The prevalence and risk of immune restoration disease in HIV-infected patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy

Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis Peritonitis: A Case Report

The increasing incidence of tuberculosis raises concerns globally, impacting both developing and developed nations. Abdominal tuberculosis stands out as the most prevalent form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. This case report details the diagnostic journey of a young male with abdominal TB complicated by concurrent HIV infection. The patient presented with night sweats and substantial weight loss, concurrently receiving a naive human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnosis with an undetectable CD4 count. Imaging revealed abdominal lymphadenopathy concealing the pancreatic head while bronchoscopy unveiled TB in the lung. The patient faced septic shock and bilateral pulmonary embolism, possibly due to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). The patient then developed ascites, and a diagnosis of TB peritonitis was made based on low serum ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) and a positive acid-fast bacillus (AFB) result in the para-aortic lymph node. Treatment complexity arose from drug resistance to isoniazid and ethambutol.

多彩な免疫再構築症候群の症状を呈した重症COVID–19の1例(Various IRIS–like symptoms following severe COVID–19 infection: a case report)

Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) is a severe drug reaction associated with organ failure. DRESS’s pathogenesis is related to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). We report a coronavirus disease (COVID–19) case with severe pneumonia, wherein DRESS developed as a symptom of IRIS. A 56–year–old man underwent venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VV–ECMO) to treat severe COVID–19. He developed ventilator–associated pneumonia and was treated with Meropenem from the third to the sixth day. During treatment, lung abscess caused by multidrug–resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter cloacae bacteremia developed, but he was weaned from VV–ECMO within a month. On the 37th day, papules and an erythematous rash appeared throughout his body, and fever, tachycardia, hypotension, and acute kidney injury (AKI) were reported. The condition was diagnosed as DRESS according to the RegiSCAR criteria. Meropenem was suspected as the cause based on the drug–induced lymphocyte stimulation test. The patient’s vitals stabilized, skin rash, and AKI improved after steroid administration. However, generalized herpes zoster and Ramsay–Hunt syndrome developed upon decreasing the steroids; hence, the steroid dose was increased. DRESS and zoster reactivation can occur during severe COVID–19 recovery. Therefore, it is advisable to use steroids appropriately and reduce the dose carefully.

Incidence of Herpes Zoster in HIV-Infected Patients Undergoing Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

The incidence of herpes zoster (HZ) in patients infected with HIV is higher than that of the general population. However, the incidence of HZ in HIV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) remains unclear. This meta-analysis aimed to estimate the pooled incidence rate and risk factors for HZ in the post-ART era. We identified studies assessing the incidence of HZ in the post-ART era between 1 January 2000 and 28 February 2021, from four databases. Pooled risk ratios were calculated from 11 articles using a random-effects model. The heterogeneity of the included trials was evaluated by visually inspecting funnel plots, performing random-effects meta-regression and using I² statistics. Of the 2111 studies screened, we identified 11 studies that were eligible for final inclusion in the systematic review and 8 studies that were eligible for a meta-analysis. The pooled incidence of HZ in the post-ART era (after the introduction of ART in 1997) was 2.30 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.56-3.05) per 100 person years (PYs). The risks of incidence of HZ among people living with HIV included male sex (AOR: 4.35 (95% CI: 054-2.41)), men who have sex with men (AOR: 1.21 (95% CI: -0.76-1.13)), CD4 count < 200 cells/μL (AOR: 11.59 (95% CI: 0.53-4.38)) and not receiving ART (AOR: 2.89 (95% CI: -0.44-2.56)). The incidence of HZ is substantially lower among HIV infected patients receiving ART than those not receiving ART. Initiating ART immediately after diagnosis to treat all HIV-positive individuals is crucial to minimize the disease burden of HZ.

Innovations for prevention and care of oral candidiasis in HIV-infected individuals: Are they available?-A workshop report

Oral candidiasis (OC) is the most prevalent HIV-related oral lesion in patients on combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART) or without cART. Management is challenged in some patients by development of resistance to azole drugs, such as fluconazole. Recent scientific knowledge about OC pathogenesis, the role of OC in the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), the relationship of OC with the microbiome, and novelties in OC treatment was discussed in an international workshop format. Literature searches were conducted to address five questions: (a) Considering the pathogenesis of Candida spp. infection, are there any potential therapeutic targets that could be considered, mainly in HIV-infected individuals resistant to fluconazole? (b) Is oral candidiasis part of IRIS in HIV patients who receive cART? (c) Can management of the oral microbiome reduce occurrence of OC in patients with HIV infection? (d) What are the recent advances (since 2015) regarding plant-based and alternative medicines in management of OC? and (e) Is there a role for photodynamic therapy in management of OC in HIV-infected patients? A number of the key areas where further research is necessary were identified to allow a deeper insight into this oral condition that could help to understand its nature and recommend alternatives for care.

Tuberculosis of the Central Nervous System

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article details the epidemiology and clinical manifestations of central nervous system (CNS) tuberculosis (TB), provides guidance for diagnostic imaging and CSF testing, and recommends treatment strategies for tuberculous meningitis and other forms of CNS TB, illustrating key aspects of diagnosis and management with case presentations.

RECENT FINDINGS

Although improvements in our understanding of the pathogenesis and management of CNS TB have occurred over the past 50 years, the emergence of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant TB, the advent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and the subsequent availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy that can produce the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome have complicated the diagnosis and treatment of CNS TB. Advances in diagnostic assays promise to increase the speed of diagnosis as well as the percentage of people with a confirmed rather than a presumptive diagnosis. Advances in precision medicine have identified polymorphisms in the LTA4H gene that influence the risk for inflammation in patients with tuberculous meningitis.

SUMMARY

CNS TB continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality, with the majority of people affected living in low-income and middle-income countries. Newer diagnostic assays promise to increase the speed of diagnosis and improve appropriate selection of antituberculous therapy and anti-inflammatory medications. Despite these advances, CNS TB remains difficult to diagnose, and clinicians should have a low threshold for initiating empiric therapy in patients with presumptive infection.

Tuberculosis and HIV Coinfection–the Challenge in the Prevention, Detection and Treatment of Tuberculosis

Background:

Tuberculosis (TB) is still a major public health concern world-wide. The increasing global burden of TB is linked to HIV infection. HIV-TB coinfection has also conditioned clinical aspects of the TB. Since the HIV is beginning in the 1980s, the HIV infection poses a significant challenge in global TB control.

Objective:

In this review we focused on the challenges of epidemiological and clinical feature of tuberculosis presented by the HIV coinfection.

Method:

The article consists of a summary of the most important effects presented by the HIV coinfection on epidemiological and clinical feature of tuberculosis. The article analyzes and summary the causes for these challenges.

Results:

The major challenges to strategy of TB control and clinical feature of TB-HIV coinfection are presented in this paper.

Conclusion:

HIV/TB co-infection is synergic, interactive and reciprocal with significant impact. The infection of HIV and Mtb affect each other and the breakdown the immune function in TB/HIV coinfected individual. HIV infection has changed the strategy of TB control, however HIV increases global burden of TB, the reduction in the TB incidence rate is far from sufficient. Atypically clinical manifestations in TB/HIV co-infected patients and increased MDR-TB and XDR-TB contribute to the challenges in the diagnosis and treatment. Increased complexity of managing patients requires expertise in the clinical m knowledge. The focused efforts to control HIV-related TB are of great urgency. These findings will provide insight into the prevention, detection and treatment of tuberculosis and will guide advances towards tuberculosis control.

