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Petit R, Izambart J, Guillou M, da Silva Almeida JRG, de Oliveira Junior RG, Sol V, Ouk TS, Grougnet R, Quintans-Júnior LJ, Sitarek P, Thiéry V, Picot L. A Review of Phototoxic Plants, Their Phototoxic Metabolites, and Possible Developments as Photosensitizers. Chem Biodivers 2024; 21:e202300494. [PMID: 37983920 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.202300494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding phototoxic terrestrial plants and their phototoxic and photosensitizing metabolites. Within the 435,000 land plant species, only around 250 vascular plants have been documented as phototoxic or implicated in phototoxic occurrences in humans and animals. This work compiles a comprehensive catalog of these phototoxic plant species, organized alphabetically based on their taxonomic family. The dataset encompasses meticulous details including taxonomy, geographical distribution, vernacular names, and information on the nature and structure of their phototoxic and photosensitizing molecule(s). Subsequently, this study undertook an in-depth investigation into phototoxic molecules, resulting in the compilation of a comprehensive and up-to-date list of phytochemicals exhibiting phototoxic or photosensitizing activity synthesized by terrestrial plants. For each identified molecule, an extensive review was conducted, encompassing discussions on its phototoxic activity, chemical family, occurrence in plant families or species, distribution within different plant tissues and organs, as well as the biogeographical locations of the producer species worldwide. The analysis also includes a thorough discussion on the potential use of these molecules for the development of new photosensitizers that could be used in topical or injectable formulations for antimicrobial and anticancer phototherapy as well as manufacturing of photoactive devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaëlle Petit
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | - Jonathan Izambart
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | - Mathieu Guillou
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
| | | | - Raimundo Gonçalves de Oliveira Junior
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- UMR CNRS 8038 CiTCoM, Université Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Sol
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LABCiS, UR 22722, Université de Limoges, 87000, Limoges, France
| | - Tan-Sothea Ouk
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LABCiS, UR 22722, Université de Limoges, 87000, Limoges, France
| | - Raphaël Grougnet
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- UMR CNRS 8038 CiTCoM, Université Paris Cité, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Lucindo José Quintans-Júnior
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
- LANEF, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000, São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil
| | | | - Valérie Thiéry
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
| | - Laurent Picot
- UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, La Rochelle Université, UMR CNRS 7266 LIENSs, Curie B10 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042, La Rochelle, France
- Franco-Brazilian Network on Natural Products, FB2NP
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Potential Biochemical Pesticide-Synthesis of Neofuranocoumarin and Inhibition the Proliferation of Spodoptera frugiperda Cells through Activating the Mitochondrial Pathway. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100677. [PMID: 36287946 PMCID: PMC9612269 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Furanocoumarins, the secondary metabolites of plants, are considered to be natural insecticides and fungicides because they prevent the invasion of plant pathogenic microorganisms and the predation of herbivorous insects. In this study, novel 2-arylfuranocoumarin derivatives were designed to synthesize by condensation, esterification, bromination, and Wittig reaction. The results showed an excellent photosensitive activity of 2-thiophenylfuranocoumarin (I34). Cell Counting Kit-8 detected that I34 could inhibit the proliferation of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner under ultraviolet A (UV-A) light for 3 min. The inverted microscope revealed that cells treated with I34 swelled, the membrane was ruptured, and apoptotic bodies appeared. The flow cytometry detected that I34 could induce apoptosis of Sf9 cells, increase the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential, and block cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase. Transmission electron microscopy detected cell mitochondrial cristae damage, matrix degradation, and mitochondrial vacuolation. Further enzyme activity detection revealed that the enzyme activities of apoptosis-related proteins caspase-3 and caspase-9 increased significantly (p < 0.05). Finally, Western blotting analysis detected that the phosphorylation level of Akt and Bad and the expression of the apoptosis inhibitor protein Bcl-XL were inhibited, cleaved-PARP and P53 were increased, and cytochrome C was released from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm. Moreover, under UV-A irradiation, I34 promoted the increase in ROS in Sf9 cells, activated the mitochondrial apoptotic signal transduction pathway, and finally, inhibited cell proliferation. Thus, novel furanocoumarins exhibit a potential application prospect as a biochemical pesticide.
