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Bin Haidar H, Almeida JR, Williams J, Guo B, Bigot A, Senthilkumaran S, Vaiyapuri S, Patel K. Differential effects of the venoms of Russell's viper and Indian cobra on human myoblasts. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3184. [PMID: 38326450 PMCID: PMC10850160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53366-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Local tissue damage following snakebite envenoming remains a poorly researched area. To develop better strategies to treat snakebites, it is critical to understand the mechanisms through which venom toxins induce envenomation effects including local tissue damage. Here, we demonstrate how the venoms of two medically important Indian snakes (Russell's viper and cobra) affect human skeletal muscle using a cultured human myoblast cell line. The data suggest that both venoms affect the viability of myoblasts. Russell's viper venom reduced the total number of cells, their migration, and the area of focal adhesions. It also suppressed myogenic differentiation and induced muscle atrophy. While cobra venom decreased the viability, it did not largely affect cell migration and focal adhesions. Cobra venom affected the formation of myotubes and induced atrophy. Cobra venom-induced atrophy could not be reversed by small molecule inhibitors such as varespladib (a phospholipase A2 inhibitor) and prinomastat (a metalloprotease inhibitor), and soluble activin type IIb receptor (a molecule used to promote regeneration of skeletal muscle), although the antivenom (raised against the Indian 'Big Four' snakes) has attenuated the effects. However, all these molecules rescued the myotubes from Russell's viper venom-induced atrophy. This study demonstrates key steps in the muscle regeneration process that are affected by both Indian Russell's viper and cobra venoms and offers insights into the potential causes of clinical features displayed in envenomed victims. Further research is required to investigate the molecular mechanisms of venom-induced myotoxicity under in vivo settings and develop better therapies for snakebite-induced muscle damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Husain Bin Haidar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
- Kuwait Cancer Control Centre, Ministry of Health, Kuwait City, Kuwait
| | - José R Almeida
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Jarred Williams
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Bokai Guo
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Anne Bigot
- INSERM, CNRS, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, Sorbonne Universities, UPMC University Paris, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, UK.
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2
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Zharkova O, Salamah MF, Babak MV, Rajan E, Lim LHK, Andrade F, Gil CD, Oliani SM, Moraes LA, Vaiyapuri S. Deletion of Annexin A1 in Mice Upregulates the Expression of Its Receptor, Fpr2/3, and Reactivity to the AnxA1 Mimetic Peptide in Platelets. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043424. [PMID: 36834844 PMCID: PMC9962723 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Annexin A1 (ANXA1) is an endogenous protein, which plays a central function in the modulation of inflammation. While the functions of ANXA1 and its exogenous peptidomimetics, N-Acetyl 2-26 ANXA1-derived peptide (ANXA1Ac2-26), in the modulation of immunological responses of neutrophils and monocytes have been investigated in detail, their effects on the modulation of platelet reactivity, haemostasis, thrombosis, and platelet-mediated inflammation remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the deletion of Anxa1 in mice upregulates the expression of its receptor, formyl peptide receptor 2/3 (Fpr2/3, orthologue of human FPR2/ALX). As a result, the addition of ANXA1Ac2-26 to platelets exerts an activatory role in platelets, as characterised by its ability to increase the levels of fibrinogen binding and the exposure of P-selectin on the surface. Moreover, ANXA1Ac2-26 increased the development of platelet-leukocyte aggregates in whole blood. The experiments carried out using a pharmacological inhibitor (WRW4) for FPR2/ALX, and platelets isolated from Fpr2/3-deficient mice ascertained that the actions of ANXA1Ac2-26 are largely mediated through Fpr2/3 in platelets. Together, this study demonstrates that in addition to its ability to modulate inflammatory responses via leukocytes, ANXA1 modulates platelet function, which may influence thrombosis, haemostasis, and platelet-mediated inflammation under various pathophysiological settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Zharkova
- Immunology Program, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore
| | | | - Maria V. Babak
- Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | - Lina H. K. Lim
- Immunology Program, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore
| | - Frans Andrade
- Department of Morphology and Genetics, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023-900, Brazil
