Interactions between beta-neuregulin and neurotrophins in motor neuron apoptosis

Multiple Roles for Neuregulins and Their ERBB Receptors in Neurodegenerative Disease Pathogenesis and Therapy

The role that neurotrophins, such as nerve growth factor, play in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases has long been appreciated. However, the neuregulin (NRG) family of growth factors and/or their v-erb-B2 avian erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog (ERBB) receptors have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of conditions, such as Alzheimer disease (AD), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In this review, we consider i) the structural variability of NRG isoforms generated by alternative RNA splicing, the use of multiple promoters and proteolysis, and the impact that this structural variability has on neuronal and glial physiology during development and adulthood. We discuss ii) the NRG receptors ERBB2, ERBB3, and ERBB4, how activation of each of these receptors further diversifies NRG actions in the central nervous system, and how dementia-related proteins, such as γ-secretase modulate the action of NRGs and their ERBB receptors. We then iii) turn to the abnormalities in NRG and ERBB expression and function evident in human AD and mouse AD models, how these abnormalities affect brain function, and attempts to use NRGs to treat AD. Finally, iv) we discuss NRG effects on the survival and function of neurons relevant to FTLD and ALS, alterations in NRG/ERBB signaling identified in these conditions, and the recent discovery of multiple human pedigrees in which autosomal dominant FTLD/ALS potentially results from point mutations in ERBB4.

Neuregulin-1/ErbB network: An emerging modulator of nervous system injury and repair

Neuregulin-1 (Nrg-1) is a member of the Neuregulin family of growth factors with essential roles in the developing and adult nervous system. Six different types of Nrg-1 (Nrg-1 type I-VI) and over 30 isoforms have been discovered; however, their specific roles are not fully determined. Nrg-1 signals through a complex network of protein-tyrosine kinase receptors, ErbB2, ErbB3, ErbB4 and multiple intracellular pathways. Genetic and pharmacological studies of Nrg-1 and ErbB receptors have identified a critical role for Nrg-1/ErbB network in neurodevelopment including neuronal migration, neural differentiation, myelination as well as formation of synapses and neuromuscular junctions. Nrg-1 signaling is best known for its characterized role in development and repair of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) due to its essential role in Schwann cell development, survival and myelination. However, our knowledge of the impact of Nrg-1/ErbB on the central nervous system (CNS) has emerged in recent years. Ongoing efforts have uncovered a multi-faceted role for Nrg-1 in regulating CNS injury and repair processes. In this review, we provide a timely overview of the most recent updates on Nrg-1 signaling and its role in nervous system injury and diseases. We will specifically highlight the emerging role of Nrg-1 in modulating the glial and immune responses and its capacity to foster neuroprotection and remyelination in CNS injury. Nrg-1/ErbB network is a key regulatory pathway in the developing nervous system; therefore, unraveling its role in neuropathology and repair can aid in development of new therapeutic approaches for nervous system injuries and associated disorders.

Neuregulin-1 Accelerates Functional Motor Recovery by Improving Motoneuron Survival After Brachial Plexus Root Avulsion in Mice

Brachial plexus root avulsion (BPRA) results in the complete loss of motor function in the upper limb, mainly due to the death of spinal motoneurons (MNs). The survival of spinal MNs is the key to the recovery of motor function. Neuregulin-1 (Nrg1) plays fundamental roles in nervous system development and nerve repair. However, its functional role in BPRA remains unclear. On the basis of our findings that Nrg1 is down-regulated in the ventral horn in a mouse model of BPRA, Nrg1 may be associated with BPRA. Here, we investigated whether recombinant Nrg1β (rNrg1β) can enhance the survival of spinal MNs and improve functional recovery in mice following BPRA. In vitro studies on primary cultured mouse MNs showed that rNrg1β increased the survival rate in a dose-dependent manner, reaching a peak at 5 nM, which increased the survival rate and enhanced the pERK levels in MNs under H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress. In vivo studies revealed that rNrg1β improved the functional recovery of elbow flexion, promoted the survival of MNs, enhanced the re-innervation of biceps brachii, and decreased the muscle atrophy. These results suggest that Nrg1 may provide a potential therapeutic strategy for root avulsion.

Dysregulation of Neuregulin-1/ErbB signaling in the hippocampus of rats after administration of doxorubicin

Objective

Long-term use of doxorubicin (Dox) can cause neurobiological side effects associated with depression, but the underlying mechanisms remain equivocal. While recent evidence has indicated that Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) and its ErbB receptors play an essential role in neural function, much is still unknown concerning the biological link between the NRG1/ErbB pathway and the Dox-induced neurotoxicity. Therefore, we examined the protein expression of NRG1 and ErbB receptors in the hippocampus of rats following Dox treatment.