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Santos P, Busta L, Yim WC, Cahoon EB, Kosma DK. Structural diversity, biosynthesis, and function of plant falcarin-type polyacetylenic lipids. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:2889-2904. [PMID: 35560192 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erac006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The polyacetylenic lipids falcarinol, falcarindiol, and associated derivatives, termed falcarins, have a widespread taxonomical distribution in the plant kingdom and have received increasing interest for their demonstrated health-promoting properties as anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agents. These fatty acid-derived compounds are also linked to plant pathogen resistance through their potent antimicrobial properties. Falcarin-type polyacetylenes, which contain two conjugated triple bonds, are derived from structural modifications of the common fatty acid oleic acid. In the past half century, much progress has been made in understanding the structural diversity of falcarins in the plant kingdom, whereas limited progress has been made on elucidating falcarin function in plant-pathogen interactions. More recently, an understanding of the biosynthetic machinery underlying falcarin biosynthesis has emerged. This review provides a concise summary of the current state of knowledge on falcarin structural diversity, biosynthesis, and plant defense properties. We also present major unanswered questions about falcarin biosynthesis and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Santos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Lucas Busta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Minnesota Duluth, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Won Cheol Yim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Edgar B Cahoon
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Plant Science Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Dylan K Kosma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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Sleiman M, Nienow A, Richard C. Environmental photochemistry on plants: recent advances and new opportunities for interdisciplinary research. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:1497-1510. [PMID: 35532879 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-022-00228-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Plants play a central role in the photochemistry of chemicals in the environment. They represent a major atmospheric source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) but also an important environmental surface for the deposition and photochemical reactions of pesticides, gaseous and particulate pollutants. In this review, we point out the role of plant leaves in these processes, as a support affecting the reactions physically and chemically and as a partner through the release of natural constituents (water, secondary metabolites). We discuss the influence of the chosen support (leaves, needle surfaces or fruit cuticles, extracted cuticular waxes and model surfaces) and other factors (additives, pesticides mixture, and secondary metabolites) on the photochemical degradation kinetics and mechanisms. We also show how plants can be a source of photochemically reactive species which can act as photosensitizers promoting the photodegradation of pesticides or the formation and aging of secondary organic aerosols (SOA) and secondary organic materials (SOM). Understanding the fate of chemicals on plants is a research area located at the interface between photochemistry, analytical chemistry, atmospheric chemistry, microbiology and vegetal physiology. Pluridisciplinary approaches are needed to deeply understand these complex phenomena in a comprehensive way. To overcome this challenge, we summarize future research directions which have been clearly overlooked until now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Sleiman
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne INP, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, 63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Amanda Nienow
- Department of Chemistry, Gustavus Adolphus College, Saint Peter, MN, USA
| | - Claire Richard
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont Auvergne INP, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, 63000, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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Targeted isolation of photoactive pigments from mushrooms yielded a highly potent new photosensitizer: 7,7′-biphyscion. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1108. [PMID: 35064132 PMCID: PMC8782903 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04975-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractPigments of fungi are a fertile ground of inspiration: they spread across various chemical backbones, absorption ranges, and bioactivities. However, basidiomycetes with strikingly colored fruiting bodies have never been explored as agents for photodynamic therapy (PDT), even though known photoactive compound classes (e.g., anthraquinones or alkaloids) are used as chemotaxonomic markers. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the dyes of skin-heads (dermocyboid Cortinarii) can produce singlet oxygen under irradiation and thus are natural photosensitizers. Three photosensitizers based on anthraquinone structures were isolated and photopharmaceutical tests were conducted. For one of the three, i.e., (–)-7,7′-biphyscion (1), a promising photoyield and photocytotoxicity of EC50 = 0.064 µM against cancer cells (A549) was found under blue light irradiation (λexc = 468 nm, 9.3 J/cm2). The results of molecular biological methods, e.g., a viability assay and a cell cycle analysis, demonstrated the harmlessness of 1 in the dark and highlighted the apoptosis-inducing PDT potential under blue light irradiation. These results demonstrate for the first time that pigments of dermocyboid Cortinarii possess a so far undescribed activity, i.e., photoactivity, with significant potential for the field of PDT. The dimeric anthraquinone (–)-7,7′-biphyscion (1) was identified as a promising natural photosensitizer.
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Photophysical properties of a β-Carboline Rhenium (I) complex. Solvent effects on excited states and their redox reactivity. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpap.2021.100078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Fiala J, Schöbel H, Vrabl P, Dietrich D, Hammerle F, Artmann DJ, Stärz R, Peintner U, Siewert B. A New High-Throughput-Screening-Assay for Photoantimicrobials Based on EUCAST Revealed Unknown Photoantimicrobials in Cortinariaceae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:703544. [PMID: 34421861 PMCID: PMC8375034 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.703544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is one of the biggest health and subsequent economic threat humanity faces. Next to massive global awareness campaigns, governments and NGOs alike stress the need for new innovative strategies to treat microbial infections. One of such innovative strategies is the photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT) in which the synergistic effects of photons and drugs are exploited. While many promising reports are available, PACT - and especially the drug-design part behind - is still in its infancy. Common best-practice rules, such as the EUCAST or CLSI protocols for classic antibiotics as well as high-throughput screenings, are missing, and this, in turn, hampers the identification of hit structures. Hit-like structures might come from synthetic approaches or from natural sources. They are identified via activity-guided synthesis or isolation strategies. As source for new antimicrobials, fungi are highly ranked. They share the same ecological niche with many other microbes and consequently established chemical strategies to combat with the others. Recently, in members of the Cortinariaceae, especially of the subgenus Dermocybe, photoactive metabolites were detected. To study their putative photoantimicrobial effect, a photoantimicrobial high-throughput screening (HTS) based on The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) was established. After validation, the established HTS was used to evaluate a sample set containing six colorful representatives from the genus Cortinarius (i.e., Cortinarius callisteus, C. rufo-olivaceus, C. traganus, C. trivialis, C. venetus, and C. xanthophyllus). The assay is built on a uniform, light-emitting diode (LED)-based light irradiation across a 96-well microtiter plate, which was achieved by a pioneering arrangement of the LEDs. The validation of the assay was accomplished with well-known photoactive drugs, so-called photosensitizers, utilizing six distinct emission wavelengths (λexc = 428, 478, 523, 598, or 640 nm) and three microbial strains (Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli). Evaluating the extracts of six Cortinarius species revealed two highly promising species, i.e., C. rufo-olivaceus and C. xanthophyllus. Extracts from the latter were photoactive against the Gram-positive S. aureus (c = 7.5 μg/ml, H = 30 J/cm2, λ = 478 nm) and the fungus C. albicans (c = 75 μg/ml, H = 30 J/cm2, λ = 478 nm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Fiala
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Pamela Vrabl
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dorothea Dietrich
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Fabian Hammerle
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Ronald Stärz
