Article Commentary: The Study of Goals in Psychology

Supervisory dyads' communication and alignment regarding the use of workplace-based observations: a qualitative study in general practice residency

BACKGROUND

In medical residency, performance observations are considered an important strategy to monitor competence development, provide feedback and warrant patient safety. The aim of this study was to gain insight into whether and how supervisor-resident dyads build a working repertoire regarding the use of observations, and how they discuss and align goals and approaches to observation in particular.

METHODS

We used a qualitative, social constructivist approach to explore if and how supervisory dyads work towards alignment of goals and preferred approaches to performance observations. We conducted semi-structured interviews with supervisor-resident dyads, performing a template analysis of the data thus obtained.

RESULTS

The supervisory dyads did not frequently communicate about the use of observations, except at the start of training and unless they were triggered by internal or external factors. Their working repertoire regarding the use of observations seemed to be primarily driven by patient safety goals and institutional assessment requirements rather than by providing developmental feedback. Although intended as formative, the institutional test was perceived as summative by supervisors and residents, and led to teaching to the test rather than educating for purposes of competence development.

CONCLUSIONS

To unlock the full educational potential of performance observations, and to foster the development of an educational alliance, it is essential that supervisory dyads and the training institute communicate clearly about these observations and the role of assessment practices of- and for learning, in order to align their goals and respective approaches.

Benefits of mindfulness in academic settings: trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors in predicting academic affect, cognition, and behavior

Background

Achievement motivation research has established that motivational factors predict academic affect, cognition, and behavior. Recent studies have shown that trait mindfulness might also predict these academic outcomes. However, it remains unclear whether trait mindfulness has incremental validity over motivational factors. We hypothesized that trait mindfulness would explain unique variance in academic outcomes beyond motivational factors, because mindfulness that is characterized by the being mode of mind (i.e., a present-focused, non-striving, and accepting mind mode) would contribute to academic outcomes through unique and effective self-regulatory processes (i.e., bottom-up self-regulation of learning and present-focused, acceptance-based self-regulation of academic stress), which differ from those (i.e., top-down self-regulation of learning and future-focused, change-oriented self-regulation of academic stress) promoted by motivational factors that are characterized by the doing mode of mind (i.e., a goal-oriented, striving, and change-seeking mind mode). We tested the hypothesis by examining four established motivational factors (competence perception, implicit theory of intelligence, achievement goals, and autonomous and controlled academic reasons) and five outcome variables (test anxiety, enjoyment of learning, study strategy, mind-wandering, and help-seeking avoidance) that had been investigated in both the trait mindfulness and achievement motivation literatures.

Methods

One hundred and seventy-five students (104 females) were recruited from undergraduate psychology and cultural studies classes at two universities in Japan. Trait mindfulness was assessed using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire. The other study variables were assessed using established measures as well. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the hypothesis.

Results

Trait mindfulness predicted four of the five outcome variables (i.e., test anxiety, enjoyment of learning, mind-wandering, and help-seeking avoidance) after controlling for the motivational factors. The acting-with-awareness facet predicted three outcome variables, whereas the other facets predicted one outcome each.

Conclusions

This study supports the incremental validity of trait mindfulness relative to motivational factors, suggesting that not only the doing mode of mind but also the being mode is beneficial for academic learning.

Online engagement and performance on formative assessments mediate the relationship between attendance and course performance

In traditional school-based learning, attendance was regarded as a proxy for engagement and key indicator for performance. However, few studies have explored the effect of in-class attendance in technology-enhanced courses that are increasingly provided by secondary institutions. This study collected n = 367 undergraduate students' log files from Moodle and applied learning analytics methods to measure their lecture attendance, online learning activities, and performance on online formative assessments. A baseline and an alternative structural equation models were used to investigate whether online learning engagement and formative assessment mediated the relationship between lecture attendance and course academic outcomes. Results show that lecture attendance does not have a direct effect on academic outcomes, but it promotes performance by leveraging online learning engagement and formative assessment performance. Findings contribute to understanding the impact of in-class attendance on course academic performance and the interplay of in-class and online-learning engagement factors in the context of technology-enhanced courses. This study recommends using a variety of educational technologies to pave multiple pathways to academic success.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41239-021-00307-5.