The ART of Antiretroviral Therapy in Critically Ill Patients With HIV

The management of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be a complicated specialty within itself, made even more complex when there are so many unanswered questions regarding the care of critically ill patients with HIV. The lack of consensus on the use of antiretroviral medications in the critically ill patient population has contributed to an ongoing clinical debate among intensivists. This review focuses on the pharmacological complications of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in the intensive care setting, specifically the initiation of ART in patients newly diagnosed with HIV, immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), continuation of ART in those who were on a complete regimen prior to intensive care unit admission, barriers of drug delivery alternatives, and drug-drug interactions.

Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms: An Update and Review of Recent Literature

Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome, is also known as drug induced hypersensitivity syndrome and by various other names. It is now recognised as one of the severe cutaneous adverse reaction (SCAR) and can be potentially life-threatening. Historically, it was most frequently linked with phenytoin and was initially described as phenytoin hypersensitivity syndrome. However, it was later found to be caused by various other medications. Anticonvulsants and sulfonamides are the most common offender. Characteristically DRESS has a latent period of 2 to 6 weeks. The pathophysiology remains incompletely understood but involves reactivation of viruses and activation of lymphocyte. It is manifested most commonly with a morbilliform cutaneous eruption with fever and lymphadenopathy. The severity of this syndrome is related to the systemic involvement, which can result in multi-organ failure. Most important step in the management of DRESS is early diagnosis and immediate cessation of the suspected offending drug. Patients of DRESS syndrome should be managed in an intensive care set up for appropriate supportive care and infection control. Topical corticosteroids can give symptomatic relief, but systemic therapy with steroid and other immunosuppressant is usually required.

[Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome and rebound syndrome in multiple sclerosis patients who stopped disease modification therapy: current understanding and a case report]

More and more multiple sclerosis patients have been receiving treatment with new immunomodulatory drugs. Its discontinuation because of side-effects, lack of efficacy or pregnancy has been increasing as well. This paper reviews such severe complications of natalizumab and fingolimod cessation as immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) and rebound. The short history, immunopathogenesis and diagnostic criteria of IRIS in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus infection are covered. Clinical and radiological presentations as well as possible pathogenic mechanisms of IRIS in patients treated with natalizumab and fingolimod are discussed. The authors also report the case of a woman with multiple sclerosis treated with fingolimod, who experienced a severe relapse when she stopped treatment. Diagnostic criteria and prognostic factors for IRIS and rebound are needed in patients with multiple sclerosis who discontinue the new disease modification therapy.

Hospital days attributable to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in persons living with HIV before and after the 2012 DHHS HIV guidelines

Background

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) can manifest with initiation or reintroduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in persons living with HIV (PLWH). In 2012, updated United States treatment guidelines recommended initiation of ART for all PLWH regardless of CD4 count. The objectives of this study were to quantify hospital usage attributable to IRIS and assess the reasons for hospitalization in PLWH before and after the guideline update.

Methods

Subjects were PLWH between 18–89 years of age who were hospitalized between November 1, 2009 and July 31, 2014. Equivalent time periods before and after updated treatment guidelines were considered, and designated as Time Period 1 and Time Period 2, respectively. IRIS-attributable hospitalizations were identified by ICD9 codes and electronic medical record searches with subsequent review and confirmation. For hospitalizations that were not confirmed as being IRIS-attributable, primary discharge diagnoses were reviewed.

Results

A total of 278 PLWH were hospitalized 521 times throughout the study period. Time Period 1 had 9 PLWH with 12 IRIS-attributable hospitalizations while Time Period 2 had 6 PLWH with 9 IRIS-attributable hospitalizations. A larger proportion of IRIS-attributable hospital days was observed in Time Period 1 compared to Time Period 2 (7.5 vs 4.2%; p < 0.001). Median length of stay for IRIS-attributable hospitalizations was longer than for other diagnoses, particularly during Time Period 1 (12.0 vs 4.0; p = 0.05). The most common causes for hospitalizations in PLWH were non AIDS-defining infection, AIDS-defining malignancy, and gastrointestinal. PLWH who had HIV viral suppression (<200 copies/mL) accounted for 34 and 24% of hospitalizations in Time Periods 1 and 2 respectively.

Conclusions

Hospitalizations for PLWH continue at high rates and IRIS is a significant contributing factor. In our single-center study, there was a lower number of IRIS-attributable hospitalizations and IRIS-attributable hospital days in Time Period 2 compared with Time Period 1. The hospital burden of IRIS may decrease over time as more PLWH are started on ART earlier in the course of infection. This study highlights the continued importance of early diagnosis and linkage to care of those infected with HIV, so that morbidity and costs associated with IRIS continue to decline.

Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS): What pathologists should know

Antiretroviral therapy has significantly improved the quality and length of life for those patients able to access effective and sustained treatment. The resulting restoration of the immune response is associated with a change in the clinical presentation of opportunistic infections, and the histologic reaction to pathogens. A complex combination of alterations in host response across the stages of HIV infection has been documented over the past 3 decades. The defects are seen in both acute and chronic phases of inflammation and involve innate and adaptive immunity. In advanced stages of HIV infection, the marked disruption of lymphoid tissue and loss of follicular dendritic cells limits the host's ability to process antigen and mount specific responses to pathogens. There are qualitative and quantitative defects in CD4 T cells due to HIV infection. The resulting indirect effects include loss of cytokine production, dysregulation of B-cell function, loss of cellular mediated immunity and "holes" in the immunologic repertoire that may not be restored with the use of antiretroviral therapy. Immune reconstitution allows the host to respond to and control infection, but a significant number of patients will have atypical inflammatory syndromes during the recovery period. We briefly discuss the impact of HIV infection on the immune system and give an overview of the spectrum of conditions attributed to the Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory syndrome (IRIS).

HIV-1 tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

Patients co-infected with HIV-1 and tuberculosis (TB) are at risk of developing TB-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS) following commencement of antiretroviral therapy (ART). TB-IRIS is characterized by transient but severe localized or systemic inflammatory reactions against Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens. Here, we review the risk factors and clinical management of TB-IRIS, as well as the roles played by different aspects of the immune response in contributing to TB-IRIS pathogenesis.

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a large multicenter cohort study: case definition and comparability

This study was nested within the HIV Outpatient Study cohort and investigated the incidence and risk factors for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) and the impact of IRIS on mortality. IRIS was defined as a new type B or C AIDS-defining condition or one of a range of mucocutaneous or autoimmune conditions diagnosed within 180 days of starting a new combination antiretroviral therapy regimen, provided there was a documented HIV viral load or CD4 response. IRIS occurred in 10.6% of the 2610 patients. Risk factors independently associated with IRIS included high HIV viral load and low CD4 count. IRIS related to type B or C AIDS-defining conditions was associated with subsequent mortality. Deaths among IRIS cases occurred over 3 years (median) after the IRIS event, making it unlikely that these deaths were directly attributable to IRIS. The IRIS case definition used has important differences when compared with previously published IRIS case definitions thereby affecting comparability of these findings, but this was a pragmatic definition for a large multicenter cohort study utilizing a central database.