- MCI - The Entrepreneurial School, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ursula Peintner
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bianka Siewert
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Siewert B. Does the chemistry of fungal pigments demand the existence of photoactivated defense strategies in basidiomycetes? Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:475-488. [PMID: 33738747 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00034-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The well-known photosensitizers hypericin, harmane, and emodin are typical pigments of certain mushroom species-is this a coincidence or an indication towards a photoactivated defense mechanism in the phylum Basidiomycota? This perspective article explores this hypothesis by cross-linking the chemistry of fungal pigments with structural requirements from known photosensitizers and insights from photoactivated strategies in the kingdom Plantae. Thereby, light is shed on a yet unexplored playground dealing with ecological questions, photopharmaceutical opportunities, and biotechnological potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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9
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Iqbal Z, Iqbal MS, Hashem A, Abd_Allah EF, Ansari MI. Plant Defense Responses to Biotic Stress and Its Interplay With Fluctuating Dark/Light Conditions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:631810. [PMID: 33763093 PMCID: PMC7982811 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.631810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Plants are subjected to a plethora of environmental cues that cause extreme losses to crop productivity. Due to fluctuating environmental conditions, plants encounter difficulties in attaining full genetic potential for growth and reproduction. One such environmental condition is the recurrent attack on plants by herbivores and microbial pathogens. To surmount such attacks, plants have developed a complex array of defense mechanisms. The defense mechanism can be either preformed, where toxic secondary metabolites are stored; or can be inducible, where defense is activated upon detection of an attack. Plants sense biotic stress conditions, activate the regulatory or transcriptional machinery, and eventually generate an appropriate response. Plant defense against pathogen attack is well understood, but the interplay and impact of different signals to generate defense responses against biotic stress still remain elusive. The impact of light and dark signals on biotic stress response is one such area to comprehend. Light and dark alterations not only regulate defense mechanisms impacting plant development and biochemistry but also bestow resistance against invading pathogens. The interaction between plant defense and dark/light environment activates a signaling cascade. This signaling cascade acts as a connecting link between perception of biotic stress, dark/light environment, and generation of an appropriate physiological or biochemical response. The present review highlights molecular responses arising from dark/light fluctuations vis-à-vis elicitation of defense mechanisms in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Iqbal
- Molecular Crop Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Abeer Hashem
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Mycology and Plant Disease Survey Department, Plant Pathology Research Institute, ARC, Giza, Egypt
| | - Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah
- Plant Production Department, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Liu J, Chafi R, Legarrea S, Alba JM, Meijer T, Menken SBJ, Kant MR. Spider Mites Cause More Damage to Tomato in the Dark When Induced Defenses Are Lower. J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:631-641. [PMID: 32588284 PMCID: PMC7371662 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01195-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Plants have evolved robust mechanisms to cope with incidental variation (e.g. herbivory) and periodical variation (e.g. light/darkness during the day-night cycle) in their environment. It has been shown that a plant's susceptibility to pathogens can vary during its day-night cycle. We demonstrated earlier that the spider mite Tetranychus urticae induces jasmonate- and salicylate-mediated defenses in tomato plants while the spider mite T. evansi suppresses these defenses probably by secreting salivary effector proteins. Here we compared induction/suppression of plant defenses; the expression of mite-effector genes and the amount of damage due to mite feeding during the day and during the night. T. urticae feeding upregulated the expression of jasmonate and salicylate marker-genes albeit significantly higher under light than under darkness. Some of these marker-genes were also upregulated by T. evansi-feeding albeit to much lower levels than by T. urticae-feeding. The expression of effector 28 was not affected by light or darkness in either mite species. However, the expression of effector 84 was considerably higher under light, especially for T. evansi. Finally, while T. evansi produced overall more feeding damage than T. urticae both mites produced consistently more damage during the dark phase than under light. Our results suggest that induced defenses are subject to diurnal variation possibly causing tomatoes to incur more damage due to mite-feeding during the dark phase. We speculate that mites, but especially T. evansi, may relax effector production during the dark phase because under these conditions the plant's ability to upregulate defenses is reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology & Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Insect Sciences, Zhejiang University, 310058, Hangzhou, China
| | - Rachid Chafi
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Saioa Legarrea
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Juan M Alba
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tomas Meijer
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Steph B J Menken
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Merijn R Kant
- Section Molecular and Chemical Ecology, Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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Norman EO, Lever J, Brkljača R, Urban S. Distribution, biosynthesis, and biological activity of phenylphenalenone-type compounds derived from the family of plants, Haemodoraceae. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:753-768. [DOI: 10.1039/c8np00067k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review provides a summary of the current state of research concerning the unique specialised metabolites from Haemodoraceae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Owen Norman
- School of Science (Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science)
- RMIT University
- Melbourne
- Australia
| | - James Lever
- School of Science (Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science)
- RMIT University
- Melbourne
- Australia
| | - Robert Brkljača
- School of Science (Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science)
- RMIT University
- Melbourne
- Australia
| | - Sylvia Urban
- School of Science (Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science)
- RMIT University
- Melbourne
- Australia
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12
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Zhao B, Huo J, Liu N, Zhang J, Dong J. Transketolase Is Identified as a Target of Herbicidal Substance α-Terthienyl by Proteomics. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E41. [PMID: 29329271 PMCID: PMC5793128 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
α-terthienyl is a natural phytotoxin isolated originally from Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze. The bioassay presented here shows the strong herbicidal activity of α-terthienyl on Digitaria sanguinalis, Arabidopsis thaliana and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The α-terthienyl-induced response of A. thaliana at the protein level was analyzed at different times. Changes in the protein expression profiles were analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) mass spectrometry. Sixteen protein spots were identified that showed reproducible changes in the expression of at least 2-fold when compared to the control. Among these 16 spots, three were up-regulated and 13 were down-regulated. The decreased expression of several proteins associated with energy production and carbon metabolism suggested that these processes were affected by α-terthienyl. To search for the candidate proteins in this screen, A. thaliana T-DNA mutants of the candidate proteins were used to test their susceptibility to α-terthienyl. Amongst the others, attkl1, a mutant of transketolase, exhibited a significantly lower sensitivity to α-terthienyl when hit compared with Col-0. Based on the identification of the proteins associated with the response to α-terthienyl by proteomics, a candidate target protein transketolase was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zhao
- College of plant protection, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
- College of life science, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
| | - Jingqian Huo
- College of plant protection, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
| | - Ning Liu
- College of life science, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
| | - Jinlin Zhang
- College of plant protection, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
| | - Jingao Dong
- College of life science, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China.