| | - Cristiane D. Gil
- Department of Morphology and Genetics, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023-900, Brazil
| | - Sonia M. Oliani
- Department of Morphology and Genetics, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023-900, Brazil
- Department of Biology, Instituto de Biociências, Letras e Ciências Exatas (IBILCE), São Paulo State University (UNESP), São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15054-000, Brazil
| | - Leonardo A. Moraes
- Immunology Program, Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117593, Singapore
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
| | - Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
- Correspondence:
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3
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Myostatin deficiency decreases cardiac extracellular matrix in pigs. Transgenic Res 2022; 31:553-565. [PMID: 35978205 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-022-00322-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Myostatin (MSTN), a member of the TGF-β superfamily, negatively regulates muscle growth. MSTN inhibition has been known to cause a double-muscled phenotype in skeletal muscle and fibrosis reduction in the heart. However, the role of MSTN in the cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) needs more studies in various species of animal models to draw more objective conclusions. The main objective of the present study was to investigate whether loss of MSTN affects the cardiac extracellular matrix in pigs. Three MSTN knockouts (MSTN-/-) and three wild type (WT) male pigs were generated by crossing MSTN ± heterozygous gilts and boars. Cardiac ECM and underlying mechanisms were determined post-mortem. The role of MSTN on collagen expression was investigated by treating cardiac fibroblasts with active MSTN protein in vitro. MSTN protein was detected in WT hearts, while no expression was detected in MSTN-/- hearts. The heart-to-body weight ratio was significantly decreased in MSTN-/- pigs. The morphometric analyses, including picrosirius red staining, immunofluorescent staining, and ultra-structural thickness examination of the endomysium, revealed a significant reduction of connective tissue content in MSTN-/- hearts compared to WT. Hydroxyproline, type I collagen (Col1A), and p-Smad3/Smad3 levels were significantly lower in MSTN-/- hearts in vivo. On the contrary, cardiac fibroblasts treated with exogenous MSTN protein overexpressed Col1A and activated Smad and AKT signaling pathways in vitro. The present study suggests that inhibition of MSTN decreases cardiac extracellular matrix.
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4
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Kim H, Osaki T, Kamm RD, Asada HH. Tri-culture of spatially organizing human skeletal muscle cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts enhances contractile force and vascular perfusion of skeletal muscle tissues. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22453. [PMID: 35838893 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200500r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Constructing engineered human skeletal muscle tissues that resemble the function and microstructure of human skeletal muscles is key to utilizing them in a variety of applications such as drug development, disease modeling, regenerative medicine, and engineering biological machines. However, current in vitro skeletal muscle tissues are far inferior to native muscles in terms of contractile function and lack essential cues for muscle functions, particularly heterotypic cell-cell interactions between myoblasts, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. Here, we develop an engineered muscle tissue with a coaxial three-layered tubular structure composed of an inner endothelial cell layer, an endomysium-like layer with fibroblasts in the middle, and an outer skeletal muscle cell layer, similar to the architecture of native skeletal muscles. Engineered skeletal muscle tissues with three spatially organized cell types produced thicker myotubes and lowered Young's modulus through extracellular matrix remodeling, resulting in 43% stronger contractile force. Furthermore, we demonstrated that fibroblasts localized in the endomysium layer induced angiogenic sprouting of endothelial cells into the muscle layer more effectively than fibroblasts homogeneously distributed in the muscle layer. This layered tri-culture system enables a structured spatial configuration of the three main cell types of skeletal muscle and promotes desired paracrine signaling, resulting in improved angiogenesis and increased contractile force. This research offers new insights to efficiently obtain new human skeletal muscle models, transplantable tissues, and actuators for biological machines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeonyu Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Stanford Cardiovascular Institute and Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Tatsuya Osaki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Departments of Biological and Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - H Harry Asada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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5