A non-synonymous polymorphism in IL-23R Gene (rs1884444) is associated with reduced risk to schistosomiasis-associated Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome in a Kenyan population

Background

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Schistosomiasis co-infection is common among residents at the shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya. About 36% of this population initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) experience Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) that complicates recovery. Several IL-23R alleles have been associated with susceptibility to both autoimmune and inflammatory diseases through T-helper type 17 (TH₁₇) cells. However, whether or not variants within the IL-23R increase susceptibility to IRIS in western Kenya is unknown. The objective of the current study was to determine the association between IL-23R gene polymorphisms, CD4+ cell counts and HIV RNA levels and IRIS in HIV and Schistosoma mansoni co-infected patients undergoing highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART).

Methods

A three-month case–control study was conducted on antiretroviral naïve schistosomiasis/HIV co-infected fishermen starting HAART in Uyoma Rarieda, Siaya County, Kenya. Seventy one patients were sampled at baseline and followed up for three months, to establish if they developed Schistosoma-related IRIS. In addition, the CD4+ cell counts and HIV RNA levels were determined in pre- and post-administration of HAART. Variations at five polymorphic sites of IL-23R (rs1884444, rs11465754, rs6682925, rs7530511 and rs7539625) based on >10% minor allele frequency in Yoruban reference population was determined using Allelic Discrimination Assay. The association between the five variants and susceptibility to IRIS was determined using logistic regression while controlling for potential confounders. In addition, the functional differences between the baseline CD4 + Cell counts and viral loads were determined using medians while across IL-23R genotypes were determined using Kruskal-Wallis tests.

Results

Overall, 26 (36.6%) patients developed schistosomiasis-associated IRIS at a median age of 35.5 years. Carriage of the TT genotype at the non-synonymous rs1884444 T > G relative to GG, was associated with a decreased risk of schistosomiasis-associated IRIS (OR, 0.25, 95% CI, 0.07-0.96, P = 0.043) while both baseline CD4+ cell counts and viral loads had no association with IRIS.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that the non-synonymous variant rs1884444 T > G of IL-23R is associated with a decreased risk to schistosomiasis-associated IRIS. However, additional studies in a larger cohort and with an all inclusive polymorphic variants in the synonymous and non-synonymous regions need to be evaluated.

Poor CD4 recovery and risk of subsequent progression to AIDS or death despite viral suppression in a South African cohort

INTRODUCTION

The prognostic role of CD4 response in the first six months of treatment in patients achieving early viral suppression during HIV treatment is unclear.

METHODS

This was a cohort study of HIV-positive adults initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) between April 2004 and August 2007 who achieved viral suppression (<400 copies/ml) by six months on treatment in South Africa. Immunological response at six months was defined as: (1) absolute CD4 reached (<200 vs. ≥ 200 cells/ml); (2) absolute CD4 reached (0-49, 50-200 and ≥ 200 cells/ml); and (3) CD4 increase from ART initiation (<0, 0-49, 50-199 and ≥ 200 cells/ml). We used Cox regression models to determine the relationship between each definition and both new AIDS-defining condition and death.

RESULTS

A total of 4129 patients were eligible for analysis; 212 (5.1%) of those patients experienced a new AIDS-defining condition and 154 (3.7%) died. Smaller CD4 gains by six months were associated with higher hazards of progression to AIDS (CD4<50 vs. ≥ 200 cells/ml; adjusted hazard ratio (aHR): 2.6; 95% CI: 1.2-2.1) and death (aHR: 2.8; 95% CI: 1.4-5.7). A decrease in CD4 count since ART initiation through six months (aHR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.2-4.9) and smaller CD4 count gains (0-49 cells/ml; aHR: 2.0; 95% CI: 1.2-3.4 and 50-199 cells/ml; aHR: 1.5; 95% CI: 0.9-2.2) were also associated with greater risk of progression to AIDS compared to an increase of ≥ 200 cells/ml. When we examined mortality differences by gender among this virally suppressed cohort, a higher proportion of males died compared to females, 4.7% versus 3.2%, p=0.01. However, in multivariable analysis, we did not observe any significant differences: aHR: 1.39; 95% CI: 0.98-1.95.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients on ART with poor CD4 recovery early in treatment are at greater risk of progression to new AIDS diagnosis or death despite viral suppression. Approaches to managing this sub-group of patients need further investigation.

Outcomes among HIV-1 infected individuals first starting antiretroviral therapy with concurrent active TB or other AIDS-defining disease

Background

Tuberculosis (TB) is common among HIV-infected individuals in many resource-limited countries and has been associated with poor survival. We evaluated morbidity and mortality among individuals first starting antiretroviral therapy (ART) with concurrent active TB or other AIDS-defining disease using data from the “Prospective Evaluation of Antiretrovirals in Resource-Limited Settings” (PEARLS) study.

Methods

Participants were categorized retrospectively into three groups according to presence of active confirmed or presumptive disease at ART initiation: those with pulmonary and/or extrapulmonary TB (“TB” group), those with other non-TB AIDS-defining disease (“other disease”), or those without concurrent TB or other AIDS-defining disease (“no disease”). Primary outcome was time to the first of virologic failure, HIV disease progression or death. Since the groups differed in characteristics, proportional hazard models were used to compare the hazard of the primary outcome among study groups, adjusting for age, sex, country, screening CD4 count, baseline viral load and ART regimen.

Results

31 of 102 participants (30%) in the “TB” group, 11 of 56 (20%) in the “other disease” group, and 287 of 1413 (20%) in the “no disease” group experienced a primary outcome event (p = 0.042). This difference reflected higher mortality in the TB group: 15 (15%), 0 (0%) and 41 (3%) participants died, respectively (p<0.001). The adjusted hazard ratio comparing the “TB” and “no disease” groups was 1.39 (95% confidence interval: 0.93–2.10; p = 0.11) for the primary outcome and 3.41 (1.72–6.75; p<0.001) for death.

Conclusions

Active TB at ART initiation was associated with increased risk of mortality in HIV-1 infected patients.

Urban legends series: oral manifestations of HIV infection

Human immunodeficiency virus-related oral lesions (HIV-OLs), such as oral candidiasis (OC) and oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL), have been recognized as indicators of immune suppression since the beginning of the global HIV epidemic. The diagnosis and management of HIV disease and spectrum of opportunistic infection has changed over the past 30 years as our understanding of the infection has evolved. We investigated the following controversial topics: (i) Are oral manifestations of HIV still relevant after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)? (ii) Can we nowadays still diagnose HIV infection through oral lesions? (iii) Is the actual classification of oral manifestations of HIV adequate or does it need to be reviewed and updated? (iv) Is there any novelty in the treatment of oral manifestations of HIV infection? Results from extensive literature review suggested the following: (i) While HAART has resulted in significant reductions in HIV-OLs, many are still seen in patients with HIV infection, with OC remaining the most common lesion. While the relationship between oral warts and the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome is less clear, the malignant potential of oral human papillomavirus infection is gaining increasing attention. (ii) Effective antiretroviral therapy has transformed HIV from a fatal illness to a chronic manageable condition and as a result expanded screening policies for HIV are being advocated both in developed and in developing countries. Affordable, reliable, and easy-to-use diagnostic techniques have been recently introduced likely restricting the importance of HIV-OLs in diagnosis. (iii) The 1993 EC-Clearinghouse classification of HIV-OLs is still globally used despite controversy on the relevance of periodontal diseases today. HIV-OL case definitions were updated in 2009 to facilitate the accuracy of HIV-OL diagnoses by non-dental healthcare workers in large-scale epidemiologic studies and clinical trials. (iv) Research over the last 6 years on novel modalities for the treatment of HIV-OLs has been reported for OC and OHL.