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Rasse-Suriani FAO, García-Einschlag FS, Rafti M, Schmidt De León T, David Gara PM, Erra-Balsells R, Cabrerizo FM. Photophysical and Photochemical Properties of Naturally Occurring nor
melinonine F and Melinonine F Alkaloids and Structurally Related N(2)- and/or N(9)-methyl-β
-carboline Derivatives. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 94:36-51. [DOI: 10.1111/php.12811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Federico A. O. Rasse-Suriani
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas - Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH); Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); Chascomús Argentina
- INIFTA - CONICET; Universidad Nacional de La Plata; La Plata Argentina
| | | | - Matías Rafti
- INIFTA - CONICET; Universidad Nacional de La Plata; La Plata Argentina
| | - Tobías Schmidt De León
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Departamento de Química Orgánica; Universidad de Buenos Aires; Ciudad Universitaria Buenos Aires Argentina
- Centro de Investigación en Hidratos de Carbono (CIHIDECAR - CONICET); Universidad de Buenos Aires; Ciudad Universitaria Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Pedro M. David Gara
- Centro de Investigaciones Ópticas (CIOP - CONICET - CIC); Universidad Nacional de La Plata; La Plata Argentina
| | - Rosa Erra-Balsells
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Departamento de Química Orgánica; Universidad de Buenos Aires; Ciudad Universitaria Buenos Aires Argentina
- Centro de Investigación en Hidratos de Carbono (CIHIDECAR - CONICET); Universidad de Buenos Aires; Ciudad Universitaria Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Franco M. Cabrerizo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas - Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH); Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); Chascomús Argentina
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Abramova I, Rudshteyn B, Liebman JF, Greer A. Computed Regioselectivity and Conjectured Biological Activity of Ene Reactions of Singlet Oxygen with the Natural Product Hyperforin. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 93:626-631. [PMID: 28052331 DOI: 10.1111/php.12706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Hyperforin is a constituent of St. John's wort and coexists with the singlet oxygen sensitizer hypericin. Density functional theory, molecular mechanics and Connolly surface calculations show that accessibility in the singlet oxygen "ene" reaction favors the hyperforin "southwest" and "southeast" prenyl (2-methyl-2-butenyl) groups over the northern prenyl groups. While the southern part of hyperforin is initially more susceptible to oxidation, up to 4 "ene" reactions of singlet oxygen can take place. Computational results assist in predicting the fate of adjacent hydroperoxides in hyperforin, where the loss of hydrogen atoms may lead to the formation of a hydrotrioxide and a carbonyl instead of a Russell reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna Abramova
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY
| | - Benjamin Rudshteyn
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY
| | - Joel F Liebman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate Center, City University of New York, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY
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15
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Travaini ML, Sosa GM, Ceccarelli EA, Walter H, Cantrell CL, Carrillo NJ, Dayan FE, Meepagala KM, Duke SO. Khellin and Visnagin, Furanochromones from Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam., as Potential Bioherbicides. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:9475-9487. [PMID: 27936681 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Plants constitute a source of novel phytotoxic compounds to be explored in searching for effective and environmentally safe herbicides. From a previous screening of plant extracts for their phytotoxicity, a dichloromethane extract of Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. was selected for further study. Phytotoxicity-guided fractionation of this extract yielded two furanochromones, khellin and visnagin, for which herbicidal activity had not been described before. Khellin and visnagin were phytotoxic to model species lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and duckweed (Lemna paucicostata), with IC50 values ranging from 110 to 175 μM. These compounds also inhibited the growth and germination of a diverse group of weeds at 0.5 and 1 mM. These weeds included five grasses [ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), barnyardgrass (Echinocloa crus-galli), crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), foxtail (Setaria italica), and millet (Panicum sp.)] and two broadleaf species [morningglory (Ipomea sp.) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti)]. During greenhouse studies visnagin was the most active and showed significant contact postemergence herbicidal activity on velvetleaf and crabgrass at 2 kg active ingredient (ai) ha-1. Moreover, its effect at 4 kg ai ha-1 was comparable to the bioherbicide pelargonic acid at the same rate. The mode of action of khellin and visnagin was not a light-dependent process. Both compounds caused membrane destabilization, photosynthetic efficiency reduction, inhibition of cell division, and cell death. These results support the potential of visnagin and, possibly, khellin as bioherbicides or lead molecules for the development of new herbicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L Travaini
- Instituto de Biologı́a Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquı́micas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario , Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
- Investigaciones Biológicas en Agroquímicos Rosario S.A. (INBIOAR S.A.) , Cordoba 1437, Fifth Floor-Office 2, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Gustavo M Sosa
- Investigaciones Biológicas en Agroquímicos Rosario S.A. (INBIOAR S.A.) , Cordoba 1437, Fifth Floor-Office 2, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Eduardo A Ceccarelli
- Instituto de Biologı́a Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquı́micas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario , Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Helmut Walter
- AgroField Consulting , Gruenstadter Strasse 82, 67283 Obrigheim, Germany
| | - Charles L Cantrell
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , P.O. Box 1848, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Nestor J Carrillo
- Instituto de Biologı́a Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquı́micas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario , Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Franck E Dayan
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , P.O. Box 1848, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Kumudini M Meepagala
