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Toledo KS, Peracchi AL, Nogueira MR. Morphological variation of the brachial plexus in four phyllostomid bat species (Chiroptera, Phyllostomidae). Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:2729-2750. [PMID: 35112505 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite the remarkable morphological modifications that occurred in the thoracic limbs of bats, information about the brachial plexus in this group is still scarce. The present study aimed to describe the origin, structure, and distribution of these peripheral nerves in four Phyllostomidae species. Both antimeres of six Artibeus lituratus, five Desmodus rotundus, seven Glossophaga soricina, and five Phyllostomus hastatus-all adult males from the Adriano Lúcio Peracchi Collection (UFRRJ)-were dissected. After complete exposure of the structure, we found that the brachial plexus of D. rotundus and P. hastatus is formed by the same roots (C5-T1), whereas the fourth cervical spinal nerve and the second thoracic spinal nerve are present in G. soricina (C4-T1) and A. lituratus (C5-T2), respectively. There was intraspecific variation and asymmetry in the origin of the structure and the combinations of nerve segments forming terminal branches. The distribution to the target muscles and patagium, however, was not subject to significant variation in our sample. Data presented here support the presence of two prevailing conditions in distribution of nerves to the bat muscles, and the innervation of the membranes seems to be explained by embryogenesis. Although the brachial plexus in phyllostomid bats is similar to that of other terrestrial Laurasiatheria, aspects identified in these bats, apparently unique to Chiroptera, may be related to anatomical changes in the thoracic limbs functionally linked to flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Santos Toledo
- Laboratory of Mastozoology, Biological and Health Sciences Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Environmental Scientific Photography Nucleus - BioCenas, Laboratory of Radioecology and Global Change, Biology Institute Roberto Alcantara Gomes, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Adriano Lúcio Peracchi
- Laboratory of Mastozoology, Biological and Health Sciences Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Rodrigues Nogueira
- Laboratory of Mastozoology, Biological and Health Sciences Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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2
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Sánchez MS, Carrizo LV. Forelimb Bone Morphology and its Association with Foraging Ecology in Four Families of Neotropical Bats. J MAMM EVOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-020-09526-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Gaudioso PJ, Martínez JJ, Barquez RM, Díaz MM. Evolution of scapula shape in several families of bats (Chiroptera, Mammalia). J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo J. Gaudioso
- Programa de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA) Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo PCMA (Programa de Conservación de los Murciélagos de Argentina) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Universidad Nacional de Tucumán Tucumán Argentina
- Instituto de Ambiente de Montaña y Regiones Áridas (IAMRA) Universidad Nacional de Chilecito Chilecito Argentina
| | - Juan J. Martínez
- Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOA; CONICET‐UNJu) San Salvador de Jujuy Argentina
| | - Rubén M. Barquez
- Programa de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA) Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo PCMA (Programa de Conservación de los Murciélagos de Argentina) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Universidad Nacional de Tucumán Tucumán Argentina
| | - M. Mónica Díaz
- Programa de Investigaciones de Biodiversidad Argentina (PIDBA) Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo PCMA (Programa de Conservación de los Murciélagos de Argentina) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) Universidad Nacional de Tucumán Tucumán Argentina
- Fundación Miguel Lillo Tucumán Argentina
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Rummel AD, Swartz SM, Marsh RL. Warm bodies, cool wings: regional heterothermy in flying bats. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20190530. [PMID: 31506035 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many endothermic animals experience variable limb temperatures, even as they tightly regulate core temperature. The limbs are often cooler than the core at rest, but because the large locomotor muscles of the limbs produce heat during exercise, they are thought to operate at or above core temperature during activity. Bats, small-bodied flying mammals with greatly elongated forelimbs, possess wings with large surfaces lacking any insulating fur. We hypothesized that during flight the relatively small muscles that move the elbow and wrist operate below core body temperature because of elevated heat loss. We measured muscle temperature continuously in the small fruit bat Carollia perspicillata before and during wind tunnel flights, and discretely in diverse bats at rest in Belize. We found that bats maintained high rectal temperatures, but that there was a steep proximal-to-distal gradient in wing muscle temperature. Forearm muscles were 4-6°C cooler than rectal temperature at rest and approximately 12°C cooler during flights at an air temperature of 22°C. These findings invite further study into how bats and other endotherms maintain locomotor performance in variable environments, when some muscles may be operating at low temperatures that are expected to slow contractile properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea D Rummel