Identifying risk factors of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS patients receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy

Immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome typically occurs within days after patients undergo highly active anti-retroviral therapy and is a big hurdle for effective treatment of AIDS patients. In this study, we monitored immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome occurrence in 238 AIDS patients treated with highly active anti-retroviral therapy. Among them, immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome occurred in 47 cases (19.7%). Immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome patients had significantly higher rate of opportunistic infection (p < 0.001) and persistently lower CD4⁺ cell count (p < 0.001) compared to the non-immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome patients. In contrast, no significant differences in HIV RNA loads were observed between the immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome group and non-immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome group. These data suggest that a history of opportunistic infection and CD4⁺ cell counts at baseline may function as risk factors for immune reconstitution inflammation syndrome occurrence in AIDS patients as well as potential prognostic markers. These findings will improve the management of AIDS with highly active anti-retroviral therapy.

Intensification of antiretroviral therapy through addition of enfuvirtide in naive HIV-1-infected patients with severe immunosuppression does not improve immunological response: results of a randomized multicenter trial (ANRS 130 Apollo)

We studied whether addition of enfuvirtide (ENF) to a background combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) would improve the CD4 cell count response at week 24 in naive patients with advanced HIV disease. ANRS 130 Apollo is a randomized study, conducted in naive HIV-1-infected patients, either asymptomatic with CD4 counts of <100/mm(3) or stage B/C disease with CD4 counts of <200/mm(3). Patients received tenofovir-emtricitabine with lopinavir-ritonavir (LPV/r) or efavirenz and were randomized to receive ENF for 24 weeks (ENF arm) or not (control arm). The primary endpoint was the proportion of patients with CD4 counts of ≥ 200/mm(3) at week 24. A total of 195 patients were randomized: 73% had stage C disease, 78% were male, the mean age was 44 years, the median CD4 count was 30/mm(3), and the median HIV-1 RNA load was 5.4 log(10) copies/ml. Eighty-one percent of patients received LPV/r. One patient was lost to follow-up, and eight discontinued the study (four in each arm). The proportions of patients with CD4 counts of ≥ 200/mm(3) at week 24 were 34% and 38% in the ENF and control arms, respectively (P = 0.53). The proportions of patients with HIV-1 RNA loads of <50 copies/ml were 74% and 58% at week 24 in the ENF and control arms, respectively (P < 0.02), and the proportion reached 79% in both arms at week 48. Twenty (20%) and 12 patients (13%) in the ENF and control arms, respectively, experienced at least one AIDS event during follow-up (P = 0.17). Although inducing a more rapid virological response, addition of ENF to a standard cART does not improve the immunological outcome in naive HIV-infected patients with severe immunosuppression.

Incidence, clinical spectrum, risk factors and impact of HIV-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in South Africa

Background

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is a widely recognised complication of antiretroviral therapy (ART), but there are still limited data from resource-limited settings. Our objective was to characterize the incidence, clinical spectrum, risk factors and contribution to mortality of IRIS in two urban ART clinics in South Africa.

Methods and Findings

498 adults initiating ART in Durban, South Africa were followed prospectively for 24 weeks. IRIS diagnosis was based on consensus expert opinion, and classified by mode of presentation (paradoxical worsening of known opportunistic infection [OI] or unmasking of subclinical disease). 114 patients (22.9%) developed IRIS (36% paradoxical, 64% unmasking). Mucocutaneous conditions accounted for 68% of IRIS events, mainly folliculitis, warts, genital ulcers and herpes zoster. Tuberculosis (TB) accounted for 25% of IRIS events. 18/135 (13.3%) patients with major pre-ART OIs (e.g. TB, cryptococcosis) developed paradoxical IRIS related to the same OI. Risk factors for this type of IRIS were baseline viral load >5.5 vs. <4.5 log₁₀ (adjusted hazard ratio 7.23; 95% confidence interval 1.35–38.76) and ≤30 vs. >30 days of OI treatment prior to ART (2.66; 1.16–6.09). Unmasking IRIS related to major OIs occurred in 25/498 patients (5.0%), and risk factors for this type of IRIS were baseline C-reactive protein ≥25 vs. <25 mg/L (2.77; 1.31–5.85), haemoglobin <10 vs. >12 g/dL (3.36; 1.32–8.52), ≥10% vs. <10% weight loss prior to ART (2.31; 1.05–5.11) and mediastinal lymphadenopathy on pre-ART chest x-ray (9.15; 4.10–20.42). IRIS accounted for 6/25 (24%) deaths, 13/65 (20%) hospitalizations and 10/35 (29%) ART interruptions or discontinuations.

Conclusion

IRIS occurred in almost one quarter of patients initiating ART, and accounted for one quarter of deaths in the first 6 months. Priority strategies to reduce IRIS-associated morbidity and mortality in ART programmes include earlier ART initiation before onset of advanced immunodeficiency, improved pre-ART screening for TB and cryptococcal infection, optimization of OI therapy prior to ART initiation, more intensive clinical monitoring in initial weeks of ART, and education of health care workers and patients about IRIS.

Prevalence of discordant immunologic and virologic responses in patients with AIDS under antiretroviral therapy in a specialized care center in Brazil

Some patients under antiretroviral therapy (ART) do not reach immune recovery when the viral load becomes undetectable. This is called discordant immunologic and virologic responses. Its prevalence varies between 8% and 24%. This study describes its prevalence and the characteristics of the affected subjects in the outpatient clinic of a Brazilian specialized-care center. Of 934 patients on ART, 536 had undetectable viral loads. Prevalence was 51/536 or 9% (95% confidence interval: 6.6% to 11.4%). Median age at the beginning of ART was 37 years (interquartile range - IQR: 31 to 45). Male gender and mixed race predominated (76.5% and 47.1% respectively). AIDS-defining illnesses were absent at the beginning of ART in 60.8%. Fifty-one percent were taking protease inhibitors, 43.2% Efavirenz and 5.8% both. Median time on ART was 36 months (IQR: 17-81 months). Irregular treatment was recorded for 21.6%. ART had been modified for 63% prior to the study, and 15.7% had used monotherapy or double therapy. Median CD4 count was 255 cells/mm³ (IQR: 200-284). Median viral load before ART was 4.7 log10 copies/mL (IQR: 4.5-5.2). Discordant responders were not different from AIDS patients in general, but there was a high frequency of multiple schedules of treatment.

