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Nakagawa A, Matsuki T, Tomida M, Miyachi T, Ebara T, Kamijima M. Development of temperamental regulation of infants at 6 and 24 months: Associations with maternal soothing and distress. Health Sci Rep 2024; 7:e70036. [PMID: 39234187 PMCID: PMC11372086 DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.70036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Revised: 07/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims In the neurobiological theory of attention, the orienting network mainly supports the temperamental regulatory function in infancy, with soothing methods such as visual attention distraction influencing its development. The attention distraction method chosen for soothing is thought to be influenced by maternal sensitivity, which has been found to decrease with poor maternal mental health. We hypothesize that the degree of maternal distress may affect the choice of attention distraction soothing method. Further, individual differences in being soothed by attention distraction will be associated with the temperamental regulation function in infancy/toddlerhood. Method Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted on longitudinal data at 6 and 24 months on a sample (N = 1892) drawn from the sub-cohort of the Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS). Temperament was examined through the short Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (Japanese version) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (Japanese version). Distress in caregivers was measured through the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (Japanese version) at prenatal and 1-year-postnatal stages. Individual differences in using visual distraction soothing methods were also measured using tailor-made items. Results Postnatal maternal distress at 12 months was negatively related to the tendency to use visual attention distraction as a soothing method (β = -0.06, p = 0.006) at 24 months. When we applied the subscale of the temperamental regulatory factor in SEM, the more the mothers chose the distraction method for soothing, i.e., the more the toddlers experienced it, the higher their attention shifting scores (β = 0.07, p = 0.002). Conclusion The findings support the view that caregivers' choice of method for distracting offspring's attention from distress may be associated with the development of self-regulation during infancy and toddlerhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuko Nakagawa
- Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences Nagoya City University Nagoya Japan
| | - Taro Matsuki
- Department of Psychology Faculty of Health and Wellness Sciences, Hiroshima International University Higashihiroshima Japan
| | - Makiko Tomida
- Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences Nagoya City University Nagoya Japan
| | - Taishi Miyachi
- Nagoya Western Care Center for Disabled Children Nagoya Japan
| | - Takeshi Ebara
- Department of Ergonomics, Institute of Industrial Ecological Sciences University of Occupational and Environmental Health Kitakyushu Japan
| | - Michihiro Kamijima
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya City University Nagoya Japan
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The relationship between parental behavior and infant regulation: A systematic review. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2020.100923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Wass SV, Smith CG, Clackson K, Gibb C, Eitzenberger J, Mirza FU. Parents Mimic and Influence Their Infant's Autonomic State through Dynamic Affective State Matching. Curr Biol 2019; 29:2415-2422.e4. [PMID: 31303488 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
When we see someone experiencing an emotion, and when we experience it ourselves, common neurophysiological activity occurs [1, 2]. But although inter-dyadic synchrony, concurrent and sequential [3], has been identified, its functional significance remains inadequately understood. Specifically, how do influences of partner A on partner B reciprocally influence partner A? For example, if I am experiencing an affective state and someone matches their physiological state to mine, what influence does this have on me-the person experiencing the emotion? Here, we investigated this using infant-parent dyads. We developed miniaturized microphones to record spontaneous vocalizations and wireless autonomic monitors to record heart rate, heart rate variability, and movement in infants and parents concurrently in naturalistic settings. Overall, we found that infant-parent autonomic activity did not covary across the day-but that "high points" of infant arousal led to autonomic changes in the parent and that instances where the adult showed greater autonomic responsivity were associated with faster infant quieting. Parental responsivity was higher following peaks in infant negative affect than in positive affect. Overall, parents responded to increases in their child's arousal by increasing their own. However, when the overall arousal level of the dyad was high, parents responded to elevated child arousal by decreasing their own arousal. Our findings suggest that autonomic state matching has a direct effect on the person experiencing the affective state and that parental co-regulation may involve both connecting and disconnecting their own arousal state from that of the child contingent on context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Vincent Wass
- Department of Psychology, University of East London, Water Lane, London E15 4LZ, UK.
