Location in muscarinic acetylcholine receptors of sites for [3H]propylbenzilylcholine mustard binding and for phosphorylation with protein kinase C

Negative regulation of endogenous protein kinase Calpha on the dynamic change of carbachol-induced intracellular calcium response in different melanoma cells

Regulations of intracellular protein kinase C (PKC) on carbachol (CCh)-induced intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)]i) responses were investigated in different stages of melanoma cells. We found that CCh (1 mM) significantly increased [Ca(2+)]i with 6-, 4-, 4-, and 25-folds intensities in WM793B, 451Lu, SK-MEL-5, and A2058 melanoma cells, respectively. Pretreatment of phorbol 12, 13-dibutyrate (PDBu, 2 microM), an activator of intracellular PKC, significantly suppressed CCh-induced peak reactions in WM793B, SK-MEL-5, and A2058 cells. RT-PCR data showed that mRNA levels of PKCalpha were 12-, 4-, 6-, and 0.9-folds higher in above four melanoma cells. Short interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting to PKCalpha in WM793B cells enhanced CCh-induced peak calcium reactions. Present data indicated that CCh-induced [Ca(2+)]i responses were dynamically changed in different stages of melanoma progression. Moreover, intracellular PKCalpha activated by exogenous agonist and expressed through endogenous gene transcription negatively regulated CCh-induced calcium responses. The functional analysis on the relationship between CCh-induced calcium response and endogenous PKCalpha expression might be helpful to predict the development of melanoma.

Regulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signaling

Multiple mechanisms regulate the signaling of the five members of the family of the guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein)-coupled muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors (mAChRs). Following activation by classical or allosteric agonists, mAChRs can be phosphorylated by a variety of receptor kinases and second messenger-regulated kinases. The phosphorylated mAChR subtypes can interact with beta-arrestin and presumably other adaptor proteins as well. As a result, the various mAChR signaling pathways may be differentially altered, leading to short-term or long-term desensitization of a particular signaling pathway, receptor-mediated activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway downstream of mAChR phosphorylation, as well as long-term potentiation of mAChR-mediated phospholipase C stimulation. Agonist activation of mAChRs may also induce receptor internalization and down-regulation, which proceed in a highly regulated manner, depending on receptor subtype and cell type. In this review, our current understanding of the complex regulatory processes that underlie signaling of mAChR is summarized.

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the hippocampus, neocortex and amygdala: a review of immunocytochemical localization in relation to learning and memory

Immunocytochemical mapping studies employing the extensively used monoclonal anti-muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) antibody M35 are reviewed. We focus on three neuronal muscarinic cholinoceptive substrates, which are target regions of the cholinergic basal forebrain system intimately involved in cognitive functions: the hippocampus; neocortex; and amygdala. The distribution and neurochemistry of mAChR-immunoreactive cells as well as behaviorally induced alterations in mAChR-immunoreactivity (ir) are described in detail. M35+ neurons are viewed as cells actively engaged in neuronal functions in which the cholinergic system is typically involved. Phosphorylation and subsequent internalization of muscarinic receptors determine the immunocytochemical outcome, and hence M35 as a tool to visualize muscarinic receptors is less suitable for detection of the entire pool of mAChRs in the central nervous system (CNS). Instead, M35 is sensitive to and capable of detecting alterations in the physiological condition of muscarinic receptors. Therefore, M35 is an excellent tool to localize alterations in cellular cholinoceptivity in the CNS. M35-ir is not only determined by acetylcholine (ACh), but by any substance that changes the phosphorylation/internalization state of the mAChR. An important consequence of this proposition is that other neurotransmitters than ACh (especially glutamate) can regulate M35-ir and the cholinoceptive state of a neuron, and hence the functional properties of a neuron. One of the primary objectives of this review is to provide a synthesis of our data and literature data on mAChR-ir. We propose a hypothesis for the role of muscarinic receptors in learning and memory in terms of modulation between learning and recall states of brain areas at the postsynaptic level as studied by way of immunocytochemistry employing the monoclonal antibody M35.