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Fan T, Wang S, Jiang Z, Ji S, Cao W, Liu W, Ji Y, Li Y, Shyh-Chang N, Gu Q. Controllable assembly of skeletal muscle-like bundles through 3D bioprinting. Biofabrication 2021; 14. [PMID: 34788746 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac3aca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
3D printing is an effective technology for recreating skeletal muscle tissuein vitro. To achieve clinical skeletal muscle injury repair, relatively large volumes of highly aligned skeletal muscle cells are required; obtaining these is still a challenge. It is currently unclear how individual skeletal muscle cells and their neighbouring components co-ordinate to establish anisotropic architectures in highly homogeneous orientations. Here, we demonstrated a 3D printing strategy followed by sequential culture processes to engineer skeletal muscle tissue. The effects of confined printing on the skeletal muscle during maturation, which impacted the myotube alignment, myogenic gene expression, and mechanical forces, were observed. Our findings demonstrate the dynamic changes of skeletal muscle tissue duringin vitro3D construction and reveal the role of physical factors in the orientation and maturity of muscle fibres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongmin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Shen Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhua Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Yujing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Ng Shyh-Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, People's Republic of China
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6
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Alatawi KA, Ravishankar D, Patra PH, Bye AP, Stainer AR, Patel K, Widera D, Vaiyapuri S. 1,8-Cineole Affects Agonists-Induced Platelet Activation, Thrombus Formation and Haemostasis. Cells 2021; 10:2616. [PMID: 34685597 PMCID: PMC8533741 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
1,8-cineole, a monoterpenoid is a major component of eucalyptus oil and has been proven to possess numerous beneficial effects in humans. Notably, 1,8-cineole is the primary active ingredient of a clinically approved drug, Soledum® which is being mainly used for the maintenance of sinus and respiratory health. Due to its clinically valuable properties, 1,8-cineole has gained significant scientific interest over the recent years specifically to investigate its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. However, the impact of 1,8-cineole on the modulation of platelet activation, thrombosis and haemostasis was not fully established. Therefore, in this study, we demonstrate the effects of 1,8-cineole on agonists-induced platelet activation, thrombus formation under arterial flow conditions and haemostasis in mice. 1,8-cineole largely inhibits platelet activation stimulated by glycoprotein VI (GPVI) agonists such as collagen and cross-linked collagen-related peptide (CRP-XL), while it displays minimal inhibitory effects on thrombin or ADP-induced platelet aggregation. It inhibited inside-out signalling to integrin αIIbβ3 and outside-in signalling triggered by the same integrin as well as granule secretion and intracellular calcium mobilisation in platelets. 1,8-cineole affected thrombus formation on collagen-coated surface under arterial flow conditions and displayed a minimal effect on haemostasis of mice at a lower concentration of 6.25 µM. Notably, 1,8-cineole was found to be non-toxic to platelets up to 50 µM concentration. The investigation on the molecular mechanisms through which 1,8-cineole inhibits platelet function suggests that this compound affects signalling mediated by various molecules such as AKT, Syk, LAT, and cAMP in platelets. Based on these results, we conclude that 1,8-cineole may act as a potential therapeutic agent to control unwarranted platelet reactivity under various pathophysiological settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kahdr A. Alatawi
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (K.A.A.); (D.R.); (P.H.P.); (D.W.)
| | - Divyashree Ravishankar
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (K.A.A.); (D.R.); (P.H.P.); (D.W.)
| | - Pabitra H. Patra
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (K.A.A.); (D.R.); (P.H.P.); (D.W.)
| | - Alexander P. Bye
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (A.P.B.); (A.R.S.); (K.P.)
| | - Alexander R. Stainer
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (A.P.B.); (A.R.S.); (K.P.)
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (A.P.B.); (A.R.S.); (K.P.)
| | - Darius Widera
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (K.A.A.); (D.R.); (P.H.P.); (D.W.)
| | - Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK; (K.A.A.); (D.R.); (P.H.P.); (D.W.)