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Sharon M Swartz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Richard L Marsh
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Morgan GS, Czaplewski NJ, Simmons NB. A New Mormoopid Bat from the Oligocene (Whitneyan and Early Arikareean) of Florida, and Phylogenetic Relationships of the Major Clades of Mormoopidae (Mammalia: Chiroptera). BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2019. [DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090.434.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nancy B. Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History
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Boerma DB, Breuer KS, Treskatis TL, Swartz SM. Wings as inertial appendages: how bats recover from aerial stumbles. J Exp Biol 2019; 222:jeb.204255. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.204255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
For many animals, movement through complex natural environments necessitates the evolution of mechanisms that enable recovery from unexpected perturbations. Knowledge of how flying animals contend with disruptive forces is limited, however, and is nearly nonexistent for bats, the only mammals capable of powered flight. We investigated perturbation recovery in Carollia perspicillata by administering a well-defined jet of compressed air, equal to 2.5 times bodyweight, which induced two types of disturbances, termed aerial stumbles: pitch-inducing body perturbations and roll-inducing wing perturbations. In both cases, bats responded primarily by adjusting extension of wing joints, and recovered pre-disturbance body orientation and left-right symmetry of wing motions over the course of only one wingbeat cycle. Bats recovered from body perturbations by symmetrically extending their wings cranially and dorsally during upstroke, and from wing perturbations by asymmetrically extending their wings throughout the recovery wingbeat. We used a simplified dynamical model to test the hypothesis that wing extension asymmetry during recovery from roll-inducing perturbations can generate inertial torques that alone are sufficient to produce the observed body reorientation. Results supported the hypothesis, and also suggested that subsequent restoration of symmetrical wing extension helped decelerate recovery rotation via passive aerodynamic mechanisms. During recovery, humeral elevation/depression remained largely unchanged while bats adjusted wing extension at the elbow and wrist, suggesting a proximo-distal gradient in the neuromechanical control of the wing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David B. Boerma
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Kenneth S. Breuer
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Tim L. Treskatis
- Westphalian University of Applied Sciences, 45897 Gelsenkirchen, Germany
| | - Sharon M. Swartz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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7
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Chin DD, Matloff LY, Stowers AK, Tucci ER, Lentink D. Inspiration for wing design: how forelimb specialization enables active flight in modern vertebrates. J R Soc Interface 2017; 14:20170240. [PMID: 28592663 PMCID: PMC5493806 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Harnessing flight strategies refined by millions of years of evolution can help expedite the design of more efficient, manoeuvrable and robust flying robots. This review synthesizes recent advances and highlights remaining gaps in our understanding of how bird and bat wing adaptations enable effective flight. Included in this discussion is an evaluation of how current robotic analogues measure up to their biological sources of inspiration. Studies of vertebrate wings have revealed skeletal systems well suited for enduring the loads required during flight, but the mechanisms that drive coordinated motions between bones and connected integuments remain ill-described. Similarly, vertebrate flight muscles have adapted to sustain increased wing loading, but a lack of in vivo studies limits our understanding of specific muscular functions. Forelimb adaptations diverge at the integument level, but both bird feathers and bat membranes yield aerodynamic surfaces with a level of robustness unparalleled by engineered wings. These morphological adaptations enable a diverse range of kinematics tuned for different flight speeds and manoeuvres. By integrating vertebrate flight specializations-particularly those that enable greater robustness and adaptability-into the design and control of robotic wings, engineers can begin narrowing the wide margin that currently exists between flying robots and vertebrates. In turn, these robotic wings can help biologists create experiments that would be impossible in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana D Chin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Laura Y Matloff