Materials and methods

The drug was administered every 2 days at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg, and the animals in different groups were treated with intraperitoneal injection for three or seven times, respectively.

Results

Our data showed that the rats treated with Dox for seven times (DoxL group) exhibited depression-like behaviors, whereas the short-term treatment (DoxS group) had no effect on the behavioral changes. Dox treatment also induced the neural apoptosis with more severe neurotoxicity. Intriguingly, the expression of NRG1 and the ratio of pErbB4/ErbB4 and pErbB2/ErbB2 were significantly decreased in the DoxL group, but enhanced activation of ErbB receptors was observed in the DoxS group. In parallel, administration of Dox for seven times suppressed the downstream Akt and ERK phosphorylation, while the Akt phosphorylation was enhanced with the administration of Dox for three times.

Conclusion

Our data first showed the Dox-induced alterations of the NRG1/ErbB system in the hippocampus, indicating the potential involvement of the NRG1/ErbB pathway in the Dox-induced nervous system dysfunction.

Neuregulin 1 Reduces Motoneuron Cell Death and Promotes Neurite Growth in an in Vitro Model of Motoneuron Degeneration

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder with no effective treatment currently available. Although the mechanisms of motoneuron (MN) death are still unclear, glutamate excitotoxicity and neuroinflammatory reaction are two main features in the neurodegenerative process of ALS. Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) is a trophic factor highly expressed in MNs and neuromuscular junctions. Several recent evidences suggest that NRG1 and their ErbB receptors are involved in ALS. However, further knowledge is still needed to clarify the role of the NRG1-ErbB pathway on MN survival. In this study we used an in vitro model of spinal cord organotypic cultures (SCOCs) subject to chronic excitotoxicity caused by DL-threo-β-hydroxyaspartic acid (THA) to characterize the effect of NRG1 on MN survival. Our results show that addition of recombinant human NRG1 (rhNRG1) to the medium significantly increased MN survival through the activation of ErbB receptors which was ablated with lapatinib (LP), an ErbB inhibitor, and reduced microglial reactivity overcoming the excitotoxicity effects. rhNRG1 activated the pro-survival PI3K/AKT pathway and restored the autophagic flux in the spinal cord culture. Moreover, addition of rhNRG1 to the medium promoted motor and sensory neurite outgrowth. These findings indicate that increasing NRG1 at the spinal cord is an interesting approach for promoting MN protection and regeneration.

Blocking the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway inhibits neuregulin-1-mediated rescue of neurotoxicity induced by Aβ1-42

OBJECTIVES

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) has an important role in both the development and the plasticity of the brain as well as neuroprotective properties. In this study, we investigated the downstream pathways of NRG1 signalling and their role in the prevention of Aβ1-42 -induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and TUNEL staining were assayed to examine the neuroprotective properties in primary rat cortical neurons.

KEY FINDINGS

The inhibition of PI3K/Akt activation abolished the ability of NRG1 to prevent Aβ1-42 -induced LDH release and increased TUNEL-positive cell count and reactive oxygen species accumulation in primary cortical neurons.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that NRG1 signalling exerts a neuroprotective effect against Aβ1-42 -induced neurotoxicity via activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. Furthermore, this suggests that NRG1 has neuroprotective potential for the treatment of AD.

Disruption of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) immunoreactivity in the human Kölliker-Fuse nucleus in victims of unexplained fetal and infant death

Experimental studies have demonstrated that the neurotrophin brain-derived neutrophic factor (BDNF) is required for the appropriate development of the central respiratory network, a neuronal complex in the brainstem of vital importance to sustaining life. The pontine Kölliker-Fuse nucleus (KFN) is a fundamental component of this circuitry with strong implications in the pre- and postnatal breathing control. This study provides detailed account for the cytoarchitecture, the physiology and the BDNF behavior of the human KFN in perinatal age. We applied immunohistochemistry in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded brainstem samples (from 45 fetuses and newborns died of both known and unknown causes), to analyze BDNF, gliosis and apoptosis patterns of manifestation. The KFN showed clear signs of developmental immaturity, prevalently associated to BDNF altered expression, in high percentages of sudden intrauterine unexplained death syndrome (SIUDS) and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) victims. Our results indicate that BDNF pathway dysfunctions can derange the normal KFN development so preventing the breathing control in the sudden perinatal death. The data presented here are also relevant to a better understanding of how the BDNF expression in the KFN can be involved in several human respiratory pathologies such as the Rett's and the congenital central hypoventilation syndromes.