Clinical outcomes among HIV/tuberculosis-coinfected patients developing immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome after HAART initiation in South India

INTRODUCTION

We determine the frequency and immunological outcome of developing immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) among HIV/tuberculosis (TB)-coinfected Indians receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

Patients coinfected with TB and HIV who initiated HAART were classified based on treatment outcomes (IRIS and non-IRIS) utilizing an observational HIV/AIDS cohort.

RESULTS

A total of 1731 HIV/TB-coinfected patients initiated HAART, and 95 of these patients (5.5%) developed TB-IRIS, with an incidence rate of 0.26 per 100 person-years. Patients who developed IRIS had significantly higher CD4 counts than non-IRIS patients at the time of initiating HAART, as well as after 6 months, 18 months, and 24 months following HAART initiation (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

HIV/TB-coinfected patients who developed IRIS following HAART initiation had equivalent clinical outcomes compared with their HIV/TB-coinfected counterparts who did not develop IRIS, suggesting minimal long-term risks associated with IRIS.

High Initial HIV/AIDS-Related Mortality and -Its Predictors among Patients on Antiretroviral Therapy in the Kagera Region of Tanzania: A Five-Year Retrospective Cohort Study

We examined mortality rates and its predictors from a five years retrospective cohort data of HIV/AIDs patients attending care and treatment clinic in Biharamulo Tanzania. Cox regression analysis was used to identify predictors of mortality. Of the 546 patient records retrieved, the mean age was 37 years with median CD4 count of 156 cells. The mortality rate was 4.32/100 person years at risk with males having three times higher mortality compared to females. Starting Antiretroviral treatment with advanced disease state, body weight below 45 kegs, WHO stage 4 disease, and CD4 cells below 50 were main predictors of mortality. Promoting early voluntary counselling and testing should be given a priority to facilitate timely start of treatment.

HIV & immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS)

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation in HIV-infected patients leads to recovery of CD4+T cell numbers and restoration of protective immune responses against a wide variety of pathogens, resulting in reduction in the frequency of opportunistic infections and prolonged survival. However, in a subset of patients, dysregulated immune response after initiation of ART leads to the phenomenon of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). The hallmark of the syndrome is paradoxical worsening of an existing infection or disease process or appearance of a new infection/disease process soon after initiation of therapy. The overall incidence of IRIS is unknown, but is dependent on the population studied and the burden of underlying opportunistic infections. The immunopathogenesis of the syndrome is unclear and appears to be result of unbalanced reconstitution of effector and regulatory T-cells, leading to exuberant inflammatory response in patients receiving ART. Biomarkers, including interferon-γ (INF-γ), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP) and inter leukin (IL)-2, 6 and 7, are subject of intense investigation at present. The commonest forms of IRIS are associated with mycobacterial infections, fungi and herpes viruses. Majority of patients with IRIS have a self-limiting disease course. ART is usually continued and treatment for the associated condition optimized. The overall mortality associated with IRIS is low; however, patients with central nervous system involvement with raised intracranial pressures in cryptococcal and tubercular meningitis, and respiratory failure due to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) have poor prognosis and require aggressive management including corticosteroids. Paradigm shifts in management of HIV with earlier initiation of ART is expected to decrease the burden of IRIS in developed countries; however, with enhanced rollout of ART in recent years and the enormous burden of opportunistic infections in developing countries like India, IRIS is likely to remain an area of major concern.

Central nervous system immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in AIDS: experience of a Mexican neurological centre

BACKGROUND

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) restores the inflammatory immune response in AIDS patients and it may unmask previous subclinical infections or paradoxically exacerbate symptoms of opportunistic infections. Up to 25% of patients receiving HAART develop immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). We describe six patients with IRIS central nervous system (CNSIRIS) manifestations emphasizing the relevance of CSF cultures and neuroimaging in early diagnosis and management.

METHODS

Patients with CNSIRIS were identified among hospitalized HIV-infected patients that started HAART from January 2002 through December 2007 at a referral neurological center in Mexico.

RESULTS

One-hundred and forty-two HIV-infected patients with neurological signs were hospitalized, 64 of which had received HAART, and six (9.3%) developed CNSIRIS. Five patients were male. Two cases of tuberculosis, two of cryptococcosis, one of brain toxoplasmosis, and one possible PML case were found. IRIS onset occurred within 12 weeks of HAART in five patients. Anti-infective therapy was continued. In one case, HAART was temporarily suspended. In long-term follow-up the clinical condition improved in all patients.

CONCLUSIONS

CNSIRIS associated to opportunistic infections appeared in 9% of patients receiving HAART. Interestingly, no cases of malignancy or neoplasm IRIS-related were found. Frequent clinical assessment and neuroimaging studies supported diagnosis and treatment. Risk factors were similar to those found in other series.

Evaluation of cellular phenotypes implicated in immunopathogenesis and monitoring immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV/leprosy cases

BACKGROUND

It is now evident that HAART-associated immunological improvement often leads to a variety of new clinical manifestations, collectively termed immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, or IRIS. This phenomenon has already been described in cases of HIV coinfection with Mycobacterium leprae, most of them belonging to the tuberculoid spectrum of leprosy disease, as observed in leprosy reversal reaction (RR). However, the events related to the pathogenesis of this association need to be clarified. This study investigated the immunological profile of HIV/leprosy patients, with special attention to the cellular activation status, to better understand the mechanisms related to IRIS/RR immunopathogenesis, identifying any potential biomarkers for IRIS/RR intercurrence.

METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Eighty-five individuals were assessed in this study: HIV/leprosy and HIV-monoinfected patients, grouped according to HIV-viral load levels, leprosy patients without HIV coinfection, and healthy controls. Phenotypes were evaluated by flow cytometry for T cell subsets and immune differentiation/activation markers. As expected, absolute counts of the CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from the HIV-infected individuals changed in relation to those of the leprosy patients and controls. However, there were no significant differences among the groups, whether in the expression of cellular differentiation phenotypes or cellular activation, as reflected by the expression of CD38 and HLA-DR. Six HIV/leprosy patients identified as IRIS/RR were analyzed during IRIS/RR episodes and after prednisone treatment. These patients presented high cellular activation levels regarding the expression of CD38 in CD8+ cells T during IRIS/RR (median: 77,15%), dropping significantly (p<0,05) during post-IRIS/RR moments (median: 29,7%). Furthermore, an increase of cellular activation seems to occur prior to IRIS/RR.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE

These data suggest CD38 expression in CD8+ T cells interesting tool identifying HIV/leprosy individuals at risk for IRIS/RR. So, a comparative investigation to leprosy patients at RR should be conducted.

Rate and determinants of treatment response to different antiretroviral combination strategies in subjects presenting at HIV-1 diagnosis with advanced disease

BACKGROUND

The optimal therapeutic strategies for patients presenting with advanced disease at HIV-1 diagnosis are as yet incompletely defined.

METHODS

All patients presenting at two outpatient clinics in 2000-2009 with an AIDS-defining clinical condition or a CD4+ T cell count < 200/μL at HIV-1 diagnosis were analyzed for the presence of combined immunovirological response, defined by the concomitant presence of an absolute number of CD4+ T cells > 200 cells/μL and a plasma HIV-1 RNA copy number < 50/mL after 12 months of HAART.