Chronic effects of ethanol on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are modulated by protein kinase C

We have previously demonstrated that long-term ethanol treatment increased the number and function of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) in human neuroblastoma cells, but the molecular mechanisms involved in these changes are unknown. In the present study, the effect of protein kinase C (PKC) on these events was investigated in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Following exposure to 100 mM ethanol for 2 days, both [³H]N-methylscopolamine binding and carbachol-stimulated I(1,4,5)P₃formation were increased. When cells were cultured in the presence of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), a potent activator of PKC, the effects of ethanol on mAChR number were totally inhibited but ethanol still potentiated carbacholstimulated I(1,4,5)P₃ formation in TPA treated cells. TPA dose-dependently inhibited carbochol-stimulated I(1,4,5)P₃ formation and this effect appeared to be independent of PKC phosphorylating activity. On the other hand, PKC inhibitors mimicked ethanol effects on mAChR number and function. Selective inhibition of classical PKC isozymes with 1 μΜ Gö 6976 for 2 days caused an increase in mAChR number and function, suggesting a role for these isozymes in ethanol-induced upregulation of mAChRs. These data indicate that longterm ethanol treatment may upregulate the number of mAChRs by counteracting PKC-mediated phosphorylation. The effects of ethanol on receptor-coupled phosphoinositide hydrolysis appear to be independent of PKC activity.

Inhibition of muscarinic receptor-operated Ca2+ sensitization by short-term desensitization of alpha-toxin-permeabilized smooth muscle cells from guinea pig stomach

1. Isolated single smooth muscle cells from the guinea pig stomach were permeabilized with Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin. 2. The permeabilized single cells showed a shortening in response to Ca2+ in an all-or-none manner. Moreover, the addition of acetylcholine (ACh) or guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP) resulted in a decrease in concentration of Ca2+ required to trigger a threshold response, suggesting that Ca2+ sensitization is induced by the stimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) or GTP-binding protein(s). 3. Short-term desensitization was induced by incubating the permeabilized cells with 100 microM ACh for 10 min. 4. In desensitized cells, the concentration of Ca2+ required to trigger a threshold response in the presence of ACh was increased, however, the cell shortening in response to Ca2+ in the absence of ACh and GTP-induced Ca2+ sensitization was not affected by short-term desensitization. 5. These results suggest that the receptor-operated augmentation of Ca2+ sensitivity is inhibited by short-term desensitization and that the development of short-term desensitization is due to an uncoupling of mAChR/GTP-binding protein(s).

Effects of phorbol ester on carbachol-induced contraction in bovine ciliary muscle: possible involvement of protein kinase C

The aim of the research was to characterize muscarinic receptors of bovine ciliary muscle and to investigate the desensitization process. The role of protein kinase C was analyzed. The results show that muscarinic receptors of bovine ciliary muscle have the pharmacological characteristics of the M3 subtype. Acute exposure to phorbol esters (1 microM phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, PDB, or 0.1 microM phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, PMA, for 15 and 5 min, respectively) resulted in antagonism of muscarinic receptor-mediated contraction. Long-term pretreatment (18 h) with PMA to down-regulate protein kinase C resulted in potentiation of carbachol-induced contraction, reduction of agonist-induced desensitization and loss of phorbol ester-induced desensitization. Staurosporine (3 microM) and H7 [1-(5-isoquinolinesulfonyl)-2-methyl-piperazine] (1 microM), protein kinase C inhibitors, produced a significant potentiation of the contractile effect of carbachol, reduced the desensitization produced by repeated addition of carbachol and suppressed that induced by phorbol esters. In vitro incubation with carbachol, PDB or PMA did not cause any modification of the binding of labeled [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate. In vitro incubation with PDB and PMA produced, as expected, a significant translocation of protein kinase C from the cytosol to the membrane. The incubation of the ciliary muscle with carbachol, using the protocol of exposure that induced maximal desensitization of contractile responses, produced a significant redistribution of the enzyme from the cytosol to the membrane. These findings suggest that agonist-induced modulation of functional cholinergic sensitivity in ciliary muscle is correlated, at least partially, to the translocation of protein kinase C from the cytosol to the membrane. The desensitization by phorbol esters is completely due to protein kinase C activation; during the desensitization process, direct modification of the density and affinity of muscarinic receptors is not involved.