Neuregulin1beta1 antagonizes apoptosis via ErbB4-dependent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of beta-amyloid protein (Aβ) and extensive neuronal cell death. Apoptosis plays a crucial role in loss of neurons in AD. Neuregulin1 (NRG1) has been found to protect neurons from oxygen glucose deprivation induced apoptosis and hypoxia ischemia induced apoptosis. However, the relationship between NRG1 and apoptosis related protein expression in AD and its mechanism remain uncertain. The present study explores the effects of NRG1 on Aβ-induced apoptosis in AD. In this study, extracellular domain of NRG1beta1 (NRG1β1-ECD) promoted the expression of p-ErbB4 receptor, p-Akt and increased the level of Bcl-2 both in APP/PS1 transgenic mice and in vitro. In primary culture of neurons, the level of Bcl-2 protein decreased significantly after Aβ treatment. These changes were inhibited by pretreatment of neurons with NRG1β1-ECD. A specific inhibitor of PI3-kinase/Akt pathway, wortmannin, significantly abrogated the effects of NRG1β1-ECD on p-Akt and Bcl-2 levels. Furthermore, the expression of PI3-kinase/Akt by NRG1β1-ECD was ErbB4-dependent. Our data demonstrated that NRG1β1-ECD might serve as an obvious neuroprotection in AD, and the possible protective mechanism occurs most likely via ErbB4-dependent activation of PI3-kinase/Akt pathway.

Cerebrospinal fluid-based kinetic biomarkers of axonal transport in monitoring neurodegeneration

Progress in neurodegenerative disease research is hampered by the lack of biomarkers of neuronal dysfunction. We here identified a class of cerebrospinal fluid-based (CSF-based) kinetic biomarkers that reflect altered neuronal transport of protein cargo, a common feature of neurodegeneration. After a pulse administration of heavy water (2H2O), distinct, newly synthesized 2H-labeled neuronal proteins were transported to nerve terminals and secreted, and then appeared in CSF. In 3 mouse models of neurodegeneration, distinct 2H-cargo proteins displayed delayed appearance and disappearance kinetics in the CSF, suggestive of aberrant transport kinetics. Microtubule-modulating pharmacotherapy normalized CSF-based kinetics of affected 2H-cargo proteins and ameliorated neurodegenerative symptoms in mice. After 2H2O labeling, similar neuronal transport deficits were observed in CSF of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) compared with non-PD control subjects, which indicates that these biomarkers are translatable and relevant to human disease. Measurement of transport kinetics may provide a sensitive method to monitor progression of neurodegeneration and treatment effects.

Development of a functional schwann cell phenotype from autologous porcine bone marrow mononuclear cells for nerve repair

Adult bone marrow mononuclear cells (BM-MNCs) are a potential resource for making Schwann cells to repair damaged peripheral nerves. However, many methods of producing Schwann-like cells can be laborious with the cells lacking a functional phenotype. The objective of this study was to develop a simple and rapid method using autologous BM-MNCs to produce a phenotypic and functional Schwann-like cell. Adult porcine bone marrow was collected and enriched for BM-MNCs using a SEPAX device, then cells cultured in Neurobasal media, 4 mM L-glutamine and 20% serum. After 6-8 days, the cultures expressed Schwann cell markers, S-100, O4, GFAP, were FluoroMyelin positive, but had low p75(NGF) expression. Addition of neuregulin (1-25 nM) increased p75(NGF) levels at 24-48 hrs. We found ATP dose-dependently increased intracellular calcium [Ca(2+)](i), with nucleotide potency being UTP = ATP > ADP > AMP > adenosine. Suramin blocked the ATP-induced [Ca(2+)](i) but α, β,-methylene-ATP had little effect suggesting an ATP purinergic P2Y2 G-protein-coupled receptor is present. Both the Schwann cell markers and ATP-induced [Ca(2+)](i) sensitivity decreased in cells passaged >20 times. Our studies indicate that autologous BM-MNCs can be induced to form a phenotypic and functional Schwann-like cell which could be used for peripheral nerve repair.