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , P.O. Box 1848, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Stephen O Duke
- Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , P.O. Box 1848, University, Mississippi 38677, United States
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Puschner B, Chen X, Read D, Affolter V. Alfalfa hay induced primary photosensitization in horses. Vet J 2016; 211:32-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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17
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Rasse-Suriani FAO, Paula Denofrio M, Yañuk JG, Micaela Gonzalez M, Wolcan E, Seifermann M, Erra-Balsells R, Cabrerizo FM. Chemical and photochemical properties of chloroharmine derivatives in aqueous solutions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:886-900. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp05866j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In water, chloroharmines follow very distinctive thermal and photochemical pH- and O2-dependent-reaction pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico A. O. Rasse-Suriani
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas – Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH)
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)
- Chascomús
- Argentina
| | - M. Paula Denofrio
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas – Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH)
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)
- Chascomús
- Argentina
| | - Juan G. Yañuk
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas – Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH)
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)
- Chascomús
- Argentina
| | - M. Micaela Gonzalez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas – Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH)
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)
- Chascomús
- Argentina
| | - Ezequiel Wolcan
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA, UNLP, CCT La Plata-CONICET)
- (B1906ZAA) La Plata
- Argentina
| | - Marco Seifermann
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry
- University of Mainz
- Mainz
- Germany
| | - Rosa Erra-Balsells
- CIHIDECAR – CONICET
- Departamento de Química Orgánica
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales
- Universidad de Buenos Aires
- (1428) Buenos Aires
| | - Franco M. Cabrerizo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas – Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH)
- Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)
- Chascomús
- Argentina
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Richards LA, Dyer LA, Forister ML, Smilanich AM, Dodson CD, Leonard MD, Jeffrey CS. Phytochemical diversity drives plant-insect community diversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:10973-8. [PMID: 26283384 PMCID: PMC4568244 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1504977112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
What are the ecological causes and consequences of variation in phytochemical diversity within and between plant taxa? Despite decades of natural products discovery by organic chemists and research by chemical ecologists, our understanding of phytochemically mediated ecological processes in natural communities has been restricted to studies of either broad classes of compounds or a small number of well-characterized molecules. Until now, no studies have assessed the ecological causes or consequences of rigorously quantified phytochemical diversity across taxa in natural systems. Consequently, hypotheses that attempt to explain variation in phytochemical diversity among plants remain largely untested. We use spectral data from crude plant extracts to characterize phytochemical diversity in a suite of co-occurring plants in the tropical genus Piper (Piperaceae). In combination with 20 years of data focused on Piper-associated insects, we find that phytochemical diversity has a direct and positive effect on the diversity of herbivores but also reduces overall herbivore damage. Elevated chemical diversity is associated with more specialized assemblages of herbivores, and the cascading positive effect of phytochemistry on herbivore enemies is stronger as herbivore diet breadth narrows. These results are consistent with traditional hypotheses that predict positive associations between plant chemical diversity, insect herbivore diversity, and trophic specialization. It is clear from these results that high phytochemical diversity not only enhances the diversity of plant-associated insects but also contributes to the ecological predominance of specialized insect herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lee A Dyer
- Biology Department, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557
| | | | | | - Craig D Dodson
- Chemistry Department, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557
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20
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Aver'yanov AA, Lapikova VP, Pasechnik TD, Abramova OS, Gaivoronskaya LM, Kuznetsov VV, Baker CJ. Pre-illumination of rice blast conidia induces tolerance to subsequent oxidative stress. Fungal Biol 2014; 118:743-53. [PMID: 25110136 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Many environmental factors, alone or combined, affect organisms by changing a pro-/antioxidant balance. Here we tested rice blast fungus (Magnaporthe oryzae) for possible cross-adaptations caused by relatively intense light and protecting from artificially formed reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS-dependent fungitoxic response of the host plant. Spore germination was found to be suppressed under 4-h and, to larger extent, 5-h illumination. The effect was diminished by antioxidants and, therefore, suggests involvement of ROS. One-hour of light did not affect spore germination, but stimulated their chemically assayed superoxide production. The illuminated spores were more tolerant (than non-illuminated ones) to artificially generated H(2)O(2), O(2)(-), or OH or to toxic diffusate of rice leaf. They also caused more severe disease symptoms if applied to leaves of the susceptible rice cultivar at low concentration. Spore diffusates decomposed hydrogen peroxide. They detoxified exogenous H(2)O(2) and superoxide radical as well as leaf diffusates. Spore illumination increased some of these protective effects. It is suggested that short-term light led to mild oxidative stress, which induced spore antioxidant capacity, enhancing spore tolerance to subsequent stronger oxidative stress and its aggressiveness in planta. Such tolerance depends partly on the antidotal action of spore extracellular compounds, which may also be light-stimulated. Therefore, a certain ROS-related environmental factor may adapt a fungus to other factors and so modulate its pathogenic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey A Aver'yanov
- Research Institute of Phytopathology, B. Vyazemy, Moscow Region 143050, Russia.