Phosphorylation of human m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and protein kinase C

Human muscarinic acetylcholine receptor m1 subtypes (m1 receptors) were expressed in and purified from insect Sf9 cells and then subjected to phosphorylation by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) expressed in and purified from Sf9 cells and by protein kinase C purified from rat brain (a mixture of alpha, beta, and gamma types, PKC). The m1 receptor was phosphorylated by either GRK2 or PKC in an agonist-dependent or independent manner, respectively. G protein beta gamma subunits stimulated the phosphorylation by GRK2 but did not affect the phosphorylation by PKC. The number of incorporated phosphates was 4.6 and 2.8 mol/mol of receptor for phoshorylation by GRK2 and PKC, respectively. The number of incorporated phosphates was 7.5 mol/mol receptor for phosphorylation by GRK2 followed by PKC, but was 5.8 mol/mol of receptor for the phosphorylation by PKC followed by GRK2. Major sites phosphorylated by GRK2 and PKC were located in the third intracellular loop and the carboxyl-terminal tail, respectively. These results indicate that GRK2 and PKC phosphorylate different sites of m1 receptors and that the phosphorylation by PKC partially inhibits the phosphorylation by GRK2, probably by affecting activation of GRK2 by agonist-bound receptors.

Positive allosteric interactions on cardiac muscarinic receptors: effects of chemical modifications of disulphide and carboxyl groups

Changes in the allosteric effects of alcuronium on rat cardiac muscarinic receptors were investigated after chemical modifications of S-S bonds or free carboxyl groups. In membranes pretreated with dithiothreitol, alcuronium lost its positive action on the binding of [3H]methyl-N-scopolamine while its inhibitory effect on radioligand dissociation was preserved. In membranes pretreated with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC), known to modify free carboxyl groups in proteins, the ability to bind [3H]methyl-N-scopolamine was preserved if the pretreatment had been performed in the presence of alcuronium, methyl-N-scopolamine or carbachol, while the positive cooperative effect of alcuronium on [3H]methyl-N-scopolamine binding was only preserved in membranes that had been exposed to EDC in the presence of alcuronium. Methyl-N-scopolamine, carbachol and alcuronium differed in their ability to protect (against EDC) the action of alcuronium on the rate of [3H]methyl-N-scopolamine dissociation. The results suggest that the disulphide bridge connecting the first two extracellular loops of muscarinic receptors is important for the positive allosteric action of alcuronium and that three carboxyl groups (presumably aspartate residues) are involved in receptor interactions with alcuronium and methyl-N-scopolamine. The first group is important for the effect of alcuronium on the affinity for methyl-N-scopolamine, the second is critical for the effect of alcuronium on the rate of methyl-N-scopolamine dissociation, and the third is critical for methyl-N-scopolamine binding. Presumably, the two charged nitrogens of alcuronium associate with the first and the second of the three groups involved.

Location of agonist-dependent-phosphorylation sites in the third intracellular loop of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (m2 subtype)

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR, human m2 subtype) expressed in Sf9 (Spodoptera frugiperda) cells using the baculovirus system were purified and subjected to phosphorylation by a mAChR kinase, which was partially purified from porcine cerebrum. Two bands with apparent molecular masses of 59 kDa and 39 kDa as determined by SDS/PAGE were found to be phosphorylated in an agonist-dependent manner. Both bands were labeled by the irreversible muscarinic ligand [3H]propylbenzilylcholine mustard. Molecular masses of the [32P]phosphorylated or [3H]propylbenzilylcholine-mustard-labeled bands decreased following treatment with N-glycanase. The 59-kDa and 39-kDa bands were converted to 52-kDa and 32-kDa bands, respectively, indicating that both the 59-kDa and 39-kDa bands contain the amino-terminal region where glycosylation sites are present. The ratio of incorporated [32P]phosphate and bound [3H]propylbenzilylcholine mustard was essentially the same for the 59-kDa and 39-kDa bands, indicating that all the phosphorylation sites reside in the sequence of 39 kDa from the amino-terminal region. The amounts of incorporated [32P]phosphate were estimated to be 10-11/receptor, with 7-8 serine and 3-4 threonine, but no phosphorylated tyrosine residues. Further treatment of [32P]phosphorylated or [3H]propylbenzilylcholine-mustard-labeled receptors with V8 protease indicated that the phosphorylation sites were not present in 30-kDa amino-terminal segment. These results indicate that the phosphorylation sites are localized in the range 30-39 kDa from the amino terminus, which consists of primarily the central part of the third intracellular loop. Consistent with this conclusion, a fusion protein containing glutathione S-transferase linked to a peptide corresponding to residues 227-324 of the central part of the third intracellular loop was found to be phosphorylated by the mAChR kinase in a heparin-sensitive manner.