RESULTS

Among 102 evaluable patients, first-line regimens were protease inhibitors [PI]-based in 78 cases (77%) and efavirenz-based in 24 cases (23%). The overall response rate was 65% (95% CI: 55-74), with no differences by gender, age, nationality, route of transmission, hepatitis virus coinfections, presence of AIDS-defining clinical events, baseline HIV-1 viral load, or type of regimen (response rates with PI-based and efavirenz-based therapy: 63% and 71%, respectively, p = 0.474). Response rate was significantly better with higher baseline CD4+ T cell counts (78% with CD4+ ≥ 100/μL, compared to 50% with CD4+ < 100/μL; odds ratio: 3.5; 95% CI: 1.49-8.23, p = 0.003). Median time on first-line antiretroviral therapy was 24 months (interquartile range: 12-48). Switch to a second line treatment occurred in 57% of patients, mainly for simplification (57%), and was significantly more common with PI-based regimens [adjusted hazard ratios (AHR) with respect to efavirenz-based regimens: 3.88 for unboosted PIs (95% CI: 1.40-10.7, p = 0.009) and 4.21 for ritonavir-boosted PI (95% CI 1.7-10.4, p = 0.002)] and in older subjects (≥ 50 years) (AHR: 1.83; 95% CI: 1.02-3.31, p = 0.044). Overall mortality was low (3% after a median follow up of 48 months).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that a favorable immunovirological response is possible in the majority of naive patients presenting at HIV-1 diagnosis with AIDS or low CD4+ T cell counts, and confirm that starting HAART with a more compromised immune system may be associated with a delayed and sometimes partial immune recovery. Simpler regimens may be preferable in this particular population.

Parasitic infections in HIV infected individuals: diagnostic & therapeutic challenges

After 30 years of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic, parasites have been one of the most common opportunistic infections (OIs) and one of the most frequent causes of morbidity and mortality associated with HIV-infected patients. Due to severe immunosuppression, enteric parasitic pathogens in general are emerging and are OIs capable of causing diarrhoeal disease associated with HIV. Of these, Cryptosporidium parvum and Isospora belli are the two most common intestinal protozoan parasites and pose a public health problem in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. These are the only two enteric protozoan parasites that remain in the case definition of AIDS till today. Leishmaniasis, strongyloidiasis and toxoplasmosis are the three main opportunistic causes of systemic involvements reported in HIV-infected patients. Of these, toxoplasmosis is the most important parasitic infection associated with the central nervous system. Due to its complexity in nature, toxoplasmosis is the only parasitic disease capable of not only causing focal but also disseminated forms and it has been included in AIDS-defining illnesses (ADI) ever since. With the introduction of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), cryptosporidiosis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, strongyloidiasis, and toxoplasmosis are among parasitic diseases reported in association with immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). This review addresses various aspects of parasitic infections in term of clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic challenges associated with HIV-infection.

Paradoxical immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV-infected patients treated with combination antiretroviral therapy after AIDS-defining opportunistic infection

BACKGROUND

The incidence of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) when antiretroviral therapy (ART) is initiated after an AIDS-defining opportunistic infection (OI) is uncertain and understudied for the most common OIs.

METHODS

We examined patients in the University of Washington Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cohort initiating potent ART subsequent to an AIDS-defining OI. IRIS was determined through retrospective medical record review and adjudication using a standardized data collection process and clinical case definition. We compared demographic and clinical characteristics, and immunologic changes in patients with and without IRIS.

RESULTS

Among 196 patients with 260 OIs, 21 (11%; 95% confidence interval, 7%-16%) developed paradoxical IRIS in the first year on ART. The 3 most common OIs among study patients were Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP, 28%), Candida esophagitis (23%), and Kaposi sarcoma (KS, 16%). Cumulative 1-year incidence of IRIS was 29% (12/41) for KS, 16% (4/25) for tuberculosis, 14% (1/7) for Cryptococcus, 10% (1/10) for Mycobacterium avium complex, and 4% (3/72) for PCP. Morbidity and mortality were highest in those with visceral KS-IRIS compared with other types of IRIS (100% [6/6] vs 7% [1/15], P < .01). Patients with mucocutaneous KS and tuberculosis-IRIS experienced greater median increase in CD4(+) cell count during the first 6 months of ART compared with those without IRIS (+158 vs +53 cells/μL, P = .04, mucocutaneous KS; +261 vs +113, P = .04, tuberculosis).

CONCLUSIONS

Cumulative incidence and features of IRIS varied depending on the OI. IRIS occurred in >10% of patients with KS, tuberculosis, or Cryptococcus. Visceral KS-IRIS led to considerable morbidity and mortality.

Factors associated with paradoxical immune response to antiretroviral therapy in HIV infected patients: a case control study

Background

A paradoxical immunologic response (PIR) to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), defined as viral suppression without CD4 cell-count improvement, has been reported in the literature as 8 to 42%, around 15% in most instances. The present study aims to determine, in a cohort of HIV infected patients in Brazil, what factors were independently associated with such a discordant response to HAART.

Methods

A case-control study (1:4) matched by gender was conducted among 934 HIV infected patients on HAART in Brazil. Cases: patients with PIR, defined as CD4 < 350 cells/mm³ (hazard ratio for AIDS or death of at least 8.5) and undetectable HIV viral load on HAART for at least one year. Controls: similar to cases, but with CD4 counts ≥ 350 cells/mm³. Eligibility criteria were applied. Data were collected from medical records using a standardized form. Variables were introduced in a hierarchical logistic regression model if a p-value < 0.1 was determined in a bivariate analysis.

Results

Among 934 patients, 39 cases and 160 controls were consecutively selected. Factors associated with PIR in the logistic regression model were: total time in use of HAART (OR 0.981; CI 95%: 0.96-0.99), nadir CD4-count (OR 0.985; CI 95%: 0.97-0.99), and time of undetectable HIV viral load (OR 0.969; CI 95%: 0.94-0.99).

Conclusions

PIR seems to be related to a delay in the management of immunodeficient patients, as shown by its negative association with nadir CD4-count. Strategies should be implemented to avoid such a delay and improve the adherence to HAART as a way to implement concordant responses.

Pathogenesis and prevention of immune reconstitution disease during antiretroviral therapy

The risks of unmasking and paradoxical forms of immune reconstitution disease in HIV-infected patients starting antiretroviral therapy (ART) are fuelled by a combination of the late presentation of patients with advanced immunodeficiency, the associated high rates of opportunistic infections (OIs) and the need for rapid initiation of ART to minimize overall mortality risk. We review the risk factors and our current knowledge of the immunopathogenesis of immune reconstitution disease, leading to a discussion of strategies for prevention. Initiation of ART at higher CD4 counts, use of OI-preventive therapies prior to ART eligibility, intensified screening for OIs prior to ART initiation and optimum therapy for OIs are all needed. In addition, use of a range of pharmacological agents with immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory activity is being explored.

Antiretroviral therapy in intensive care

Using antiretroviral therapy (ART) raises numerous issues in intensive care units (ICU): drug administration and kinetics issues in ventilated patients and/or with gastric tube, drug interactions, and risk of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. This is why a lot of ICU physicians stop ART on admission and few initiate it during the ICU stay. However, the literature review suggests that the earlier the ART is started the more effective it is. Furthermore, stopping ART could be hazardous for some patients. The authors present the most frequent issues raised by ART use in an ICU and how to deal with them.