| | - Vera P Lapikova
- Research Institute of Phytopathology, B. Vyazemy, Moscow Region 143050, Russia
| | - Tatiana D Pasechnik
- Research Institute of Phytopathology, B. Vyazemy, Moscow Region 143050, Russia
| | - Olga S Abramova
- Russian People's Friendship University, 8 M. Maklay Str., Moscow 117813, Russia
| | | | | | - C Jacyn Baker
- Agricultural Research Service USDA, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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21
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Gonzalez MM, Rasse-Suriani FAO, Franca CA, Diez RP, Gholipour Y, Nonami H, Erra-Balsells R, Cabrerizo FM. Photosensitized electron transfer within a self-assembled norharmane-2'-deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP) complex. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:9359-72. [PMID: 23111419 DOI: 10.1039/c2ob26462e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Norharmane is a compound that belongs to a family of alkaloids called β-carbolines (βCs). These alkaloids are present in a wide range of biological systems, playing a variety of significant photo-dependent roles. Upon UV-A irradiation, βCs are able to act as efficient photosensitizers. In this work, we have investigated the photosensitized oxidation of 2'-deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP) by norharmane in an aqueous phase, upon UV-A (350 nm) irradiation. The effect of the pH was evaluated on both the interactions between norharmane and dAMP in the ground and electronic excited states, and on the dAMP photosensitized oxidation. A quite strong static interaction between norharmane and dAMP was observed, especially under those pH conditions where the protonated form of the alkaloid is present (pH < 7). Theoretical studies were performed to further characterize the static complex structure. The participation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the photosensitized reaction was also investigated and the photoproducts were characterized by means of UV-LDI-MS and ESI-MS. All the data provided herein indicate that electron transfer (Type I) within a self-assembled norharmane-dAMP complex is the operative mechanism in the dAMP photosensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Micaela Gonzalez
- CIHIDECAR - CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, (1428) Buenos Aires, Argentina
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22
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Gonzalez MM, Vignoni M, Pellon-Maison M, Ales-Gandolfo MA, Gonzalez-Baro MR, Erra-Balsells R, Epe B, Cabrerizo FM. Photosensitization of DNA by β-carbolines: Kinetic analysis and photoproduct characterization. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:1807-19. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ob06505c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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23
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Radhika V, Kost C, Mithöfer A, Boland W. Regulation of extrafloral nectar secretion by jasmonates in lima bean is light dependent. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:17228-33. [PMID: 20855624 PMCID: PMC2951398 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1009007107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To maximize fitness, plants need to perceive changes in their light environment and adjust their physiological responses accordingly. Whether and how such changes also affect the regulation of their defense responses against herbivores remains largely unclear. We addressed this issue by studying the secretion of extrafloral nectar (EFN) in lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), which is known to be activated by the phytohormone jasmonic acid (JA) and functions as an indirect defense mechanism against herbivores. We found that the plant's EFN secretion in response to JA was light dependent: In the dark, JA reduced EFN secretion, whereas under light conditions, JA induced EFN secretion relative to controls. This modulation was affected by the light's spectral composition [i.e., ratio of red to far-red (R:FR) radiation], but not light intensity. These findings demonstrate a unique differential effect of JA on EFN secretion depending on the ambient light conditions. Interestingly, treatment with the isoleucine-JA conjugate (JA-Ile) enhanced EFN secretion under light conditions yet did not reduce EFN secretion in the dark. Moreover, inhibition of Ile biosynthesis in light-exposed plants significantly decreased the EFN secretion rate. This reduction could be recovered by additional application of JA-Ile, suggesting that JA-Ile is the active compound required to up-regulate EFN secretion. Finally, experiments with mechanically damaged plants revealed that light was required for the formation of JA-Ile, but not of JA. These results demonstrate that in lima bean, the light environment modulates the plant's response to jasmonates as well as JA-Ile biosynthesis, which controls the subsequent EFN secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatesan Radhika
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Kost
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, D-07745 Jena, Germany
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Arnason JT, Bernards MA. Impact of constitutive plant natural products on herbivores and pathogensThe present review is one in the special series of reviews on animal–plant interactions. CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Plants defend themselves from pests with deterrent or toxic phytochemicals. In addition to the development of preformed mechanical barriers such as cutin and suberin, the first line of defense for plants against pathogens and herbivores is constitutive (preformed) biologically active inhibitors. Because of the adaptation of insects and pathogens to these inhibitors, plants have evolved a stunning diversity of new and different bioactive molecules to combat pests. Some representative mechanisms of plant defense include the use of antimicrobial, anitfeedant, and phototoxic molecules. Examples of natural product defenses of specific plant families are also described. Diversity and redundancy in plant defenses is key to slowing pest resistance to host-plant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T. Arnason
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Mark A. Bernards
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
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Gonzalez MM, Pellon-Maison M, Ales-Gandolfo MA, Gonzalez-Baró MR, Erra-Balsells R, Cabrerizo FM. Photosensitized cleavage of plasmidic DNA by norharmane, a naturally occurring β-carboline. Org Biomol Chem 2010; 8:2543-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c002235g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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26
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Gonzalez MM, Arnbjerg J, Denofrio MP, Erra-Balsells R, Ogilby PR, Cabrerizo FM. One- and Two-Photon Excitation of β-Carbolines in Aqueous Solution: pH-Dependent Spectroscopy, Photochemistry, and Photophysics. J Phys Chem A 2009; 113:6648-56. [DOI: 10.1021/jp902105x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Micaela Gonzalez
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Jacob Arnbjerg
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - M. Paula Denofrio
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Rosa Erra-Balsells
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Peter R. Ogilby
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Franco M. Cabrerizo
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3p, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 - Buenos Aires, Argentina, Center for Oxygen Microscopy and Imaging, Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Århus, Denmark, and INIFTA-CONICET-CIC, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
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27
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Brennan TM. Decarboxylation of lndole-3-Acetic Acid and Inhibition of Growth inAvena sativaSeedlings by Plant-Derived Photosensitizers*. Photochem Photobiol 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1996.tb01867.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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28
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Alonso-Amelot ME. High altitude plants, chemistry of acclimation and adaptation. BIOACTIVE NATURAL PRODUCTS (PART N) 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1572-5995(08)80036-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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29
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Brennan TM, Lee E, Battaglia PR. Participation of the Photosensitizer Alpha-terthienyl in thePeroxidase-catalyzed Oxidation of Indole-3-acetic acid †. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2000)0710355potpat2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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30