| | - Celia Grace Smith
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Kaili Clackson
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Caitlin Gibb
- Department of Psychology, University of East London, Water Lane, London E15 4LZ, UK
| | - Joan Eitzenberger
- Department of Psychology, University of East London, Water Lane, London E15 4LZ, UK
| | - Farhan Umar Mirza
- School of Health Professions, University of Plymouth, Derriford Road, Plymouth PL6 8BH, UK
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Development of comorbid crying, sleeping, feeding problems across infancy: Neurodevelopmental vulnerability and parenting. Early Hum Dev 2017; 109:37-43. [PMID: 28433797 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regulatory problems (excessive crying, feeding, and sleeping difficulties), specifically their comorbidity, are early warning signs of future problems. Insensitive parenting and neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities have been suggested as factors explaining development or maintenance of regulatory problems. Nevertheless, none of the previous studies investigated these factors within the same sample across infancy, taking into account the reciprocal influences between maternal sensitivity and regulatory problems. AIM To investigate the prospective association between very preterm birth, comorbid regulatory problems and maternal sensitivity. SUBJECTS 178 participants including 73 very preterm/very low birth weight and 105 full-term infants and their caretakers. STUDY DESIGN A prospective study from birth to 18months. MEASURES Regulatory problems were measured at term, 3months and 18months with a structured parental interview. Maternal sensitivity was measured with a nurse observation at term; and a researcher observation of play tasks at 3months and at 18months. RESULTS Very preterm birth was associated with regulatory problems at term (β=0.19, SE=0.10, p<0.05) and at 18months (β=0.21, SE=0.10, p<0.05), while it had no association to maternal sensitivity across infancy. There were no cross-lagged reciprocal effects between maternal sensitivity and regulatory problems across infancy. Maternal sensitivity at term had a negative association to regulatory problems at 3months (β=-0.26, SE=0.12, p<0.05), but not from 3 to 18months. CONCLUSIONS Neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities provided more consistent prediction of regulatory problems in comparison to sensitive parenting.
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Oppenheimer CW, Ladouceur CD, Waller JM, Ryan ND, Allen KB, Sheeber L, Forbes EE, Dahl RE, Silk JS. Emotion Socialization in Anxious Youth: Parenting Buffers Emotional Reactivity to Peer Negative Events. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 44:1267-78. [PMID: 26783026 PMCID: PMC4955624 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-015-0125-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Anxious youth exhibit heightened emotional reactivity, particularly to social-evaluative threat, such as peer evaluation and feedback, compared to non-anxious youth. Moreover, normative developmental changes during the transition into adolescence may exacerbate emotional reactivity to peer negative events, particularly for anxious youth. Therefore, it is important to investigate factors that may buffer emotional reactivity within peer contexts among anxious youth. The current study examined the role of parenting behaviors in child emotional reactivity to peer and non-peer negative events among 86 anxious youth in middle childhood to adolescence (Mean age = 11.29, 54 % girls). Parenting behavior and affect was observed during a social-evaluative laboratory speech task for youth, and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) methods were used to examine youth emotional reactivity to typical daily negative events within peer and non-peer contexts. Results showed that parent positive behaviors, and low levels of parent anxious affect, during the stressful laboratory task for youth buffered youth negative emotional reactivity to real-world negative peer events, but not non-peer events. Findings inform our understanding of parenting influences on anxious youth's emotional reactivity to developmentally salient negative events during the transition into adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline W Oppenheimer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA.
| | - Cecile D Ladouceur
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Jennifer M Waller
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, 210 S. Bouquet St., Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Neal D Ryan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Kristy Benoit Allen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Lisa Sheeber
- Oregon Research Institute, 1715 Franklin Blvd., Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Erika E Forbes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Ronald E Dahl
- School of Public Health, University of California, 50 University Hall, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer S Silk
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, 210 S. Bouquet St., Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES There were 2 primary objectives to the current study: (1) to relate caregiver behavior trajectories across immunization appointments over the first year of life to subsequent infant attachment and (2) to relate caregiver behavior trajectories within each immunization appointment over the first year of life to subsequent infant attachment. METHOD A subsample of 130 caregivers and their infants were recruited from a sample of 760 caregivers who were part of an ongoing longitudinal cohort that videotaped infants' 2-, 4-, 6-, and 12-month immunization appointments. This subsample of caregivers and their infants (n = 130) were invited to participate in an assessment of attachment when infants were between 12 and 18 months of age at the local children's hospital. RESULTS Caregiver proximal soothing behaviors were the only caregiver behaviors postimmunization that were related to subsequent infant attachment. Higher frequencies of caregiver proximal soothing at 12 months were related to infants' organized attachment, whereas steeper decreases in proximal soothing across the first year were associated with disorganized infant attachment. In addition, when caregivers engaged in proximal soothing for longer after their 12 month olds' immunizations, these infants were more likely to be secure or organized in their attachment. CONCLUSION These results provide empirical support for the ecological validity of studying infant attachment in a pediatric pain context. The pediatric "well-baby" visit may provide a potential opportunity to feasibly integrate brief infant mental health screening and intervention.