Circulating inflammatory biomarkers can predict and characterize tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

OBJECTIVE

To identify inflammatory biomarker profiles during paradoxical and unmasking tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS), and determine whether differences in biomarkers prior to antiretroviral therapy (ART) predict subsequent development of TB-IRIS.

DESIGN

Case-control study within a cohort of patients initiating ART in South Africa (n = 498).

METHODS

Participants were followed up for 24 weeks for development of TB-IRIS. Plasma samples were collected at baseline and presentation with symptoms. Groups of cases and controls were as follows: pre-ART TB and developed paradoxical TB-IRIS (n = 9); pre-ART TB but no IRIS (n = 12); no pre-ART TB but developed unmasking TB-IRIS (n = 13); no pre-ART TB and no TB or IRIS during treatment (n = 12). Concentrations of 18 cytokines and chemokines, and C-reactive protein (CRP), were measured and compared.

RESULTS

Event samples were drawn a median of 28 days after ART initiation [interquartile range (IQR) 14-56 days]. During paradoxical TB-IRIS events, there were lower median concentrations of interleukin-10 [IL-10; 22.1 (IQR 15.3-34.9) vs. 82.2 (29.4-128.4) pg/ml, P = 0.047] and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 [MCP-1; 27.6 (20.0-29.7) vs. 71.4 (40.6-77.8) pg/ml, P = 0.005], and higher CRP: IL-10 ratio [2.2 × 10³ (1.8-3.4) vs. 0.3 × 10³ (0.2-0.5), P = 0.003] than in controls. Patients who developed unmasking TB-IRIS had higher median pre-ART levels of CRP [25 (8-47) vs. 6 (lower limit of detection, LLD-12) mg/l, P = 0.046] and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) [9.1 (4.4-24.7) vs. 0.9 (LLD-8.7) pg/ml, P = 0.032] than controls.

CONCLUSION

Patients with unmasking TB-IRIS had higher pre-ART levels of plasma IFN-γ and CRP, consistent with preexisting subclinical TB. Paradoxical TB-IRIS was associated with lower levels of biomarkers of monocyte and regulatory T-cell activity, and higher CRP.

Impact of the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) on mortality and morbidity in HIV-infected patients in Mexico

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the impact of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) on morbidity and mortality in patients starting highly-active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of HIV-positive patients starting HAART was conducted at a tertiary care referral center in Mexico City. We estimated the incidence of IRIS, hospitalizations and death rates during the first 2 years of HAART. The relative risk of death (RR) and hospitalization for patients with IRIS were adjusted for relevant covariates using regression methods.

RESULTS

During the 2-year follow-up period, 27% of patients developed IRIS (14 IRIS cases per 100 person-years). The relative risk of death among patients who developed IRIS was 3 times higher (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.19-7.65, p = 0.03). After adjusting for previous opportunistic infections we still observed a higher death rate among patients with IRIS (RR 2.3, 95% CI 0.9-5.9, p=0.09). An effect modification of IRIS over mortality was observed by previous opportunistic infection.

CONCLUSIONS

IRIS-associated mortality is strongly confounded by previous opportunistic infection. Patients with AIDS who eventually developed IRIS had the highest risk of death at the 2-year follow-up.

Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is a phenomenon observed in patients recovering from immunodeficiency. The clinical presentation of IRIS involves the unmasking of covert infections or the worsening of overt conditions. Several causes and pathways have been suggested, most recognizing an inflammatory flare component occurring in the context of rapid immune reconstitution. In HIV-infected patients, IRIS inadvertently occurs as the consequence of successful antiretroviral therapy, and it is affiliated with improvement of the immune function, complicating the course of the disease and presenting treatment challenges to clinicians. The pathogenesis of IRIS is poorly understood, but in recovering HIV patients, its initiation and progression seem to be primarily linked to an increase in CD4+ T-helper and CD8+ T-suppressor cell count and a reduction in T-regulatory cells, all endorsed by exaggerated cytokine release and activity. The clinical presentation of IRIS is usually atypical. The manifestations depend on the trigger antigen, which can be an infective agent (viable or nonviable), a host antigen, or a tumor antigen. Most IRIS cases are self-limiting, but a few cases can be overwhelming and life-threatening; hence, early recognition is important. In most cases, there is no need to discontinue the antiretroviral therapy, although in the more severe cases, other clinical intervention may be necessary.

Clinical Markers of Immunodeficiency and Mechanism of Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy on HIV

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has improved survival and changed the disease pattern of HIV infection. However, ART may cause serious side effects, such as metabolic and cardiovascular complications. In addition, immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is being increasingly reported in relation to ART. The article presents the consensus of a workshop around 4 key issues: (1) the differences in the response of adults and children to highly active antiretroviral therapy, (2) the mechanism of the new HIV entry inhibitors and its effect on oral markers, (3) the pathogenesis of IRIS and the contradictory findings of the possible oral lesions related with IRIS, (4) and the benefits and barriers associated with using ART in the developing and developed world. The consensus of the workshop was that there is a need for future studies on the oral manifestations of HIV in individuals treated with new ARTs—especially, children. IRIS was considered a promising field for future research; as such, workshop attendees recommended formulating an IRIS–oral lesions case definition and following strict criteria for its diagnosis.

An official ATS workshop report: Emerging issues and current controversies in HIV-associated pulmonary diseases

Pulmonary diseases are major causes of morbidity and death in persons with HIV infection. Millions of people with HIV/AIDS throughout the world are at risk of opportunistic pneumonias such as tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, and Pneumocystis pneumonia. However, the availability of combination antiretroviral therapy has turned HIV into a chronic disease, and noninfectious lung diseases such as lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary arterial hypertension are also emerging as important causes of illness. Despite the importance of these diseases and the rapidly evolving understanding of their pathogenesis and epidemiology, few avenues exist for the discussion and dissemination of new clinical and basic insights. In May of 2008, the American Thoracic Society sponsored a 1-day workshop, "Emerging Issues and Current Controversies in HIV-Associated Pulmonary Diseases," which brought together basic and clinical researchers in HIV-associated pulmonary disease. A review of the literature was performed by workshop participants, and the workshop included 18 presentations on diverse topics summarized in this article.

Incidence and predictors of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a rural area of Mozambique

Background

There is limited data on the epidemiology of Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) in rural sub-Saharan Africa. A prospective observational cohort study was conducted to assess the incidence, clinical characteristics, outcome and predictors of IRIS in rural Mozambique.

Methods

One hundred and thirty-six consecutive antiretroviral treatment (ART)-naïve HIV-1-infected patients initiating ART at the Manhiça district hospital were prospectively followed for development of IRIS over 16 months. Survival analysis by Cox regression was performed to identify pre-ART predictors of IRIS development.