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amanda Kay Stowers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Emily R Tucci
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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Konow N, Cheney JA, Roberts TJ, Iriarte-Díaz J, Breuer KS, Waldman JRS, Swartz SM. Speed-dependent modulation of wing muscle recruitment intensity and kinematics in two bat species. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1820-1829. [PMID: 28235906 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.144550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Animals respond to changes in power requirements during locomotion by modulating the intensity of recruitment of their propulsive musculature, but many questions concerning how muscle recruitment varies with speed across modes of locomotion remain unanswered. We measured normalized average burst EMG (aEMG) for pectoralis major and biceps brachii at different flight speeds in two relatively distantly related bat species: the aerial insectivore Eptesicus fuscus, and the primarily fruit-eating Carollia perspicillata These ecologically distinct species employ different flight behaviors but possess similar wing aspect ratio, wing loading and body mass. Because propulsive requirements usually correlate with body size, and aEMG likely reflects force, we hypothesized that these species would deploy similar speed-dependent aEMG modulation. Instead, we found that aEMG was speed independent in E. fuscus and modulated in a U-shaped or linearly increasing relationship with speed in C. perspicillata This interspecific difference may be related to differences in muscle fiber type composition and/or overall patterns of recruitment of the large ensemble of muscles that participate in actuating the highly articulated bat wing. We also found interspecific differences in the speed dependence of 3D wing kinematics: E. fuscus modulates wing flexion during upstroke significantly more than C. perspicillata Overall, we observed two different strategies to increase flight speed: C. perspicillata tends to modulate aEMG, and E. fuscus tends to modulate wing kinematics. These strategies may reflect different requirements for avoiding negative lift and overcoming drag during slow and fast flight, respectively, a subject we suggest merits further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolai Konow
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Jorn A Cheney
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Thomas J Roberts
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Jose Iriarte-Díaz
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Kenneth S Breuer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - J Rhea S Waldman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Sharon M Swartz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.,School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Bahlman JW, Swartz SM, Breuer KS. Design and characterization of a multi-articulated robotic bat wing. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2013; 8:016009. [PMID: 23385471 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3182/8/1/016009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
There are many challenges to measuring power input and force output from a flapping vertebrate. Animals can vary a multitude of kinematic parameters simultaneously, and methods for measuring power and force are either not possible in a flying vertebrate or are very time and equipment intensive. To circumvent these challenges, we constructed a robotic, multi-articulated bat wing that allows us to measure power input and force output simultaneously, across a range of kinematic parameters. The robot is modeled after the lesser dog-faced fruit bat, Cynopterus brachyotis, and contains seven joints powered by three servo motors. Collectively, this joint and motor arrangement allows the robot to vary wingbeat frequency, wingbeat amplitude, stroke plane, downstroke ratio, and wing folding. We describe the design, construction, programing, instrumentation, characterization, and analysis of the robot. We show that the kinematics, inputs, and outputs demonstrate good repeatability both within and among trials. Finally, we describe lessons about the structure of living bats learned from trying to mimic their flight in a robotic wing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Bahlman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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10
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von Busse R, Swartz SM, Voigt CC. Flight metabolism in relation to speed in Chiroptera: testing the U-shape paradigm in the short-tailed fruit bat Carollia perspicillata. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 216:2073-80. [PMID: 23430989 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.081760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aerodynamic theory predicts that flight for fixed-wing aircraft requires more energy at low and high speeds compared with intermediate speeds, and this theory has often been extended to predict speed-dependent metabolic rates and optimal flight speeds for flying animals. However, the theoretical U-shaped flight power curve has not been robustly tested for Chiroptera, the only mammals capable of flapping flight. We examined the metabolic rate of seven Seba's short-tailed fruit bats (Carollia perspicillata) during unrestrained flight in a wind tunnel at air speeds from 1 to 7 m s(-1). Following intra-peritoneal administration of (13)C-labeled Na-bicarbonate, we measured the enrichment in (13)C of exhaled breath before and after flight. We converted fractional turnover of (13)C into metabolic rate and power, based on the assumption that bats oxidized glycogen during short flights. Power requirements of flight varied with air speed in a U-shaped manner in five out of seven individuals, whereas energy turnover was not related to air speed in two individuals. Power requirements of flight were close to values predicted by Pennycuick's aerodynamic model for minimum power speed, but differed for maximum range speed. The results of our experiment support the theoretical expectation of a U-shaped power curve for flight metabolism in a bat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhea von Busse
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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Panyutina A, Kuznetsov A, Korzun L. Kinematics of Chiropteran Shoulder Girdle in Flight. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2013; 296:382-94. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A.A. Panyutina
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology; Biological Faculty of Moscow State University; Moscow 119234 Russia
| | - A.N. Kuznetsov
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology; Biological Faculty of Moscow State University; Moscow 119234 Russia
| | - L.P. Korzun
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology; Biological Faculty of Moscow State University; Moscow 119234 Russia
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12
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Maniakas I, Youlatos D. Myological adaptations to fast enduring flight in European free-tailed bats,Tadarida teniotis(Molossidae, Chiroptera). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/11250003.2012.718374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Adams RA, Snode ER, Shaw JB. Flapping tail membrane in bats produces potentially important thrust during horizontal takeoffs and very slow flight. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32074. [PMID: 22393378 PMCID: PMC3290531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Accepted: 01/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, studies concerning bat flight have focused primarily on the wings. By analyzing high-speed video taken on 48 individuals of five species of vespertilionid bats, we show that the capacity to flap the tail-membrane (uropatagium) in order to generate thrust and lift during takeoffs and minimal-speed flight (<1 m (s-1)) was largely underestimated. Indeed, bats flapped the tail-membrane by extensive dorso-ventral fanning motions covering as much as 135 degrees of arc consistent with thrust generation by air displacement. The degree of dorsal extension of the tail-membrane, and thus the potential amount of thrust generated during platform launches, was significantly correlated with body mass (P = 0.02). Adduction of the hind limbs during upstrokes collapsed the tail-membrane thereby reducing its surface area and minimizing negative lift forces. Abduction of the hind limbs during the downstroke fully expanded the tail-membrane as it was swept ventrally. The flapping kinematics of the tail-membrane is thus consistent with expectations for an airfoil. Timing offsets between the wings and tail-membrane during downstrokes was as much as 50%, suggesting that the tail-membrane was providing thrust and perhaps lift when the wings were retracting through the upstoke phase of the wing-beat cycle. The extent to which the tail-membrane was used during takeoffs differed significantly among four vespertilionid species (P = 0.01) and aligned with predictions derived from bat ecomorphology. The extensive fanning motion of the tail membrane by vespertilionid bats has not been reported for other flying vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick A Adams
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado, United States of America.
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15
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Schlosser-Sturm E, Schliemann H. Morphology and function of the shoulder joint of bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)1. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0469.1995.tb00961.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Schlosser-Sturm E, Schliemann H. Morphology and function of the shoulder joint of bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera)1. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0469.1995.tb00214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Quantifying the complexity of bat wing kinematics. J Theor Biol 2008; 254:604-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 06/13/2008] [Accepted: 06/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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18
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Wyant KA, Adams RA. Prenatal Growth and Development in the Angolan Free-tailed Bat, Mops condylurus (Chiroptera: Molossidae). J Mammal 2007. [DOI: 10.1644/06-mamm-a-392r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Carrier DR, Deban SM, Fischbein T. Locomotor function of the pectoral girdle `muscular sling' in trotting dogs. J Exp Biol 2006; 209:2224-37. [PMID: 16709923 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