Striving for Success but at What Cost? Subject-Specific Achievement Goal Orientation Profiles, Perceived Cost, and Academic Well-Being

Most studies utilizing a person-oriented approach to investigating students’ achievement goal orientation profiles have been domain-general or focused on a single domain (usually mathematics), thus excluding the possibility of identifying distinct subject-specific motivational profiles. In this study, we looked into this by examining upper secondary school students’ subject-specific achievement goal orientation profiles simultaneously in mathematics and English. As distinct profiles might contribute to how students invest time and effort in studying, we also examined differences in perceived subject-specific cost (i.e., effort required, emotional cost, opportunity cost) among students with different profiles and how this was linked with students’ more general academic well-being (i.e., school engagement, burnout). The 434 Finnish general upper secondary school students participating in the study were classified based on their achievement goal orientations in the two subjects using latent profile analysis, and the predictions of the latent profile on distal outcomes (i.e., measures of cost and academic well-being) were examined within the mixture model. Five divergent achievement goal orientation profiles were identified: indifferent (29%), success-oriented (26%), mastery-oriented (25%), English-oriented, math-avoidant (14%), and avoidance-oriented (6%). The English-oriented, math-avoidant students showed the most distinct domain-specificity in their profile but, in general, profiles indicated more cross-domain generality than specificity. Overall, mastery-oriented students showed the most adaptive academic well-being, while avoidance-oriented students were the least engaged. Success-oriented students were characterized by high multiple goals in both subjects, elevated costs, and high scores on both positive (engagement) and negative (burnout) well-being indicators. The English-oriented, math-avoidant students perceived studying math as costly. The findings suggest that addressing students’ achievement motivation in different subjects may be useful for recognizing factors endangering or fostering student learning and well-being.

The Relationship between Children’s Aspiration Profiles and Self-Efficacy, Life Satisfaction, and Academic Achievement

Limited research in the psychology literature has addressed the specifics of children’s future orientations. Using a thematic approach, the present study investigates children’s personal aspirations for their adult lives via a questionnaire that addressed (1) the types of aspiration profiles present in a sample of 456 Italian students aged 8–13 and balanced for gender, and (2) how these profiles differ according to demographics, the number of aspirations, academic and social self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and academic achievement. Using cluster analysis, three aspiration profiles emerged, which include individualistic (focused on the possible future self), independent (concentrated on one’s own future family and independence), and social (focused on future friends and the family of origin). The independent profile demonstrated better overall psychological and academic adjustment than did the other two profiles. The article discusses the results of the study using the framework of self-determination theory in the context of Italian society.

Prediction of Goal Orientation and Perceived Competence on Intensity and Direction of Precompetitive Anxiety among Adolescent Handball Players

This study explored the main and interactive effects of goal orientations and perceived competence on intensity and direction of the symptoms of precompetitive cognitive and somatic anxiety. 109 handball players from 16 high school teams ( M = 16.2 yr., SD = 1.5) participated. All were asked to complete the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, Perceived Competence Questionnaire, and a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Using separated multiple hierarchical regression analyses, direction of the symptoms of precompetitive somatic anxiety was predicted by perceived competence and interaction of ego orientation x perceived competence. Perceived competence and the interaction of ego orientation x task orientation x perceived competence were significant predictors of direction of the symptoms of precompetitive cognitive anxiety. The results suggest that perceptions of competence and task orientation moderate the relationship between ego orientation and direction of the symptoms of precompetitive anxiety.

The Joint Effects of Target and Purpose Goals on Intrinsic Motivation: A Mediational Analysis

To test Harackiewicz and Sansone's prediction that task-specific target goals would enhance intrinsic motivation when they were congruent with higher order purpose goals, we varied performance and mastery-oriented target goals in neutral and performance-oriented purpose goal contexts and included a no-goals control group. Results provided strong support across three measures of intrinsic motivation, indicating that performance target goals undermined interest relative to mastery target goals in a neutral context but that performance target goals enhanced intrinsic motivation relative to mastery target goals in performance purpose goal contexts. Process analyses revealed that competence valuation and task involvement mediated these effects.