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Tian Y, Wei X, Xu H. Photoactivated insecticidal thiophene derivatives from Xanthopappus subacaulis. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2006; 69:1241-4. [PMID: 16933888 DOI: 10.1021/np060209b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Three new photoactivated insecticidal thiophene derivatives, xanthopappins A-C (1-3), were isolated from Xanthopappus subacaulis, along with three known thiophene acetylenes, 5-hydroxymethyl-2-(E)-hept-5-ene-1,3-diynylthiophene (4), 5-(1,2-dihydroxyethyl)-2-(E)-hept-5-ene-1,3-diynylthiophene (5), and 5-(1,2-diacetoxyethyl)-2-(E)-hept-5-ene-1,3-diynylthiophene (6). The structures of 1-3 were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. Compounds 1-6 exhibited significant photoactivated insecticidal activity against the fourth-instar larvae of the Asian tiger mosquito.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqing Tian
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agriculture University, Wushan, Guangzhou 510640, People's Republic of China
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Flors C, Nonell S. Light and singlet oxygen in plant defense against pathogens: phototoxic phenalenone phytoalexins. Acc Chem Res 2006; 39:293-300. [PMID: 16700528 DOI: 10.1021/ar0402863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plants defend themselves from pathogen infections or mechanical injury by a number of mechanisms, including the induced biosynthesis of antimicrobial secondary metabolites. These compounds, termed phytoalexins, represent a very economical way to counteract hazard, because the carbon and energy resources are diverted to phytoalexin synthesis only at the early period of attack and only at its site. The occurrence of phenalenone chromophores in phytoalexins of plants originally nonphototoxic suggests that these plants respond to pathogen attacks by biosynthesizing singlet oxygen photosensitizers able to use solar energy for defense. This concept may have implications for the development of novel crop protection strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Flors
- Grup d'Enginyeria Molecular, Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017 Barcelona, Spain
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Roberts MR, Paul ND. Seduced by the dark side: integrating molecular and ecological perspectives on the influence of light on plant defence against pests and pathogens. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2006; 170:677-99. [PMID: 16684231 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01707.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Plants frequently suffer attack from herbivores and microbial pathogens, and have evolved a complex array of defence mechanisms to resist defoliation and disease. These include both preformed defences, ranging from structural features to stores of toxic secondary metabolites, and inducible defences, which are activated only after an attack is detected. It is well known that plant defences against pests and pathogens are commonly affected by environmental conditions, but the mechanisms by which responses to the biotic and abiotic environments interact are only poorly understood. In this review, we consider the impact of light on plant defence, in terms of both plant life histories and rapid scale molecular responses to biotic attack. We bring together evidence that illustrates that light not only modulates defence responses via its influence on biochemistry and plant development but, in some cases, is essential for the development of resistance. We suggest that the interaction between the light environment and plant defence is multifaceted, and extends across different temporal and biological scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Roberts
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK.
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Alonso-Amelot ME, Oliveros A, Calcagno-Pisarelli MP. Phenolics and condensed tannins in relation to altitude in neotropical Pteridium spp. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2004.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Lazzaro A, Corominas M, Martí C, Flors C, Izquierdo LR, Grillo TA, Luis JG, Nonell S. Light- and singlet oxygen-mediated antifungal activity of phenylphenalenone phytoalexins. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2004; 3:706-10. [PMID: 15239009 DOI: 10.1039/b401294a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The light-induced singlet oxygen production and antifungal activity of phenylphenalenone phytoalexins isolated from infected banana plants (Musa acuminata) are reported. Upon absorption of light energy all studied phenylphenalenones sensitise the production of singlet oxygen in polar and non-polar media. Antifungal activity of these compounds towards Fusarium oxysporum is enhanced in the presence of light. These results, together with the correlation of IC50 values under illumination with the quantum yield of singlet oxygen production and the enhancing effect of D2O on the antifungal activity, suggest the intermediacy of singlet oxygen produced by electronic excitation of the phenylphenalenone phytoalexins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Lazzaro
- Grup d'Enginyeria Molecular, Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Via Augusta 390, 08017-Barcelona, Spain
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Abstract
Plants containing aloin A, aloe emodin, and structurally related anthraquinones have long been used as traditional medicines and in the formulation of retail products such as laxatives, dietary supplements, and cosmetics. Since a recent study indicated that topically applied aloe emodin increases the sensitivity of skin to UV light, we examined the events following photoexcitation of aloin A and aloe emodin. We determined that incubation of human skin fibroblasts with 20 microM aloe emodin for 18 h followed by irradiation with UV or visible light resulted in significant photocytotoxicity. This photocytotoxicity was accompanied by oxidative damage in both cellular DNA and RNA. In contrast, no photocytotoxicity was observed following incubation with up to 500 microM aloin A and irradiation with UVA light. In an attempt to explain the different photobiological properties of aloin A and aloe emodin, laser flash photolysis experiments were performed. We determined that the triplet state of aloe emodin was readily formed following photoexcitation. However, no transient intermediates were formed following photoexcitation of aloin A. Therefore, generation of reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage after irradiation of aloin A is unlikely. Although aloin A was not directly photocytotoxic, we found that human skin fibroblasts can metabolize aloin A to aloe emodin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne G Wamer
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
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36
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Brennan TM, Lee E, Battaglia PR. Participation of the photosensitizer alpha-terthienyl in the peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid. Photochem Photobiol 2000; 71:355-60. [PMID: 10824584 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2000)071<0355:potpat>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The plant photosensitizer alpha-terthienyl (alpha T) is toxic toward a variety of organisms, and normally requires exposure to ultraviolet-A radiation for activation and singlet molecular oxygen formation. However, some toxicity has also been reported to occur in the dark. One hypothesis that has been proposed to account for this light-independent toxicity is that the sensitizer becomes activated by energy transfer from the excited-state products of enzymatic reactions. We have investigated this hypothesis using the horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-catalyzed oxidation of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which generates indole-3-aldehyde in an excited triplet state. Light is emitted during the IAA/HRP reaction at acidic pH, is increased by inclusion of alpha T and is not observed with heat-denatured HRP. The rates of both the oxidation of IAA and the subsidence of light emission are more rapid in the IAA/alpha T/HRP system than with IAA and HRP alone, indicating that the presence of alpha T accelerates the reaction. Bleaching occurs at the wavelength of maximal alpha T absorbance and is promoted by the inclusion of IAA. Readdition of both IAA and alpha T to a spent reaction mixture is required to restore light emission after it has subsided, further suggesting that both are consumed in the reaction. We were unable to detect measurable quantities of singlet molecular oxygen formation in this system. These results do not support the energy transfer hypothesis, but instead are more compatible with a model proposed by Krylov and Chebotareva [Krylov, S. N. and A. B. Chebotareva (1993) FEBS Lett. 324, 6-8] for the co-oxidation of IAA and xanthene dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Brennan
- Department of Biology, Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA.