Motoneuron programmed cell death in response to proBDNF

Motoneurons (MN) as well as most neuronal populations undergo a temporally and spatially specific period of programmed cell death (PCD). Several factors have been considered to regulate the survival of MNs during this period, including availability of muscle-derived trophic support and activity. The possibility that target-derived factors may also negatively regulate MN survival has been considered, but not pursued. Neurotrophin precursors, through their interaction with p75(NTR) and sortilin receptors have been shown to induce cell death during development and following injury in the CNS. In this study, we find that muscle cells produce and secrete proBDNF. ProBDNF through its interaction with p75(NTR) and sortilin, promotes a caspase-dependent death of MNs in culture. We also provide data to suggest that proBDNF regulates MN PCD during development in vivo.

Neuregulin-1 protects against neurotoxicities induced by Swedish amyloid precursor protein via the ErbB4 receptor

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays an important role in the development and plasticity of the brain and exhibits potent neuroprotective properties. However, little information on its role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is known. The neuroprotective effect and mechanisms of NRG1 in SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing the Swedish mutant form of amyloid precursor protein (Swe-APP) and primary cortical neuronal cells treated with amyloid beta peptide(1-42) (Aβ(1-42)) were investigated in this study. NRG1 attenuated Swe-APP- or Aβ(1-42)-induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release in a concentration-dependent manner. The mitigating effects of NRG1 on neuronal cell death were blocked by ErbB4 inhibition, a key NRG1 receptor, which suggests a role of ErbB4 in the neuroprotective function of NRG1. Moreover, NRG1 reduced the number of Swe-APP- and Aβ(1-42)-induced TUNEL-positive SH-SY5Y cells and primary cortical neurons, respectively. NRG1 reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and attenuated Swe-APP-induced mitochondrial membrane potential loss. NRG1 also induced the upregulation of the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, and decreased caspase-3 activation. Collectively, our results demonstrate that NRG1 exerts neuroprotective effects via the ErbB4 receptor, which suggests the neuroprotective potential of NRG1 in AD.

Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and TrkB receptor in the sudden infant death syndrome brainstem

This study compared the expression of BDNF (proBDNF and rhBDNF forms) and its receptor TrkB, in the medulla of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) infants and infants who died from known causes (non-SIDS). This study also evaluated these markers in association with SIDS clinical risk factors including, sleep position, cigarette smoke exposure and gender. Brainstem tissue was immunohistochemically stained and quantitative analyses were made for eight nuclei of the caudal and rostral medulla. Compared to non-SIDS, SIDS infants had lower rhBDNF in the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract and higher TrkB in the caudal dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Within the SIDS cohort, prone sleep position was associated with lower rhBDNF in the caudal arcuate nucleus, and cigarette smoke exposure was associated with lower rhBDNF and TrkB in the inferior olivary nucleus. Abnormal expression of BDNF and TrkB suggests that neuroprotective functions of the BDNF/TrkB system may be reduced in respiratory-related nuclei of SIDS infants.

Expression of ErbB4 in the neurons of Alzheimer's disease brain and APP/PS1 mice, a model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays important roles in the development and plasticity of the brain, and has also been reported to exhibit potent neuroprotective properties. Although ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor, is expressed in multiple regions in the adult animal brain, little is known about its role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is characterized by progressive impairment of cognition and behavioral disturbance that strongly correlate with degeneration and death of neurons in the cerebral cortex and limbic brain areas, such as the hippocampus and the amygdala. Here, we show that the ErbB4 and phospho-ErbB4 immunoreactivities were higher intensity in the neurons of the CA1-2 transitional field of AD brains as compared to age-matched controls. Also, ErbB4 expression was increased in the neurons of the cortico medial nucleus amygdala, human basal forebrain and superior frontal gyrus of AD brains. In cerebral cortex and hippocampus of amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 double transgenic mice, ErbB4 immunoreactivity significantly increased in comparison to age-matched wild type control. These results suggest that up-regulating of ErbB4 immunoreactivity may involve in the progression of pathology of AD.

Angiotensin II and aldosterone-induced neuronal damage in neurons through an astrocyte-dependent mechanism