In therian mammals, gravitational and locomotor forces are transferred between the forelimb and trunk primarily, or entirely, through the muscles that connect the limb and trunk. Our understanding of this force transmission is based on analyses of shoulder anatomy and on a handful of descriptive electromyographic studies. To improve our understanding, we manipulated the locomotor forces of trotting dogs and monitored the resulting change in recruitment of five extrinsic muscles of the forelimb: m. serratus ventralis thoracis, m. serratus ventralis cervicis, m. pectoralis superficialis transversus, the anterior portion of the m. pectoralis profundus, and m. rhomboideus thoracis. Locomotor forces were modified as the dogs trotted at constant speed on a motorized treadmill by (1) adding mass to the trunk, (2)inclining the treadmill so that the dogs ran up and down hill, (3) adding mass to the wrists and (4) applying horizontally directed force to the trunk through a leash. These experiments indicate that the thoracic portion of the serratus ventralis muscle is the main antigravity muscle of the shoulder during trotting in dogs. Its activity increased when we added mass to the trunk and also when we ran the subjects downhill. In contrast, the cervical portion of the serratus ventralis did not show a consistent increase in activity in response to added mass. Instead, its activity increased when we ran the subjects up hill and added mass to their wrists, suggesting that it functions to stabilize the fulcrum of the forelimb in the cranial-caudal direction during active retraction of the forelimb. The thoracic portion of the rhomboideus muscle also appears to provide this cranial-caudal stabilization during active retraction of the forelimb. The force manipulations indicate that the transverse pectoralis muscle acts to both protract and retract the forelimb, depending on the position of the limb. In contrast, the anterior portion of the pectoralis profundus muscle acts as a retractor of the forelimb during the end of swing phase and the beginning of support phase. We found that adding mass to the trunk did not increase the activity of forelimb retractor muscles, suggesting that the ground reaction force vector passes through, or very near, the fulcrum of the shoulder during a trotting step. Whether or not the functions of these extrinsic appendicular muscles in dogs characterize therian mammals or represent specializations for high-speed, economical running remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Carrier
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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Abstract
SUMMARYWingbeat frequency (fw) and amplitude(θw) were measured for 23 species of Australian bat,representing two sub-orders and six families. Maximum values were between 4 and 13 Hz for fw, and between 90 and 150° forθ w, depending on the species. Wingbeat frequency for each species was found to vary only slightly with flight speed over the lower half of the speed range. At high speeds, frequency is almost independent of velocity. Wingbeat frequency (Hz) depends on bat mass (m, kg) and flight speed (V, ms-1) according to the equation: fw=5.54-3.068log10m-2.857log10V. This simple relationship applies to both sub-orders and to all six families of bats studied. For 21 of the 23 species, the empirical values were within 1 Hz of the model values. One species, a small molossid, also had a second mode of flight in which fw was up to 3 Hz lower for all flight speeds.The following relationship predicts wingbeat amplitude to within±15° from flight speed and wing area (SREF,m2) at all flight speeds:θ w=56.92+5.18V+16.06log10SREF. This equation is based on data up to and including speeds that require maximum wingbeat amplitude to be sustained. For most species, the maximum wingbeat amplitude was 140°.
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Lancaster WC, Speakman JR. Variations in respiratory muscle activity during echolocation when stationary in three species of bat (Microchiroptera: Vespertilionidae). J Exp Biol 2001; 204:4185-97. [PMID: 11815644 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.204.24.4185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Echolocating bats use respiratory muscles to power the production of biosonar vocalisations. The physical characteristics of these calls vary among species of bat, and variations also exist in the timing and patterns of respiratory muscle recruitment during echolocation. We recorded electromyograms from the respiratory muscles of three species of bat (Family Vespertilionidae) while the animals vocalised from stationary positions. Activity was recorded consistently from the lateral abdominal muscles (internal abdominal oblique and transversus abdominis) from all calling bats, but we found much variation within and among species. Bats in the family Vespertilionidae devoted longer periods of expiratory muscle activity to each call than did the mormoopid bat Pteronotus parnellii. These differences correlate negatively with the duration of calls. We suggest that morphological adaptations in some bats may facilitate the economic production of echolocation calls at rest.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Lancaster
- Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, Scotland.