Intrinsic Motivation towards Sports in Singaporean Students: The Role of Sport Ability Beliefs

This study investigated determinants of active lifestyles in Singaporean university students. Using confirmatory factor analysis, a measure of lay beliefs concerning athletic ability was confirmed. Other results confirmed hypotheses that beliefs reflecting that athletic ability can be developed over time (incremental beliefs) predict an achievement task (selfreferenced) orientation, while beliefs reflecting that athletic ability is relatively stable (entity beliefs) predict an ego (otherperson, comparative) orientation. Goal orientations directly affect perceived competence which, in turn, influence intrinsic motivation to be physically active. A task orientation had a direct link to intrinsic motivation. Results suggest that intrinsic motivation towards sport and physical activity might be enhanced through interventions that focus on self-referenced and selfimprovement notions of ability as well as perceived competence.

Boosting Performance on an Evaluative Math Test: Goal Activation vs Self-Affirmation

This study compared the effectiveness of goal activation versus self-affirmation and a control condition as interventions for increasing performance on an evaluative task (a difficult math test; N =  78; M age = 20.3 yr., SD = 1.9). Although there has been much recent literature on the effects of activating goals, the existing literature does not examine possible spillover effects of activating goals on performance tasks. Results indicated that goal activation resulted in significant performance enhancements over both the self-affirmation and control conditions, while self-affirmation did not improve performance significantly relative to the control condition. Additionally, interest in the task, as a cue for self-regulatory resources, mediated the effect of goal activation on increased performance.

Intentions to quit smoking among youth in substance abuse treatment

INTRODUCTION

Smoking cessation interventions for adolescents in substance abuse treatment have shown promise. However, a better understanding of the correlates of substance use disordered (SUD) youths' intentions toward smoking cessation will help tailor cessation interventions to this population. The current study examined tobacco use, smoking-related self-efficacy, substance use and intentions to quit using alcohol and illicit drugs as correlates of intentions to quit smoking among youth in SUD treatment.

METHODS

Participants were 178 adolescents who were in inpatient (n=90) or outpatient (n=88) SUD treatment and had smoked at least once in the past 30 days. The sample was 44% female, 72% non-Hispanic Caucasian, with a mean age of 16.2 years (SD=1.2). Participants rated the likelihood that they would be nonsmokers in the next year (9-point scale).

RESULTS

SUD youth intention to quit smoking averaged 4.9 out of 10 (SD=3.2), comparable to intention to quit drinking (M=5.3, SD=3.6), but lower than their intention to quit using drugs (M=6.0, SD=3.4). Teens' intentions to quit smoking were associated with nicotine dependence (r=-.30, p<.01) and smoking cessation related self-efficacy (r=.36, p<.01), but not with pretreatment substance use severity (r=-.15). Controlling for nicotine dependence, teens' intentions to quit smoking were positively related to smoking cessation self-efficacy (pr=.26, p<.01) and intention to quit using illicit drugs (pr=.15, p<.05), but unrelated to intention to quit drinking.

DISCUSSION

Findings highlight the appropriateness of addressing adolescent tobacco use during SUD treatment, but emphasize the importance of assessing intention and other cognitions for each substance, as they may differ markedly.

Faking the Desire to Learn

Research on achievement goals has demonstrated that mastery goals positively impact achievement-related outcomes, but paradoxically hold an inconsistent relation with academic achievement. We hypothesized that this relationship depends on the reason why students endorse mastery goals—namely, to garner teachers' appreciation (social desirability) or to succeed at university (social utility). First-year psychology students completed a mastery-goal scale in a standard format, with social-desirability instructions and social-utility instructions. Participants' grades on academic exams were recorded later in the semester. Results indicated that students' perceptions of both social desirability and social utility related to mastery goals moderated the relationship between the endorsement of mastery goals and final grades. This relationship was reduced by the increase of perceived social desirability of mastery goals, and strengthened by the increase of perceived social utility of these goals.

Learning or Succeeding? Conflict Regulation With Mastery or Performance Goals

The present study aimed to integrate research on mastery and performance goals into research on sociocognitive conflict (confrontation involving divergent points of view). Participants interacted by discussing conflictual issues in a context enhancing either performance goals, mastery goals, or no goals. The amount of disagreement during the interaction was measured. Results indicated that disagreement predicted epistemic conflict regulation (focused on task comprehension) in the mastery goals condition, but relational conflict regulation (focused on affirmation of competence) in the performance goals condition. Results are discussed in terms of their contribution to the conflict regulation framework.