The contribution of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) to central nervous system (CNS) disorders is not yet fully understood. RAAS has been shown to be involved in the proliferation of astrocytes, which have a role in neuronal damage contributing to neurodegenerative diseases. However, the direct relationship between RAAS and neuronal damage is still unclear. We therefore examined the effect of angiotensin (Ang) II and aldosterone (Aldo) on damage to spinal ganglion neurons (SGNs) by regulating astrocytes. Ang II stimulation significantly increased DNA damage in SGNs in a time-dependent manner. This increase in DNA damage was further enhanced when SGNs were co-cultured with astrocytes. On the other hand, no significant increase was observed in SGNs co-cultured with astrocytes without Ang II stimulation. Moreover, the addition of conditioned medium from Ang II-treated astrocytes exacerbated SGN DNA damage. An Ang II type 1 receptor blocker, valsartan, inhibited Ang II-stimulated DNA damage but not DNA damage induced by conditioned medium prepared from astrocyte cultures. In contrast, an Aldo antagonist, eplerenone, significantly inhibited DNA damage induced by the culture medium from Ang II-treated astrocytes. Ang II-stimulated Aldo secretion in the conditioned medium from astrocytes. Furthermore, the administration of Aldo alone also enhanced DNA damage in SGNs. Finally, flow cytometric analysis showed that Ang II or Aldo treatment markedly increased the percentage of dead SGNs. In conclusion, Ang II- and Aldo-induced neuronal damage in SGNs through astrocytes regulation. Blocking Ang II and Aldo to target astrocytes might be useful for the treatment of CNS disorders.

Functional and histological improvement of the injured spinal cord following transplantation of Schwann cells transfected with NRG1 gene

In this study, we implanted Schwann cells (SCs) transfected with Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) gene into rats with hemisection spinal cord injury, determined its effects on the repair of spinal cord injury and investigated the underlying mechanisms. Primary SCs were cultured, purified, and transfected with NRG1 gene. SCs and SCs transfected with NRG1 gene were implanted, respectively, into rats with hemisection spinal cord injury. Behavior, imaging, electrophysiology, and immuno-histological analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of NRG1 gene-transfected SCs on the repair of spinal cord injury. In vitro studies showed that NRG1 protein was highly expressed in SCs transfected with NRG1 gene. In addition, the receptors for NRG1, ErbB2, and ErbB4, were upregulated in a time-dependent manner. NRG1-transfected SCs secreted large amount of NRG1 proteins in vivo, which efficiently promoted the expression of ErbB2 and ErbB4 in the neurons and neuroglia cells. Moreover, the number of NSE- and GFAP-positive cells was increased. After cell transplantation, many transplanted cells survived and migrated to the areas with spinal cord injuries. The injuries were recovered in all the experimental groups, but the most significant recovery was observed in the group of rats implanted with SCs transfected with NRG1 gene. We conclude that NRG1-transfected SCs can significantly increase the effect on the repair of spinal cord injury. This repair effect is achieved via the upregulation of ErbB receptor in the target cells, increased proliferation of glial cells, and protection of neurons from apoptosis.

Neuregulin-1 at synapses on phrenic motoneurons

The neuregulin (NRG) family of trophic factors is present in the central and peripheral nervous systems and participates in the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of many different cell types, including motoneurons. NRG1 was first characterized by its role in the formation of the neuromuscular junction, and recently it was shown to play a crucial role in modulating glutamatergic and cholinergic transmission in the central nervous system of adult rats. However, little is known about NRG1's role in adult motor systems. Motoneurons receive dense glutamatergic and cholinergic input. We hypothesized that NRG1 is present at synapses on phrenic motoneurons. Confocal microscopy and 3D reconstruction techniques were used to determine the distribution of NRG1 and its colocalization with these different neurotransmitter systems. We found that NRG1 puncta are present around retrogradely labeled motoneurons and are distributed predominantly at motoneuron somata and primary dendrites. NRG1 is present exclusively at synaptic sites (identified using the presynaptic marker synaptophysin), making up ∼30% of all synapses at phrenic motoneurons. Overall, NRG1 immunoreactivity is found predominantly at cholinergic synapses (75% ± 14% colocalize with the vesicular acetylcholine transporter; VAChT). Nearly all (99% ± 1%) VAChT-immunoreactive synapses expressed NRG1. NRG1 also is present at a subset of glutamatergic synapses expressing the vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) type 2 (∼6%) but not those expressing VGLUT type 1. Overall, 26% ± 6% of NRG1 synapses are VGLUT2 immunoreactive. These findings provide the first evidence suggesting that NRG1 may modulate synaptic activity in adult motor systems.

Expression of ErbB4 in the apoptotic neurons of Alzheimer's disease brain

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) signaling participates in the synaptic plasticity, maintenance or regulation of adult brain. Although ErbB4, a key NRG1 receptor, is expressed in multiple regions in the adult animal brain, little is known about its localization in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. We previously reported that ErbB4 immunoreactivity showed regional difference in the hippocampus of age-matched control. In the present paper, immunohistochemical characterization of the distribution of ErbB4 receptor in the hippocampus relative to pathology staging were performed in age-matched control (Braak stage 0, n=6) and AD (Braak stage I/V, n=10). Here, we found that ErbB4 immunoreactivity was significantly increased in apoptotic hippocampal pyramidal neurons in the brains of AD patients, compared to those of age-matched control subjects. In AD brains, ErbB4 immunoreactivity was demonstrated to colocalize with the apoptotic signal Bax in apoptotic hippocampal pyramidal neurons. These results suggest that up-regulation of ErbB4 immunoreactivity in apoptotic neuron may involve in the progression of pathology of AD.

Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase increases toxicity of mutant and zinc-deficient superoxide dismutase by enhancing protein stability

When replete with zinc and copper, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-associated mutant SOD proteins can protect motor neurons in culture from trophic factor deprivation as efficiently as wild-type SOD. However, the removal of zinc from either mutant or wild-type SOD results in apoptosis of motor neurons through a copper- and peroxynitrite-dependent mechanism. It has also been shown that motor neurons isolated from transgenic mice expressing mutant SODs survive well in culture but undergo apoptosis when exposed to nitric oxide via a Fas-dependent mechanism. We combined these two parallel approaches for understanding SOD toxicity in ALS and found that zinc-deficient SOD-induced motor neuron death required Fas activation, whereas the nitric oxide-dependent death of G93A SOD-expressing motor neurons required copper and involved peroxynitrite formation. Surprisingly, motor neuron death doubled when Cu,Zn-SOD protein was either delivered intracellularly to G93A SOD-expressing motor neurons or co-delivered with zinc-deficient SOD to nontransgenic motor neurons. These results could be rationalized by biophysical data showing that heterodimer formation of Cu,Zn-SOD with zinc-deficient SOD prevented the monomerization and subsequent aggregation of zinc-deficient SOD under thiol-reducing conditions. ALS mutant SOD was also stabilized by mutating cysteine 111 to serine, which greatly increased the toxicity of zinc-deficient SOD. Thus, stabilization of ALS mutant SOD by two different approaches augmented its toxicity to motor neurons. Taken together, these results are consistent with copper-containing zinc-deficient SOD being the elusive "partially unfolded intermediate" responsible for the toxic gain of function conferred by ALS mutant SOD.

Increase of c-Fos and c-Jun expression in spinal and cranial motoneurons of the degenerating muscle mouse (Scn8a(dmu))

The degenerating muscle (dmu) mouse harbors a loss-of-function mutation in the Scn8a gene, which encodes the alpha subunit of the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) Na(V)1.6. The distribution of c-Fos and c-Jun was examined in spinal and cranial motoneurons of the dmu mouse. In the cervical spinal cord, trigeminal motor nucleus (Vm), facial nucleus (VII), dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (X), and hypoglossal nucleus (XII) of wild-type mice, motoneurons expressed c-Fos and c-Jun-immunoreactivity. The immunoreactivity in wild-type mice was mostly weak and localized to the nucleus of these neurons whereas in the spinal cord and brain stem of dmu mice motoneurons showed intense c-Fos and c-Jun-immunoreactivity. The number of c-Fos-immunoreactive motoneurons was dramatically elevated in the cervical spinal cord (wild type, 4.8 +/- 1.0; dmu, 17.3 +/- 1.6), Vm (wild type, 76.2 +/- 21.6; dmu, 216.9 +/- 30.9), VII (wild type, 162.4 +/- 43.3; dmu, 533.3 +/- 41.2), and XII (wild type, 58.2 +/- 43.3; dmu, 150.9 +/- 25.7). The mutation also increased the number of c-Jun-immunoreactive motoneurons in the cervical spinal cord (wild type, 1.6 +/- 0.8; dmu, 12.1 +/- 2.1), Vm (wild type, 41.4 +/- 18.0; dmu, 123.1 +/- 11.7), and X (wild type, 39.1 +/- 10.7; dmu, 92.8 +/- 17.8). The increase of these transcription factors may be associated with the uncoordinated and excessive movement of forelimbs and degeneration of cardiac muscles in dmu mice.

Trophic factor expression in phrenic motor neurons

The function of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates (i.e., a motor unit) determines neuromotor output. Unlike other skeletal muscles, respiratory muscles (e.g., the diaphragm, DIAm) must function from birth onwards in sustaining ventilation. DIAm motor units are capable of both ventilatory and non-ventilatory behaviors, including expulsive behaviors important for airway clearance. There is significant diversity in motor unit properties across different types of motor units in the DIAm. The mechanisms underlying the development and maintenance of motor unit diversity in respiratory muscles (including the DIAm) are not well understood. Recent studies suggest that trophic factor influences contribute to this diversity. Remarkably little is known about the expression of trophic factors and their receptors in phrenic motor neurons. This review will focus on the contribution of trophic factors to the establishment and maintenance of motor unit diversity in the DIAm, during development and in response to injury or disease.