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7
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Vallance TM, Sheard JJ, Meng Y, Torre EC, Patel K, Widera D, Vaiyapuri S. Development and characterization of a novel, megakaryocyte NF-κB reporter cell line for investigating inflammatory responses. J Thromb Haemost 2021; 19:107-120. [PMID: 33037735 DOI: 10.1111/jth.15118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Essentials An easily detectable readout in megakaryocyte cell lines will enhance inflammatory research in these cells. Here, we report the development and characterization of a novel megakaryocyte NF-κB-reporter cell line (Meg-01R). Multiple inflammatory molecules modulate NF-κB activity in Meg-01R cells. Meg-01R cells respond to small molecule inhibitors such as IMD0354 and C87 that are known to inhibit NF-κB activity upon stimulation with TNFα. ABSTRACT: Background Because of the difficulties in acquiring large numbers of megakaryocytes, the impact of inflammatory responses on these cells and their ability to produce fully functional platelets under various pathological conditions has not been investigated in detail. Objectives The primary objective of this study is to develop and functionally characterize a novel megakaryocyte nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) reporter cell line to determine the effects of various inflammatory molecules on megakaryocytes and their signalling pathways. Methods A Meg-01-NF-κB-GFP-Luc (Meg-01R) cell line was developed by inserting a reporter NF-κB-GFP-Luc cassette into normal Meg-01 cells to produce luciferase following activation of NF-κB to enable easy detection of pro-inflammatory and reparative signalling. Results and conclusions Meg-01 and Meg-01R cells have comparable characteristics, including the expression of both GPIbα and integrin β3 . Meg-01R cells responded to various inflammatory molecules as measured by NF-κB-dependent bioluminescence. For example, inflammatory molecules such as tumor necrosis factor-α and Pam3CSK4 increased NF-κB activity, whereas an antimicrobial peptide, LL37, reduced its activity. Meg-01R cells were also found to be sensitive to inhibitors (IMD0354 and C87) of inflammatory pathways. Notably, Meg-01R cells were able to respond to lipopolysaccharide (LPS; non-ultrapure), although it was not able to react to ultrapure LPS because of the lack of sufficient TLR4 molecules on their surface. For the first time, we report the development and characterization of a novel megakaryocyte NF-κB reporter cell line (Meg-01R) as a robust tool to study the inflammatory responses/signalling of megakaryocytes upon stimulation with a broad range of inflammatory molecules that can affect NF-κB activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yiming Meng
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | | | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Darius Widera
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
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8
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Miller SW, Osterhoudt KC, Korenoski AS, Patel K, Vaiyapuri S. Exotic Snakebites Reported to Pennsylvania Poison Control Centers: Lessons Learned on the Demographics, Clinical Effects, and Treatment of These Cases. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120755. [PMID: 33260454 PMCID: PMC7760318 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Exotic snakebites (i.e. from non-native species) are a rare occurrence, but they present a unique challenge to clinicians treating these patients. Poison control centers are often contacted to assist in the management and care of these medical emergencies. In this study, we analyzed case records of the two Pennsylvania poison control centers from 2004 to 2018 to describe clinical features reported as a result of exotic snakebite envenomation. For the 15-year period reviewed, 18 exotic snakebites were reported with effects ranging from mild local tissue injury to patients who were treated with mechanical ventilation due to respiratory failure. The mean age of the patients was 35 years and males accounted for 83% of the cases. Antivenom, the only specific treatment, was administered in seven of 18 patients within an average of four h of envenomation. The procurement of antivenom against these exotic species may require substantial logistical efforts due to limited stocking of this rarely used treatment. Newer, targeted, small molecule treatments that are being currently investigated may aid in the treatment of snakebites in general. However, people should be cautious when handling these exotic species, and clinicians should be aware of these bites and relevant clinical effects in order to manage these when reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W. Miller
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
- The Poison Control Center, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
- Correspondence: (S.W.M.); (S.V.)
| | - Kevin C. Osterhoudt
- The Poison Control Center, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Amanda S. Korenoski
- Pittsburgh Poison Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA;
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK;
| | - Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6UB, UK
- Correspondence: (S.W.M.); (S.V.)