Mutational analysis of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors: structural basis of ligand/receptor/G protein interactions

Molecular cloning studies have revealed the existence of five molecularly distinct muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (m1-m5), which differ in their tissue distribution, ligand binding properties, and functional profiles. Structurally (and functionally), the muscarinic receptors are members of the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors. A variety of different mutagenesis techniques have been used to study the molecular basis of muscarinic receptor function. This approach has led to the identification of distinct receptor domains (or individual amino acids) predicted to play key roles in ligand binding, agonist-dependent receptor activation, and G protein coupling. Since all G protein-linked receptors share a similar molecular architecture, the information gained from the mutational analysis of muscarinic receptors should help delineate functionally important regions of other members of this receptor family.

Phosphorylation of muscarinic receptors: regulation by G proteins

Effects of G proteins on the phosphorylation of muscarinic receptors (mAChRs) have been examined. Cerebral but not atrial mAChRs were phosphorylated by any one of three types of protein kinase C and 4-6 mol of phosphate were incorporated per mol of mAChR, mostly in the 12-14 kDa from the carboxyterminus. Atrial mAChRs were better substrates of cAMP-dependent protein kinase than cerebral mAChRs. Phosphorylation of mAChRs by protein kinase C or cAMP-dependent protein kinase was not dependent on the presence of agonists and G proteins except that a slight inhibition by G proteins was observed probably because G proteins were also substrates of the two kinases. Agonist-dependent phosphorylation of atrial mAChRs or recombinant human mAChRs (m2 subtype) by a kinase (mAChR kinase), which is the same or very similar to beta adrenergic receptor kinase (beta ARK), was found to be regulated by the G proteins in a dual manner; stimulation by G protein beta gamma subunits and inhibition by G protein alpha beta gamma trimer. The inhibition by the G protein trimer is restored by addition of guanine nucleotides and is considered to be due to the formation of a ternary complex of agonist, mAChR and guanine nucleotide free G proteins. The stimulation by G protein beta gamma subunits was also observed for the light- or agonist-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin and beta AR by the mAChR kinase but not for the light-dependent phosphorylation of rhodopsin by rhodopsin kinase. The phosphorylation by beta ARK 1 was also found to be stimulated by G protein beta gamma subunits. The beta gamma subunit is considered to interact with the extra 130 amino acid residue carboxyterminal tail of beta ARK, which does not exist in rhodopsin kinase, and the interaction results in the activation of the kinase. We may assume that the G protein coupled receptor kinase is an effector of G protein beta gamma subunits and that one of the functions of beta gamma subunits is to stimulate the phosphorylation of G protein coupled receptors thereby facilitating their desensitization.

Regulatory role of the GTP-binding protein, G(o), in the mechanism of exocytosis in adrenal chromaffin cells

To elucidate the possible involvement of GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) in the mechanism of exocytosis, we studied effects of pertussis toxin (PTX), guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP-gamma-S), and antibodies against the G proteins (Gi and G(o)) on the secretory function of bovine adrenal chromaffin cells. Pretreatment of chromaffin cells with PTX resulted in an increase in acetylcholine-evoked catecholamine release. High K(+)-, histamine-, or gamma-aminobutyric acid-evoked catecholamine release was also potentiated by PTX pretreatment. The concentration of extracellular Ca2+ required for maximal release by 10(-4) M acetylcholine was decreased significantly in PTX-treated cells. In digitonin-permeabilized cells, PTX pretreatment resulted in a decrease of the half-maximal concentration (Km) of Ca2+ required for exocytosis with no significant change in the maximal stimulation (Vmax). Exposure of permeabilized cells to GTP-gamma-S (a nonhydrolyzable GTP analogue) inhibited Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis by reducing the affinity for Ca2+. The effects of PTX pretreatment were mimicked by treatment of permeabilized cells with polyclonal antibodies selective for the alpha subunit of the PTX-sensitive G protein, G(o). Treatment with similar antibodies against the alpha subunit of Gi had no effect. These findings suggest that G(o) directly controls the Ca(2+)-triggered process in the machinery of exocytosis by lowering the affinity of the unknown target for Ca2+.