The design of electrospun PLLA nanofiber scaffolds compatible with serum-free growth of primary motor and sensory neurons

Aligned electrospun nanofibers direct neurite growth and may prove effective for repair throughout the nervous system. Applying nanofiber scaffolds to different nervous system regions will require prior in vitro testing of scaffold designs with specific neuronal and glial cell types. This would be best accomplished using primary neurons in serum-free media; however, such growth on nanofiber substrates has not yet been achieved. Here we report the development of poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) nanofiber substrates that support serum-free growth of primary motor and sensory neurons at low plating densities. In our study, we first compared materials used to anchor fibers to glass to keep cells submerged and maintain fiber alignment. We found that poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) anchors fibers to glass and is less toxic to primary neurons than bandage and glue used in other studies. We then designed a substrate produced by electrospinning PLLA nanofibers directly on cover slips pre-coated with PLGA. This substrate retains fiber alignment even when the fiber bundle detaches from the cover slip and keeps cells in the same focal plane. To see if increasing wettability improves motor neuron survival, some fibers were plasma etched before cell plating. Survival on etched fibers was reduced at the lower plating density. Finally, the alignment of neurons grown on this substrate was equal to nanofiber alignment and surpassed the alignment of neurites from explants tested in a previous study. This substrate should facilitate investigating the behavior of many neuronal types on electrospun fibers in serum-free conditions.

Neuregulin 1 in neural development, synaptic plasticity and schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a highly debilitating mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the general population, yet it continues to be poorly understood. Recent studies have identified variations in several genes that are associated with this disorder in diverse populations, including those that encode neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and its receptor ErbB4. The past few years have witnessed exciting progress in our knowledge of NRG1 and ErbB4 functions and the biological basis of the increased risk for schizophrenia that is potentially conferred by polymorphisms in the two genes. An improved understanding of the mechanisms by which altered function of NRG1 and ErbB4 contributes to schizophrenia might eventually lead to the development of more effective therapeutics.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling regulates events associated with both health and degeneration in motoneurons

The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are activated by various stimuli and are critical for neuronal development as well as for death following a stressful stimulus. Here, we have evaluated JNK activity in both healthy and dying motoneurons from developing chick embryos and found no apparent difference in overall JNK activity between the conditions, suggesting that this pathway maybe critical in both circumstances. Pharmacological inhibition of JNK in healthy motoneurons supplied with trophic support resulted in decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, neurite outgrowth, and phosphorylation of microtubule-associated protein 1B. On the other hand, in motoneurons deprived of trophic support, inhibition of JNK attenuated caspase activation, and nuclear condensation. We also examined the role of JNK's downstream substrate c-Jun in mediating these events. While c-Jun expression and phosphorylation were greater in cells supplied with trophic support as compared with those deprived, inhibition of c-Jun had no effect on nuclear condensation in dying cells or neurite outgrowth in healthy cells, suggesting that JNK's role in these events is independent of c-Jun. Together, our data underscore the dualistic nature of JNK signaling that is critical for both survival and degenerative changes in motoneurons.

Astrocytes expressing ALS-linked mutated SOD1 release factors selectively toxic to motor neurons

Mutations in superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) cause a form of the fatal paralytic disorder amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), presumably by a combination of cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous processes. Here, we show that expression of mutated human SOD1 in primary mouse spinal motor neurons does not provoke motor neuron degeneration. Conversely, rodent astrocytes expressing mutated SOD1 kill spinal primary and embryonic mouse stem cell-derived motor neurons. This is triggered by soluble toxic factor(s) through a Bax-dependent mechanism. However, mutant astrocytes do not cause the death of spinal GABAergic or dorsal root ganglion neurons or of embryonic stem cell-derived interneurons. In contrast to astrocytes, fibroblasts, microglia, cortical neurons and myocytes expressing mutated SOD1 do not cause overt neurotoxicity. These findings indicate that astrocytes may play a role in the specific degeneration of spinal motor neurons in ALS. Identification of the astrocyte-derived soluble factor(s) may have far-reaching implications for ALS from both a pathogenic and therapeutic standpoint.