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9
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Omairi S, Hau KL, Collins-Hooper H, Scott C, Vaiyapuri S, Torelli S, Montanaro F, Matsakas A, Patel K. Regulation of the dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex composition by the metabolic properties of muscle fibres. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2770. [PMID: 30808964 PMCID: PMC6391483 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39532-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) links the muscle cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix and is responsible for force transduction and protects the muscle fibres from contraction induced damage. Mutations in components of the DGC are responsible for muscular dystrophies and congenital myopathies. Expression of DGC components have been shown to be altered in many myopathies. In contrast we have very little evidence of whether adaptive changes in muscle impact on DGC expression. In this study we investigated connection between muscle fibre phenotype and the DGC. Our study reveals that the levels of DGC proteins at the sarcolemma differ in highly glycolytic muscle compared to wild-type and that these changes can be normalised by the super-imposition of an oxidative metabolic programme. Importantly we show that the metabolic properties of the muscle do not impact on the total amount of DGC components at the protein level. Our work shows that the metabolic property of a muscle fibre is a key factor in regulating the expression of DGC proteins at the sarcolemma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Omairi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK.,College of Medicine, Wasit University, Kut, Iraq
| | - Kwan-Leong Hau
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences, Programme, London, UK.,NIHR Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | | | - Charlotte Scott
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences, Programme, London, UK.,NIHR Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | | | - Silvia Torelli
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences, Programme, London, UK.,NIHR Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | - Federica Montanaro
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences, Programme, London, UK.,NIHR Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | - Antonios Matsakas
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, Centre for Atherothrombotic & Metabolic Disease, Hull York Medical School, Hull, UK
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK.
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10
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Kim H, Kim MC, Asada HH. Extracellular matrix remodelling induced by alternating electrical and mechanical stimulations increases the contraction of engineered skeletal muscle tissues. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2732. [PMID: 30804393 PMCID: PMC6389954 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39522-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered skeletal muscles are inferior to natural muscles in terms of contractile force, hampering their potential use in practical applications. One major limitation is that the extracellular matrix (ECM) not only impedes the contraction but also ineffectively transmits the forces generated by myotubes to the load. In the present study, ECM remodelling improves contractile force in a short time, and a coordinated, combined electrical and mechanical stimulation induces the desired ECM remodelling. Notably, the application of single and combined stimulations to the engineered muscles remodels the structure of their ECM networks, which determines the mechanical properties of the ECM. Myotubes in the tissues are connected in parallel and in series to the ECM. The stiffness of the parallel ECM must be low not to impede contraction, while the stiffness of the serial ECM must be high to transmit the forces to the load. Both the experimental results and the mechanistic model suggest that the combined stimulation through coordination reorients the ECM fibres in such a way that the parallel ECM stiffness is reduced, while the serial ECM stiffness is increased. In particular, 3 and 20 minutes of alternating electrical and mechanical stimulations increase the force by 18% and 31%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeonyu Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Min-Cheol Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - H Harry Asada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- BioSystem and Micromechanics IRG, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
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11
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Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Zhu D. Myostatin promotes the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of the dermomyotome during somitogenesis. Dev Dyn 2018; 247:1241-1252. [PMID: 30325085 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myostatin (MSTN), a member of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily, has been implicated in the negative regulation of skeletal myogenesis. However, the molecular mechanism through which MSTN regulates early embryonic myogenesis is not well understood. RESULTS We demonstrate that MSTN regulates early embryonic myogenesis by promoting the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of the dermomyotome during somitogenesis in chicks. We show that the MSTN gene is first expressed at the center of the dermomyotome. As somitogenesis progresses, its expression extends dorsally and ventrally along the plane of the dermomyotome. By combining in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence assays, we demonstrate that the expression pattern of MSTN is spatiotemporally well correlated with EMT of the dermomyotome. Our gain- and loss-of-function experiments further reveal that MSTN can induce EMT of the chick dermomyotome. We also show that MSTN induces EMT of a nonsmall cell lung carcinoma cell line (A549) and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells in vitro. CONCLUSIONS Our experimental data suggest that MSTN regulates myogenesis by promoting EMT during somitogenesis. These findings provide novel insights into the functions of MSTN during early embryonic myogenesis. Developmental Dynamics 247:1241-1252, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchang Zhou