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Timmermann SE, Zangerl AR, Berenbaum MR. Ascorbic and uric acid responses to xanthotoxin ingestion in a generalist and a specialist caterpillar. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1999; 42:26-36. [PMID: 10467054 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1520-6327(199909)42:1<26::aid-arch4>3.0.co;2-g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
For herbivorous insects, dietary sources of low molecular weight non-enzymatic antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid, may influence performance in the presence of phototoxic plant constituents. We examined responses of Trichoplusia ni, a broad generalist, and Depressaria pastinacella, a specialist on furanocoumarin-containing plants, to variation in dietary ascorbic acid availability in the presence and absence of xanthotoxin, a phototoxic furanocoumarin. In T. ni, dietary ascorbic acid significantly increased levels of this compound in body tissues (approximately 7-fold, 5-fold, and 8-fold in hemolymph, gut, and fat body, respectively). In the presence of xanthotoxin, however, the amount of ascorbic acid accumulated significantly decreased. This decrease was not due to antifeedant effects of xanthotoxin and may instead have resulted from depletion of ascorbic acid due to its radical scavenging activity. In contrast, ascorbic acid levels in D. pastinacella were less affected by variation in dietary levels of either xanthotoxin or ascorbic acid, although uric acid, another potential water-soluble nonenzymatic antioxidant, increased in response to dietary ascorbic acid, as it did in T. ni. Thus, for generalists, such as T. ni, that lack specialized detoxification mechanisms against phototoxins such as furanocoumarins, dietary ascorbic acid may play an important role in antioxidant defense, and, for caterpillars in general, uric acid may also contribute to antioxidant defenses. Arch. Copyright 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- SE Timmermann
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana
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Latif Z, Hartley TG, Rice MJ, Waigh RD, Waterman PG. Novel and insecticidal isobutylamides from dinosperma erythrococca. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 1998; 61:614-619. [PMID: 9599259 DOI: 10.1021/np9705569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Through insecticidal bioassay-guided fractionation and isolation, five isobutylamides 1-5 were isolated from n-hexane and EtOAc extracts of the aerial parts of Dinosperma erythrococca (Rutaceae). The structures of compounds 1-5 were established through 1D and 2D NMR. Compounds 1-3 were identified as erythrococcamides A-C and represent two novel classes of isobutylamide. Compounds 4-5 were identified as N-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropyl)-6-phenyl-2(E), 4(E)-hexadienamide (4)1,2 and N-(2-methylpropyl)-6-phenyl-2(E), 4(E)-hexadienamide (5),1,3 respectively. Compound 1 showed lethal activity against the housefly (Musca domestica) (kill EC50 = 20.2 ppm) and the tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens) (kill EC50 = 74.2 ppm). Compound 4 showed lethal activity against H. virescens at 500 ppm, while compound 5 showed lethal activity against M. domestica at 500 ppm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Latif
- Phytochemistry Research Laboratories, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, George St., Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland, U.K
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Jenns AE, Scott DL, Bowden EF, Daub ME. ISOLATION OF MUTANTS OF THE FUNGUSCercospora nicotianaeALTERED IN THEIR RESPONSE TO SINGLET-OXYGEN-GENERATING PHOTOSENSITIZERS. Photochem Photobiol 1995. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1995.tb02350.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Berenbaum M. Phototoxicity of plant secondary metabolites: insect and mammalian perspectives. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1995; 29:119-34. [PMID: 7606040 DOI: 10.1002/arch.940290204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Phototoxic chemicals produced by plants have been studied in a number of contexts, most notably as protective agents against mammalian and insect herbivores. Although there are commonalities in the responses of these two groups of herbivores to plant phototoxins, there are differences as well. Whereas a greater range of chemical classes has been demonstrated to display phototoxicity against insects, considerably more information is available on symptomology of phototoxicity and mechanisms of action in mammals. The commonalities include alterations in behavior following ingestion, notably photophobia, disruption of integumentary integrity following contact or ingestion, and metabolic detoxification following ingestion, in the case of furanocoumarins involving cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. Not yet known to exist in insects are phototoxin-mediated effects on sensory (particularly visual) systems and phototoxicity resulting from abnormal chlorophyll metabolism. In order to gain greater understanding of the ecological significance of phototoxin-mediated plant defense against both insects and mammals, there is a need for more studies centered on natural associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Berenbaum
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
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41
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Brennan TM. PHOTOSENSITIZED INHIBITION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC 14CO 2FIXATION BY α-TERTHIENYL AND ULTRAVIOLET-A. Photochem Photobiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1994.tb09668.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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42
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Brennan TM. PHOTOSENSITIZED INHIBITION OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC 14 CO 2FIXATION BY α-TERTHIENYL and ULTRAVIOLET-A. Photochem Photobiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1994.tb08230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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SMIRNOFF NICHOLAS. The role of active oxygen in the response of plants to water deficit and desiccation. NEW PHYTOLOGIST 1993; 125:27-58. [PMID: 0 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1993.tb03863.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 613] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- NICHOLAS SMIRNOFF
- University of Exeter, Department of Biological Sciences, Hatherly Laboratories, Prince of Wales Road, Exeter EX4 4PS, UK
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