Results

Thirty-six patients developed IRIS [26.5%, incidence rate 3.1 cases/100 persons-month of ART (95% CI 2.2–4.3)]. Median time to IRIS onset was 62 days from ART initiation (IQR 35.5–93.5). Twenty-five cases (69.4%) were “unmasking”, 10 (27.8%) were “paradoxical”, and 1 (2.8%) developed a paradoxical worsening followed by the unmasking of another condition. Systemic OI (OI-IRIS) accounted for 47% (17/36) of IRIS cases, predominantly of KS (8 cases) and TB (6 cases) IRIS. Mucocutaneous IRIS manifestations (MC-IRIS) accounted for 53% (19/36) of IRIS events, mostly tinea (9 cases) and herpes simplex infection (3 cases). Multivariate analysis identified two independent predictors of IRIS development: pre-ART CD4 count <50 cells/µl (HR 2.3, 95% CI 1.19–4.44, p = 0.01) and body mass index (BMI) <18.5 (HR 2.15, 95% CI 1.07–4.3, p = 0.03). The pre-cART proportion of activated T-cells, as well as the immunologic and virologic response to ART were not associated with IRIS development. All patients continued on ART, 7 (19.4%) required hospitalization and there were 3 deaths (8.3%) attributable to IRIS.

Conclusions

IRIS is common in patients initiating ART in rural Mozambique. Pre-ART CD4 counts and BMI can easily be assessed at ART initiation in rural sub-Saharan Africa to identify patients at high risk of IRIS, for whom close supervision is warranted.

Immune restoration disease and changes in CD4+ T-cell count in HIV- infected patients during highly active antiretroviral therapy at Zewditu memorial hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Background

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) improves the immune function and decreases morbidity, mortality and opportunistic infections (OIs) in HIV-infected patients. However, since the use of HAART, immune restoration disease (IRD) has been described in association with many OIs. Our objective was to determine the proportion of IRD, changes in CD4+ T-cell count and possible risk factors of IRD in HIV-infected patients.

Methods

A retrospective study of all HIV- infected patients starting HAART between September 1, 2005 and August 31, 2006 at Zewditu memorial hospital HIV clinic, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia was conducted. All laboratory and clinical data were extracted from computerized clinic records and patient charts.

Results

A total of 1166 HIV- infected patients with mean ± SD age of 36 ± 9.3 years were on HAART. IRD was identified in 170 (14.6%) patients. OIs diagnosed in the IRD patients were tuberculosis (66.5%, 113/170), toxoplasmosis (12.9%, 22/170), herpes zoster rash (12.9%, 22/170), Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (4.1%, 7/170), and cryptococcosis (3.5%, 6/170). Of the 170 patients with IRD, 124 (72.9%) patients developed IRD within the first 3 months of HAART initiation. Low baseline CD4+ T-cell count (odds ratio [OR], 3.16, 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.19-4.58) and baseline extra pulmonary tuberculosis (OR, 7.7, 95% CI, 3.36-17.65) were associated with development of IRD. Twenty nine (17.1%) of the IRD patients needed to use systemic anti-inflammatory treatment where as 19(11.2%) patients required hospitalization associated to the IRD occurrence. There was a total of 8 (4.7%) deaths attributable to IRD.

Conclusions

The proportion and risk factors of IRD and the pattern of OIs mirrored reports from other countries. Close monitoring of patients during the first three months of HAART initiation is important to minimize clinical deterioration related to IRD.

Recognition of immune reconstitution syndrome necessary for better management of patients with severe drug eruptions and those under immunosuppressive therapy

The immune reconstitution syndrome (IRS) is an increasingly recognized disease concept and is observed with a broad-spectrum of immunosuppressive therapy-related opportunistic infectious diseases and severe drug eruptions complicated by viral reactivations. Clinical illness consistent with IRS includes tuberculosis, herpes zoster, herpes simples, cytomegalovirus infections and sarcoidosis: thus, the manifestations of this syndrome and diverse and depend on the tissue burden of the preexisting infectious agents during the immunosuppressive state, the nature of the immune system being restored, and underlying diseases of the hosts. Although IRS has originally been reported to occur in the setting of HIV infection, it has become clear that the development of IRS can also be in HIV-negative hosts receiving immunosuppressive agents, such as prednisolone and tumor necrosis factor α inhibitors, upon their reduction and withdrawal. Drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome, a life-threatening multiorgan system reaction, is another manifestation of the newly observed IRS. Clinical recognition of the IRS is especially important in improving the outcome for diseases with an otherwise life-threatening progenosis. Clinicians should be aware of the implications of IRS and recognize that relieving the symptoms and signs of immune recovery by anti-inflammatory therapies needs to be balanced with anti-microbial therapies aiming at reducing the amplitude and duration of tissue burden of preexisting microbes.

Superficial thrombophlebitis: A new clinical manifestation of the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a patient with HIV infection

Skin manifestations of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in response to highly active antiretroviral therapy may account for up to 50% of the clinical presentations in this syndrome. Viable or dying infective antigens, host antigens, tumoral antigens, and others may target immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, resulting in a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations. We describe a 26-year-old HIV-infected man who had started highly active antiretroviral therapy a few months earlier. He developed multiple linear nodules following the superficial veins in both legs. Histopathologic examination demonstrated a mostly septal panniculitis with features of superficial thrombophlebitis. We propose that superficial thrombophlebitis should be added to the list of clinical manifestations of this newly observed immune restoration disease.

Risk factor analyses for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a randomized study of early vs. deferred ART during an opportunistic infection

Background

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is reported widely in patients initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, few studies are prospective, and no study has evaluated the impact of the timing of ART when allocated randomly during an acute opportunistic infection (OI).

Methodology/Principal Findings

A5164 randomized 282 subjects with AIDS-related OIs (tuberculosis excluded), to early or deferred ART. IRIS was identified prospectively using pre-defined criteria. We evaluated associations between IRIS and baseline variables in subjects with follow-up on ART using Wilcoxon and Fisher's exact tests, logistic regression, and Cox models with time-varying covariates. Twenty of 262 (7.6%) subjects developed IRIS after a median of 33 days on ART. Subjects with fungal infections (other than pneumocystis) developed IRIS somewhat more frequently (OR = 2.7; 95% CI: 1.02, 7.2; p-value = 0.06 (using Fisher's exact test)). In Cox models, lower baseline and higher on-treatment CD4+ T-cell counts and percentage were associated with IRIS. Additionally, higher baseline and lower on-treatment HIV RNA levels were associated with IRIS. Corticosteroids during OI management and the timing of ART were not associated with the development of IRIS.

Implications

In patients with advanced immunosuppression and non-tuberculous OIs, the presence of a fungal infection, lower CD4+ T-cell counts and higher HIV RNA levels at baseline, and higher CD4+ T-cell counts and lower HIV RNA levels on treatment are associated with IRIS. Early initiation of ART does not increase the incidence of IRIS, and concern about IRIS should not prompt deferral of ART.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00055120

Update on immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: progress and unanswered questions

The immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) is characterized by clinical deterioration occurring after the initiation of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) and results from a disordered and exuberant immune response. The syndrome may present as paradoxical IRIS or unmasking IRIS, depending on whether an opportunistic infection was recognized and treated before ART initiation. Numerous descriptions of IRIS caused by many pathogens were published in the years after the introduction of effective ART. In recent years, with enhanced rollout of ART in resource-limited settings, attention has again focused on IRIS because of the enormous burden of opportunistic infections. This review highlights recent findings elucidating risk factors for and the pathogenesis and treatment of IRIS.