- The State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P R China
| | - Yong Zhang
- The State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P R China
| | - Dahai Zhu
- The State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and School of Basic Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, P R China
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Satkunskiene D, Ratkevicius A, Kamandulis S, Venckunas T. Effects of myostatin on the mechanical properties of muscles during repeated active lengthening in the mouse. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 44:381-388. [PMID: 30222937 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate how myostatin dysfunction affects fast and slow muscle stiffness and viscosity during severe repeated loading. Isolated extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscles of young adult female mice of the BEH (dysfunctional myostatin) and BEH+/+ (functional myostatin) strains were subjected to 100 contraction-stretching loading cycles during which contractile and mechanical properties were assessed. BEH mice exhibited greater exercise-induced muscle damage, although the effect was muscle- and age-dependent and limited to the early phases of simulated exercise. The relative reduction of the EDL muscle isometric force recorded during the initial 10-30 loading cycles was greater in BEH mice than in BEH+/+ mice and exceeded that of the soleus muscle of either strain. The induced damage was associated with lower muscle stiffness. The effects of myostatin on the mechanical properties of muscles depend on muscle type and maturity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danguole Satkunskiene
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.,Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Aivaras Ratkevicius
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.,Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Sigitas Kamandulis
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.,Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Tomas Venckunas
- Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania.,Institute of Sports Science and Innovation, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
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Aiello D, Patel K, Lasagna E. Themyostatingene: an overview of mechanisms of action and its relevance to livestock animals. Anim Genet 2018; 49:505-519. [DOI: 10.1111/age.12696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Aiello
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Borgo XX Giugno 74 06121 Perugia Italy
| | - K. Patel
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Reading; Berkshire RG6 6UB UK
| | - E. Lasagna
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Ambientali; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Borgo XX Giugno 74 06121 Perugia Italy
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14
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Omairi S, Hau KL, Collin-Hooper H, Montanaro F, Goyenvalle A, Garcia L, Patel K. Link between MHC Fiber Type and Restoration of Dystrophin Expression and Key Components of the DAPC by Tricyclo-DNA-Mediated Exon Skipping. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2017; 9:409-418. [PMID: 29246319 PMCID: PMC6114118 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2017.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Exon skipping mediated by tricyclo-DNA (tc-DNA) antisense oligonucleotides has been shown to induce significant levels of dystrophin restoration in mdx, a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. This translates into significant improvement in key disease indicators in muscle, cardio-respiratory function, heart, and the CNS. Here we examine the relationship between muscle fiber type, based on myosin heavy chain (MHC) profile, and the ability of tc-DNA to restore not only dystrophin but also other members of the dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex (DAPC). We first profiled this relationship in untreated mdx muscle, and we found that all fiber types support reversion events to a dystrophin-positive state, in an unbiased manner. Importantly, we show that only a small fraction of revertant fibers expressed other members of the DAPC. Immunoblot analysis of protein levels, however, revealed robust expression of these components, which failed to correctly localize to the sarcolemma. We then show that tc-DNA treatment leads to nearly all fibers expressing not only dystrophin but also other key components of the DAPC. Of significance, our work shows that MHC fiber type does not bias the expression of any of these important proteins. This work also highlights that the improved muscle physiology following tc-DNA treatment reported previously results from the complete restoration of the dystrophin complex in all MHCII fibers with equal efficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Omairi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Kwan-Leong Hau
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences Programme, London, UK
| | | | - Federica Montanaro
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, Developmental Neurosciences Programme, London, UK
| | - Aurelie Goyenvalle
- Universite de Versailles St. Quentin, INSERM U1179, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Luis Garcia
- Universite de Versailles St. Quentin, INSERM U1179, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Ketan Patel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK.
