivity 94.3%, specificity 91.5%. The CV values during deep breathing <1.45 reflected sensitivity 97.3%, specificity 96.2%. The CV values in standing position <1.50 reflected sensitivity 96.2%, specificity 93.0%. The most valuable CV was during deep breathing (AUC 0.899). The results of frequency-domain (spectral analysis) analysis showed significant decrease in LF power and LFPA, HF Power and HFPA, total power among subjects with CAN than compared with subjects without CAN (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Time and frequency domain analysis of HRV permits a more accurate evaluation of cardiovascular autonomic function, providing more information about sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. The coefficient of variation (time-domain analysis) especially during deep breathing could be valuable for detecting CAN.