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SIMMONS NANCYB, CONWAY TENLEYM. PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF MORMOOPID BATS (CHIROPTERA: MORMOOPIDAE) BASED ON MORPHOLOGICAL DATA. BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2001. [DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090(2001)258<0001:prombc>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Schutt WA, Cobb MA, Petrie JL, Hermanson JW. Ontogeny of the pectoralis muscle in the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus. J Morphol 1994; 220:295-305. [PMID: 8035465 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1052200308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The ontogeny of a primary flight muscle, the pectoralis, in the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus: Vespertilionidae) was studied using histochemical, immunocytochemical, and electrophoretic techniques. In fetal and early neonatal (postnatal age 1-6 days) Myotis, histochemical techniques for myofibrillar ATPase (mATPase) and antibodies for slow and fast myosins demonstrated the presence of two fiber types, here called types I and IIa. These data correlated with multiple transitional myosin heavy chain isoforms and native myosin isoforms demonstrated with SDS-PAGE and 4% pyrophosphate PAGE. There was a decrease in the distribution and number of type I fibers with increasing postnatal age. At postnatal age 8-9 days, the adult phenotype was observed with regard to muscle fiber type (100% type IIa fibers) and myosin isoform profile (single adult MHC and native myosin isoforms). This "adult" fiber type profile and myosin isoform composition preceded adult function by about 2 weeks. For example, little brown bats were incapable of sustained flight until approximately postnatal day 24, and myofiber size did not achieve adult size until approximately postnatal day 25. Although Myotis pectoralis is unique in being composed of 100% type IIa fibers, transitional fiber types and isoforms were present. These transitional forms had been observed previously in other mammals bearing mixed adult muscle fibers and which undergo transitional stages in muscle ontogeny. However, in Myotis pectoralis, this transition transpires relatively early in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A Schutt
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-6401
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Meyers RA, Hermanson JW. Pectoralis muscle morphology in the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus: a non-convergence with birds. J Morphol 1994; 219:269-74. [PMID: 8169954 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1052190306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies of muscle architecture demonstrate that many mammalian muscles are composed of short, interdigitating fibers. In addition, the avian pectoralis, a muscle capable of producing high frequency oscillations has been shown to possess a serially arranged pattern of muscle endplate in all sizes of birds studied. The pectoralis muscle of the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae), is composed of fairly uniform fibers that span the length of the muscle and is characterized by a zone of motor endplates within the middle third of the muscle. The homogeneous fiber architecture of the bat pectoralis muscle is in contrast to the serial arrangement of endplates (and presumably muscle fibers) in the avian pectoralis in species equivalent in size to Myotis. The short fiber organization and motor endplate pattern observed in most birds is thus not a requisite design for flying vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Meyers
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-6401
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Hermanson JW, Cobb MA, Schutt WA, Muradali F, Ryan JM. Histochemical and myosin composition of vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) pectoralis muscle targets a unique locomotory niche. J Morphol 1993; 217:347-56. [PMID: 8230235 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1052170309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The vampire bat pectoralis muscle contains at least four fiber types distributed in a nonhomogeneous pattern. One of these fiber types, here termed IIe, can be elucidated only by adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) histochemistry combined with reactions against antifast and antislow myosin antibodies. The histochemical and immunohistochemical observations indicate a well-developed specialization of function within specific regions of the muscle. In parallel, analyses of native myosin isoforms and myosin heavy chain isoforms indicate two points. First, the histochemical "type IIe" fiber is predominant in cranial portions of the muscle, and myosin extracted from these regions exhibits a unique electrophoretic mobility not observed in the myosin isoforms of more traditional laboratory mammals. Second, the type I fibers are confined to the pectoralis abdominalis muscle and a small adjacent region of the caudal part of the pectoralis. This pattern of type I fiber distribution is considered a derived character state compared to muscle histochemical phenotype and isoform composition in the pectoralis muscles of other phyllostomids we have studied (Artibeus jamaicensis, Artibeus lituratus, Carollia perspicillata). We relate this to the unique locomotory needs of the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Hermanson
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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Hermanson JW, Foehring RC. Histochemistry of flight muscles in the Jamaican fruit bat, Artibeus jamaicensis: implications for motor control. J Morphol 1988; 196:353-62. [PMID: 2458476 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1051960308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Two fast-twitch fiber types are histochemically identified in the primary flight muscles of Artibeus jamaicensis. These are classified as type IIa and IIb according to an acid-preincubation staining protocol for myosin ATPase. All fibers in the bat flight muscles exhibit relatively intense staining properties for NADH-TR, suggesting a high oxidative capacity. The glycolytic potential of all fibers is rather low, as assessed by stains for alpha-GPD. This two-type histochemical profile appears to parallel biphasic electromyographic patterns observed in these muscles and leads us to propose that flight muscle histochemistry and activation are mediated by a "two-gear" neuromuscular control system. In contrast, earlier studies on Tadarida brasiliensis demonstrate the existence of a "one-gear" neuromuscular control system, exemplified by the presence of one fiber type. These observations are discussed with respect to the natural history and flight styles of several species.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Hermanson
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
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