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15
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Tanaka M, Yoshino Y, Takeda S, Toda K, Shimoda H, Tsuruma K, Shimazawa M, Hara H. Fermented Rice Germ Extract Alleviates Morphological and Functional Damage to Murine Gastrocnemius Muscle by Inactivation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase. J Med Food 2017; 20:969-980. [PMID: 28956710 DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2016.3906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcopenia, loss of muscle mass and function, is mainly observed in elderly people. In this study, we investigated whether fermented rice germ extract (FRGE) has some effects on the mouse gastrocnemius muscle by using behavioral and morphological analyses, Western blotting, and a murine model of immobilization-induced muscle atrophy. Daily oral FRGE administration increased muscle weight and strength. In addition, myofiber size in gastrocnemius muscle of FRGE-treated mice was increased as revealed by morphological quantification. Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling, which inhibits protein synthesis and stimulates protein degradation in gastrocnemius muscle, was significantly attenuated in the FRGE-treated mice compared with control mice. Expression level of forkhead box 3a (FOXO3a) protein was also significantly decreased in the FRGE-treated group. Moreover, the decrease in mean myofiber cross-sectional area in immobilized hindlimb in vehicle-treated mice was inhibited by FRGE treatment in histological analysis. In conclusion, FRGE increased the strength and weight of gastrocnemius muscle and myofiber size, and reduced immobilization-induced muscle atrophy in mice. These findings indicated that FRGE might be beneficial in preventing motor dysfunction in a range of conditions, including sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyu Tanaka
- 1 Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biofunctional Evaluation, Gifu Pharmaceutical University , Gifu, Japan
| | - Yuta Yoshino
- 1 Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biofunctional Evaluation, Gifu Pharmaceutical University , Gifu, Japan
| | - Shogo Takeda
- 2 Oryza Oil & Fat Chemical Co., Ltd. , Ichinomiya, Japan
| | - Kazuya Toda
- 2 Oryza Oil & Fat Chemical Co., Ltd. , Ichinomiya, Japan
| | | | - Kazuhiro Tsuruma
- 1 Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biofunctional Evaluation, Gifu Pharmaceutical University , Gifu, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Shimazawa
- 1 Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biofunctional Evaluation, Gifu Pharmaceutical University , Gifu, Japan
| | - Hideaki Hara
- 1 Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biofunctional Evaluation, Gifu Pharmaceutical University , Gifu, Japan
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16
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Oestreich AK, Carleton SM, Yao X, Gentry BA, Raw CE, Brown M, Pfeiffer FM, Wang Y, Phillips CL. Myostatin deficiency partially rescues the bone phenotype of osteogenesis imperfecta model mice. Osteoporos Int 2016; 27:161-70. [PMID: 26179666 PMCID: PMC8018583 DOI: 10.1007/s00198-015-3226-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mice with osteogenesis imperfecta (+/oim), a disorder of bone fragility, were bred to mice with muscle over growth to test whether increasing muscle mass genetically would improve bone quality and strength. The results demonstrate that femora from mice carrying both mutations have greater mechanical integrity than their +/oim littermates. INTRODUCTION Osteogenesis imperfecta is a heritable connective tissue disorder due primarily to mutations in the type I collagen genes resulting in skeletal deformity and fragility. Currently, there is no cure, and therapeutic strategies encompass the use of antiresorptive pharmaceuticals and surgical bracing, with limited success and significant potential for adverse effects. Bone, a mechanosensing organ, can respond to high mechanical loads by increasing new bone formation and altering bone geometry to withstand increased forces. Skeletal muscle is a major source of physiological loading on bone, and bone strength is proportional to muscle mass. METHODS To test the hypothesis that congenic increases in muscle mass in the osteogenesis imperfecta murine model mouse (oim) will improve their compromised bone quality and strength, heterozygous (+/oim) mice were bred to mice deficient in myostatin (+/mstn), a negative regulator of muscle growth. The resulting adult offspring were evaluated for hindlimb muscle mass, and bone microarchitecture, physiochemistry, and biomechanical integrity. RESULTS +/oim mice deficient in myostatin (+/mstn +/oim) were generated and demonstrated that myostatin deficiency increased body weight, muscle mass, and biomechanical strength in +/mstn +/oim mice as compared to +/oim mice. Additionally, myostatin deficiency altered the physiochemical properties of the +/oim bone but did not alter bone remodeling. CONCLUSIONS Myostatin deficiency partially improved the reduced femoral bone biomechanical strength of adult +/oim mice by increasing muscle mass with concomitant improvements in bone microarchitecture and physiochemical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Oestreich