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Negative temperament as a moderator of intervention effects in infancy: testing a differential susceptibility model. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2015; 15:643-53. [PMID: 23832637 DOI: 10.1007/s11121-013-0408-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A consideration of potential moderators can highlight intervention effects that are attenuated when investigating aggregate results. Differential susceptibility is one type of interaction, where susceptible individuals have poorer outcomes in negative environments and better outcomes in positive environments, compared to less susceptible individuals, who have moderate outcomes regardless of environment. In the current study, we provide rationale for investigating this type of interaction in the context of a behavioral childhood obesity preventive intervention and test whether infant negativity moderated intervention effects on infant self-regulation and weight gain and on two aspects of mothers' parenting competence: parenting self-efficacy and parenting satisfaction. Results showed that infants' negative temperament at 3 weeks moderated intervention effects on some, but not all, outcomes. The intervention led to greater parenting satisfaction in mothers with highly negative infants but did not affect parenting satisfaction in mothers with less negative infants, consistent with a model of differential susceptibility. There was also a trend toward less weight gain in highly negative intervention group infants. In contrast, there was a main effect of the intervention on infant self-regulation at 1 year, such that the intervention group had higher observed self-regulation, across levels of infant negativity. Results support the importance of incorporating tests of moderation into evaluations of obesity interventions and also illustrate that individuals may be differentially susceptible to environmental effects on some outcomes but not others.
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Dayton CJ, Walsh TB, Oh W, Volling B. Hush now baby: mothers' and fathers' strategies for soothing their infants and associated parenting outcomes. J Pediatr Health Care 2015; 29:145-55. [PMID: 25440811 PMCID: PMC4336595 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to examine the types of soothing behaviors used by mothers and fathers of infants, differences in use trajectories over time, and associated parenting outcomes. METHODS A longitudinal study of 241 families expecting their second child was performed. Data were collected at 1, 4, and 8 postnatal months and included measures of parental soothing techniques, involvement in soothing, distress in response to infant crying, and parenting self-efficacy. RESULTS The average number of soothing techniques used was 7.7 for mothers and 5.9 for fathers. Soothing frequency decreased over time, and change patterns of soothing differed over time by gender. In couples who shared responsibility for soothing, fathers felt more efficacious in parenting and mothers were less upset by infant crying. DISCUSSION Clinicians are encouraged to support fathers' engagement in infant soothing, facilitate the development of fathers' parenting confidence, and promote fathers' involvement in children's health and health care.
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Abstract
Post-conflict third-party affiliation has been reported to have different functional meanings, one of them being consolation. Here, we tested the main hypotheses that have been put forth to explain the presence of this phenomenon at a functional level in the bonobo: Self-Protection Hypothesis, Victim-Protection Hypothesis, Relationship-Repair or Substitute for Reconciliation Hypothesis, and Consolation Hypothesis. By analyzing the data collected over 10 years, we investigated what factors affected the distribution of both spontaneous third party affiliation (initiated by the bystander) and solicited third party affiliation (initiated by the victim). We considered factors related to the individual features (sex, rank, age) of victim and bystander, their relationship quality (kinship, affiliation), and the effect that third party affiliation had on the victim (such as protection against further attacks and anxiety reduction). Both spontaneous and solicited third party affiliation reduced the probability of further aggression by group members on the victim (Victim-Protection Hypothesis supported). Yet, only spontaneous affiliation reduced victim anxiety (measured via self-scratching), thus suggesting that the spontaneous gesture--more than the protection itself--works in calming the distressed subject. The victim may perceive the motivational autonomy of the bystander, who does not require an invitation to provide post-conflict affiliative contact. Moreover, spontaneous--but not solicited--third party affiliation was affected by the bond between consoler and victim, being the relationship between consoler and aggressor irrelevant to the phenomenon distribution (Consolation Hypothesis supported). Spontaneous affiliation followed the empathic gradient described for humans, being mostly offered to kin, then friends, then acquaintances. Overall, our findings do not only indicate the consolatory function of spontaneous third-party affiliation but they also suggest that consolation in the bonobo may be an empathy-based phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Palagi
- Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, Calci - Pisa, Italy
- Unità di Primatologia Cognitiva, Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma, Italy
| | - Ivan Norscia
- Museo di Storia Naturale e del Territorio, Università di Pisa, Calci - Pisa, Italy
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Din Osmun L, Pillai Riddell R, Flora DB. Infant pain-related negative affect at 12 months of age: early infant and caregiver predictors. J Pediatr Psychol 2013; 39:23-34. [PMID: 23999942 DOI: 10.1093/jpepsy/jst064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To examine the predictive relationships of early infant and caregiver variables on expressed pain-related negative affect duration at the 12-month immunization. METHODS Infants and their caregivers (N = 255) were followed during immunization appointments over the first year of life. Latent growth curve modeling in a structural equation modeling context was used. RESULTS Higher levels of initial infant pain reactivity at 2 months and caregiver emotional availability averaged across 2, 4, and 6 months of age were related to larger decreases in the duration of infant negative affect over the first 6 months of life. Longer duration of infant negative affect at 2 months and poorer regulation of infant negative affect over the first 6 months of life predicted longer durations of infant negative affect by 12 months. CONCLUSIONS Infant negative affect at 12 months was a function of both infant factors and the quality of caregiver interactive behaviors (emotional availability) in early infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laila Din Osmun
- PhD, The O.U.C.H. Laboratory, Faculty of Health, Department of Psychology, York University, 2004/2006 Sherman Health Sciences Building, 4600 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada.