Correlates of motivation to quit smoking among alcohol dependent patients in residential treatment

Substance use and smoking co-occur at high rates and substance abusers smoke more and have greater difficulty quitting smoking compared to the general population. Methods of increasing smoking cessation among alcoholics are needed to improve their health. This study investigated predictors of motivation to quit smoking among patients early in residential treatment for substance abuse. The 198 alcohol dependent patients were participating is a larger smoking study at an inner-city residential substance abuse treatment program. Motivation was measured by the Contemplation Ladder. A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to assess whether perceived barriers to smoking cessation and self-efficacy about quitting were associated with motivation to quit smoking independent of the influence of degree of tobacco involvement, substance use, and comorbid depressive symptoms. Motivation was higher with longer previous smoking abstinence, fewer barriers to quitting, and greater self-efficacy but was not influenced by smoking rate, dependence, or gender. While the combination of alcohol and drug use, alcohol and drug problem severity, and depressive symptoms predicted motivation, no one of these variables was significant. Since barriers to change and self-efficacy are potentially modifiable in treatment, these could be salient targets for intervention efforts. This could be integrated into treatment by assessing barriers and providing corrective information about consequences and methods of overcoming barriers and by providing coping skills to increase confidence in one's ability to quit smoking.

Self in learning: Chinese adolescents' goals and sense of agency

This study examined goals and agency as the 2 core aspects of self in learning among Chinese adolescents. A sample of 259 adolescents aged 12-19 responded to open-ended probes about themselves. Counter to the common view that Chinese selves are predominantly social, adolescents expressed many more individual than social goals and agency. Moreover, older adolescents showed overall more goals and agency than younger adolescents. However, their specific goals did not differ by age. Regarding agency, older adolescents articulated more of the so-called "learning virtues." Yet their social agency did not differ by age. We interpret these findings as in reference to the Confucian learning tradition, the existing research on goals and agency, and self in culture from a domain-specific perspective.

Motivation for physical activity in young people: entity and incremental beliefs about athletic ability

Three studies are reported of children and youth aged 11-19 years (n = 3478) examining the nature of beliefs about athletic ability. Drawing on related research in academic, moral and stereotyping domains, development of a psychometric instrument assessing athletic ability beliefs is detailed. Support was found for a multidimensional hierarchical structure that is invariant across age and gender. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a structure comprising two higher-order factors of entity and incremental beliefs underpinned by beliefs that athletic ability is stable and a gift (entity), and is open to improvement and can be developed through learning (incremental). Incremental beliefs, indirectly through a task goal orientation, and entity beliefs directly, predicted self-reported amotivation towards physical education and sport. On the other hand, enjoyment of physical activity in youth was predicted directly by task orientation and incremental beliefs. Predictions concerning the moderating role of perceived competence were not supported. Our findings highlight the importance of ability beliefs and goals in understanding the determinants of physical activity in children and youth.

Goal-directedness and personal identity as correlates of life outcomes

Although much research has been conducted on goal setting, researchers have not examined goal-directedness or propensity to set goals as a stable human characteristic in adults. In this study, a survey was developed and distributed to 104 adult participants to assess their goal-directedness, personal identity, and various life outcomes. A theoretical model was developed and tested using structural equation modeling that proposed that both goal-directedness and personal identity should positivcly influence important life outcomes. Analysis showed that goal-directedness and personal identity are positively related to personal well-being, salary, and marital satisfaction. Further, personal identity was positively related to job satisfaction but, contrary to related research, goal-directedness did not predict job satisfaction.

An exploratory study of developmental growth in adults with heart failure

Persons with heart failure face a myriad of challenges due to the physical limitations imposed by the chronic illness. Despite these changes, each person must continue to face the developmental challenges of adulthood. This exploratory study was conducted to examine the impact that this chronic illness has on the developmental processes of adults. Methods triangulation was used to examine the content of unprompted, written goals and the results of surveys of life satisfaction and mood states of 138 persons with heart failure. Younger adults had higher anger, depression, and anxiety scores than older or middle-aged adults and had lower scores of life satisfaction. This may reflect the emotional reaction to the realization that their lives may be shortened by this chronic illness. Analysis of their goals reflected the developmental challenges described by Erikson. Despite severe physical limitations, these individuals demonstrated growth and achievement of developmental tasks by transcending usual time lines.