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - S M Carleton
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - X Yao
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, 64108, USA
| | - B A Gentry
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - C E Raw
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - M Brown
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Physical Therapy Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - F M Pfeiffer
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Bioengineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA
| | - Y Wang
- Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, 64108, USA
| | - C L Phillips
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
- Department of Child Health, University of Missouri, 117 Schweitzer Hall, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
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17
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Investigating the Influence of Extracellular Matrix and Glycolytic Metabolism on Muscle Stem Cell Migration on Their Native Fiber Environment. FIBERS 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/fib3030253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Collins-Hooper H, Sartori R, Macharia R, Visanuvimol K, Foster K, Matsakas A, Flasskamp H, Ray S, Dash PR, Sandri M, Patel K. Propeptide-Mediated Inhibition of Myostatin Increases Muscle Mass Through Inhibiting Proteolytic Pathways in Aged Mice. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 69:1049-59. [DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glt170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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Smith RC, Lin BK. Myostatin inhibitors as therapies for muscle wasting associated with cancer and other disorders. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care 2013; 7:352-60. [PMID: 24157714 PMCID: PMC3819341 DOI: 10.1097/spc.0000000000000013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review summarizes recent progress in the development of myostatin inhibitors for the treatment of muscle wasting disorders. It also focuses on findings in myostatin biology that may have implications for the development of antimyostatin therapies. RECENT FINDINGS There has been progress in evaluating antimyostatin therapies in animal models of muscle wasting disorders. Some programs have progressed into clinical development with initial results showing positive impact on muscle volume.In normal mice myostatin deficiency results in enlarged muscles with increased total force but decreased specific force (total force/total mass). An increase in myofibrillar protein synthesis without concomitant satellite cell proliferation and fusion leads to muscle hypertrophy with unchanged myonuclear number. A specific force reduction is not observed when atrophied muscle, the predominant therapeutic target of myostatin inhibitor therapy, is made myostatindeficient.Myostatin has been shown to be expressed by a number of tumor cell lines in mice and man. SUMMARY Myostatin inhibition remains a promising therapeutic strategy for a range of muscle wasting disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosamund C Smith
- aBiotechnology Discovery Research bOncology Business Unit, Eli Lilly and Company
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Yamada AK, Verlengia R, Bueno Junior CR. Myostatin: genetic variants, therapy and gene doping. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2012. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-82502012000300003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery, myostatin (MSTN) has been at the forefront of muscle therapy research because intrinsic mutations or inhibition of this protein, by either pharmacological or genetic means, result in muscle hypertrophy and hyperplasia. In addition to muscle growth, MSTN inhibition potentially disturbs connective tissue, leads to strength modulation, facilitates myoblast transplantation, promotes tissue regeneration, induces adipose tissue thermogenesis and increases muscle oxidative phenotype. It is also known that current advances in gene therapy have an impact on sports because of the illicit use of such methods. However, the adverse effects of these methods, their impact on athletic performance in humans and the means of detecting gene doping are as yet unknown. The aim of the present review is to discuss biosynthesis, genetic variants, pharmacological/genetic manipulation, doping and athletic performance in relation to the MSTN pathway. As will be concluded from the manuscript, MSTN emerges as a promising molecule for combating muscle wasting diseases and for triggering wide-ranging discussion in view of its possible use in gene doping.
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