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The relationship between caregiver sensitivity and infant pain behaviors across the first year of life. Pain 2011; 152:2819-2826. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 09/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Neu M, Robinson J. Maternal holding of preterm infants during the early weeks after birth and dyad interaction at six months. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2010; 39:401-14. [PMID: 20629927 PMCID: PMC2935695 DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2010.01152.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine whether a supportive nursing intervention that promoted kangaroo holding of healthy preterm infants by their mothers during the early weeks of the infant's life facilitated coregulation between mother and infant at 6 months of age. DESIGN Randomized controlled trial. PARTICIPANTS Sixty-five mother/infant dyads with mean gestational age at birth of 33 weeks. Fifty percent of infants were male, and 50% were non-White. INTERVENTIONS An 8-week home intervention encouraged daily 1-hour, uninterrupted holding with either blanket (baby wrapped in blanket and held in mother's arms) or the kangaroo (baby in skin-to-skin contact on mother's chest) method. In both conditions, weekly home visits by an experienced RN included encouragement to hold the infant, emotional support, and information about infant behavior and development. A control group received brief social visits, had no holding constraints, and participated in all assessments. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES When infants were 6 months of age, the Still-Face Paradigm was used to assess mother/infant interaction. Outcome measures were coregulation of the dyad's responses during the play episodes of the Still-Face Paradigm and vitality in infant efforts to reengage the mother during the neutral face portion of the Still-Face Procedure. RESULTS Significant differences among groups were found in mother/infant coregulation. Post hoc analysis showed that dyads who were supported in kangaroo holding displayed more coregulation behavior during play than dyads in the blanket-holding group. No differences were found between groups in infant vitality during the neutral face portion of the Still-Face Procedure. CONCLUSION Dyads supported in practicing kangaroo holding in the early weeks of life may develop more coregulated interactional strategies than other dyads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madalynn Neu
- College of Nursing, University of Colorado-Denver, Denver, CO, USA.
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White-Traut RC, Schwertz D, McFarlin B, Kogan J. Salivary cortisol and behavioral state responses of healthy newborn infants to tactile-only and multisensory interventions. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2009; 38:22-34. [PMID: 19208045 DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00307.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare changes in stress reactivity (measured via the biomarker salivary cortisol) and behavioral state in healthy newborn infants immediately following 1 of 2 interventions: (1) tactile-only stimulation or (2) a multisensory, auditory, tactile, visual, and vestibular stimulation with a control group. DESIGN A randomized prospective design pilot study. SETTING Normal newborn nurseries of 2 midwestern perinatal centers. PARTICIPANTS Forty healthy newborn infants receiving standard nursing care. METHODS Infants were randomly assigned to receive 15 minutes of tactile-only, auditory, tactile, visual, and vestibular, or no stimulation 30 minutes before feeding. Saliva samples were collected before, immediately following, and 10 minutes postintervention. Behavioral state was judged every minute. RESULTS Tactile-only group infants had the largest increase in cortisol levels, followed by control group infants. In contrast, infants who received the multisensory intervention showed a significant steady decline in cortisol. Asleep was the predominant state for all 3 groups and cry was minimal. CONCLUSIONS Tactile-only stimulation may increase infant stress reactivity while the benefit of the multisensory auditory, tactile, visual, and vestibular intervention may be in the reduction of infant stress reactivity. Interventions appeared to have minimal effect on stress reactivity based on behavioral state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary C White-Traut
- Department of Women, Children and Family Health Science, College of Nursing, the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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Leerkes EM, Blankson AN, O'Brien M. Differential effects of maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress on social-emotional functioning. Child Dev 2009; 80:762-75. [PMID: 19489902 PMCID: PMC2854550 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01296.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Associations between maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress and infant social-emotional adjustment were examined in a subset of dyads from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care (N = 376). Mothers reported on infant temperament at 1 and 6 months postpartum, and maternal sensitivity to distress and nondistress were observed at 6 months. Child behavior problems, social competence, and affect dysregulation were measured at 24 and 36 months. Maternal sensitivity to distress but not to nondistress was related to fewer behavioral problems and higher social competence. In addition, for temperamentally reactive infants, maternal sensitivity to distress was associated with less affect dysregulation. Sensitivity to nondistress only prevented affect dysregulation if sensitivity to distress was also high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther M Leerkes
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, P. O. Box 26170, NC 27402-6170, USA.
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