Imaging cerebral gene transcripts in live animals

To circumvent the limitations of using postmortem brain in molecular assays, we used avidin-biotin binding to couple superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) (15-20 nm) to phosphorothioate-modified oligodeoxynucleotides (sODNs) with sequence complementary to c-fos and beta-actin mRNA (SPION-cfos and SPION-beta-actin, respectively) (14-22 nm). The Stern-Volmer constant for the complex of SPION and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-sODN is 3.1 x 10(6)/m. We studied the feasibility of using the conjugates for in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to monitor gene transcription, and demonstrated that these complexes at 40 mug of Fe per kilogram of body weight were retained at least 1 d after intracerebroventricular infusion into the left ventricle of C57Black6 mice. SPION retention measured by MRI as T(2)* or R(2)* maps (R(2)* = 1/T(2)*) was compared with histology of iron oxide (Prussian blue) and FITC-labeled sODN. We observed significant reduction in magnetic resonance (MR) T(2)* signal in the right cortex and striatum; retention of SPION-cfos and SPION-beta-actin positively correlated with c-fos and beta-actin mRNA maps obtained from in situ hybridization. Histological examination showed that intracellular iron oxide and FITC-sODN correlated positively with in vivo MR signal reduction. Furthermore, in animals that were administered SPION-cfos and amphetamine (4 mg/kg, i.p.), retention was significantly elevated in the nucleus accumbens, striatum, and medial prefrontal cortex of the forebrain. Control groups that received SPION-cfos and saline or that received a SPION conjugate with a random-sequence probe and amphetamine showed no retention. These results demonstrated that SPION-sODN conjugates can detect active transcriptions of specific mRNA species in living animals with MRI.

Astrocyte and muscle-derived secreted factors differentially regulate motoneuron survival

During development, motoneurons (MNs) undergo a highly stereotyped, temporally and spatially defined period of programmed cell death (PCD), the result of which is the loss of 40-50% of the original neuronal population. Those MNs that survive are thought to reflect the successful acquisition of limiting amounts of trophic factors from the target. In contrast, maturation of MNs limits the need for target-derived trophic factors, because axotomy of these neurons in adulthood results in minimal neuronal loss. It is unclear whether MNs lose their need for trophic factors altogether or whether, instead, they come to rely on other cell types for nourishment. Astrocytes are known to supply trophic factors to a variety of neuronal populations and thus may nourish MNs in the absence of target-derived factors. We investigated the survival-promoting activities of muscle- and astrocyte-derived secreted factors and found that astrocyte-conditioned media (ACM) was able to save substantially more motoneurons in vitro than muscle-conditioned media (MCM). Our results indicate that both ACM and MCM are significant sources of MN trophic support in vitro and in ovo, but only ACM can rescue MNs after unilateral limb bud removal. Furthermore, we provide evidence suggesting that MCM facilitates the death of a subpopulation of MNs in a p75(NTR) - and caspase-dependent manner; however, maturation in ACM results in MN trophic independence and reduced vulnerability to this negative, pro-apoptotic influence from the target.

Mild surfection of neural cells, especially motoneurons, in primary culture and cell lines

Of all cell types, motoneurons (MNs), are possibly the most difficult to maintain in culture, since their development and survival is conditioned by many factors that are still in the course of identification. This may also be the reason why they are difficult to transfect. We succeed to transfect these fragile cells with lipoplex [DOTAP:PC (10:1)-pGFP]-precoated coverslips. Here, we report that this original method, also termed 'surfection' does not perturbate MN development and survival while giving important transfection yield (15%). Lipofectamine 2000 and other well-known auxiliary lipids (DOPE, Chol) give lower surfection yields. The use of (DOTAP:PC)-based lipid vector also can be extended to several neural and non-neural cell lines with appreciable transfection yield such as a glial cell line (GCL) derived from rat spinal cord (65%), HeLa S3 (60%), COS-7 (30%) and HEK 293 cells (20%). The efficiency of DOTAP:PC (10:1) and Lipofectamine 2000 vectors in our surfection method are compared on standard HeLa S3 cell lines. Lipofectamine 2000 (72%) is slightly better than DOTAP:PC (10:1) (60%). However, the surfection method improved the efficiency of Lipofectamine 2000 itself (72%) as compared to the classical (62%) approach. In summary we have developed an original standard surfection protocol for both MN primary cultures and cell lines, thus simplifying laboratory practice; moreover, Lipofectamine 2000 used in this surfection method is more efficient for the cell lines than the manufacturer-recommended method. We emphasize that our method particularly spares fragile cells like MNs from injure and therefore, might be applied to other fragile cell type in primary cultures.