A TSC22-like motif defines a novel antiapoptotic protein family

The TSC22D, WNK, and NRBP gene families exhibit functional buffering and evolved with Metazoa for cell volume regulation

The ability to sense and respond to osmotic fluctuations is critical for the maintenance of cellular integrity. We used gene co-essentiality analysis to identify an unappreciated relationship between TSC22D2, WNK1, and NRBP1 in regulating cell volume homeostasis. All of these genes have paralogs and are functionally buffered for osmo-sensing and cell volume control. Within seconds of hyperosmotic stress, TSC22D, WNK, and NRBP family members physically associate into biomolecular condensates, a process that is dependent on intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs). A close examination of these protein families across metazoans revealed that TSC22D genes evolved alongside a domain in NRBPs that specifically binds to TSC22D proteins, which we have termed NbrT (NRBP binding region with TSC22D), and this co-evolution is accompanied by rapid IDR length expansion in WNK-family kinases. Our study reveals that TSC22D, WNK, and NRBP genes evolved in metazoans to co-regulate rapid cell volume changes in response to osmolarity.

Hepatocyte-specific activity of TSC22D4 triggers progressive NAFLD by impairing mitochondrial function

Objective

Fibrotic organ responses have recently been identified as long-term complications in diabetes. Indeed, insulin resistance and aberrant hepatic lipid accumulation represent driving features of progressive non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), ranging from simple steatosis and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) to fibrosis. Effective pharmacological regimens to stop progressive liver disease are still lacking to-date.

Methods

Based on our previous discovery of transforming growth factor beta-like stimulated clone (TSC)22D4 as a key driver of insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in obesity and type 2 diabetes, we generated a TSC22D4-hepatocyte specific knockout line (TSC22D4-HepaKO) and exposed mice to control or NASH diet models. Mechanistic insights were generated by metabolic phenotyping and single-nuclei RNA sequencing.

Results

Hepatic TSC22D4 expression was significantly correlated with markers of liver disease progression and fibrosis in both murine and human livers. Indeed, hepatic TSC22D4 levels were elevated in human NASH patients as well as in several murine NASH models. Specific genetic deletion of TSC22D4 in hepatocytes led to reduced liver lipid accumulation, improvements in steatosis and inflammation scores and decreased apoptosis in mice fed a lipogenic MCD diet. Single-nuclei RNA sequencing revealed a distinct TSC22D4-dependent gene signature identifying an upregulation of mitochondrial-related processes in hepatocytes upon loss of TSC22D4. An enrichment of genes involved in the TCA cycle, mitochondrial organization, and triglyceride metabolism underscored the hepatocyte-protective phenotype and overall decreased liver damage as seen in mouse models of hepatocyte-selective TSC22D4 loss-of-function.

Conclusions

Together, our data uncover a new connection between targeted depletion of TSC22D4 and intrinsic metabolic processes in progressive liver disease. Hepatocyte-specific reduction of TSC22D4 improves hepatic steatosis and promotes hepatocyte survival via mitochondrial-related mechanisms thus paving the way for targeted therapies.

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TSC22D4 is significantly upregulated in both patients with NASH and liver fibrosis and in murine models of NAFLD.

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Hepatocyte-specific knockdown of TSC22D4 results in reduced steatosis and hepatocyte damage in MCD diet fed mice.

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Single-nuclei RNA sequencing from TSC22D4-HepaKO mice reveals enrichment in lipid metabolism and OXPHOS pathways.

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Loss of TSC22D4 increases the oxidative consumption rate and upregulates mitochondrial maintenance genes in hepatocytes.

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TSC22D4 expression negatively correlates with mitochondrial targets in NASH patients.

Identification of Binding Proteins for TSC22D1 Family Proteins Using Mass Spectrometry

TSC-22 (TGF-β stimulated clone-22) has been reported to induce differentiation, growth inhibition, and apoptosis in various cells. TSC-22 is a member of a family in which many proteins are produced from four different family genes. TSC-22 (corresponding to TSC22D1-2) is composed of 144 amino acids translated from a short variant mRNA of the TSC22D1 gene. In this study, we attempted to determine the intracellular localizations of the TSC22D1 family proteins (TSC22D1-1, TSC-22 (TSC22D1-2), and TSC22(86) (TSC22D1-3)) and identify the binding proteins for TSC22D1 family proteins by mass spectrometry. We determined that TSC22D1-1 was mostly localized in the nucleus, TSC-22 (TSC22D1-2) was localized in the cytoplasm, mainly in the mitochondria and translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus after DNA damage, and TSC22(86) (TSC22D1-3) was localized in both the cytoplasm and nucleus. We identified multiple candidates of binding proteins for TSC22D1 family proteins in in vitro pull-down assays and in vivo binding assays. Histone H1 bound to TSC-22 (TSC22D1-2) or TSC22(86) (TSC22D1-3) in the nucleus. Guanine nucleotide-binding protein-like 3 (GNL3), which is also known as nucleostemin, bound to TSC-22 (TSC22D1-2) in the nucleus. Further investigation of the interaction of the candidate binding proteins with TSC22D1 family proteins would clarify the biological roles of TSC22D1 family proteins in several cell systems.

Genetic interaction between F-box motif encoding YDR131C and retrograde signaling-related RTG1 regulates the stress response and apoptosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The retrograde signaling pathway is well conserved from yeast to humans, which regulates cell adaptation during stress conditions and prevents cell death. One of its components, RTG1 encoded Rtg1p in association with Rtg3p communicates between mitochondria, nucleus, and peroxisome during stress for adaptation, by regulation of transcription. The F-box motif protein encoded by YDR131C  constitutes a part of SCF ^Ydr131c -E3 ligase complex, with unknown function; however, it is known that retrograde signaling is modulated by the E3 ligase complex. This study reports epistasis interaction between YDR131C and RTG1, which regulates cell growth, response to genotoxic stress, decreased apoptosis, resistance to petite mutation, and cell wall integrity. The cells of ydr131cΔrtg1Δ genetic background exhibits growth rate improvement however, sensitivity to hydroxyurea, itraconazole antifungal agent and synthetic indoloquinazoline-based alkaloid (8-fluorotryptanthrin, RK64), which disrupts the cell wall integrity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The epistatic interaction between YDR131C and RTG1 indicates a link between protein degradation and retrograde signaling pathways.

Protein Homeostasis Networks and the Use of Yeast to Guide Interventions in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive multifactorial age-related neurodegenerative disorder that causes the majority of deaths due to dementia in the elderly. Although various risk factors have been found to be associated with AD progression, the cause of the disease is still unresolved. The loss of proteostasis is one of the major causes of AD: it is evident by aggregation of misfolded proteins, lipid homeostasis disruption, accumulation of autophagic vesicles, and oxidative damage during the disease progression. Different models have been developed to study AD, one of which is a yeast model. Yeasts are simple unicellular eukaryotic cells that have provided great insights into human cell biology. Various yeast models, including unmodified and genetically modified yeasts, have been established for studying AD and have provided significant amount of information on AD pathology and potential interventions. The conservation of various human biological processes, including signal transduction, energy metabolism, protein homeostasis, stress responses, oxidative phosphorylation, vesicle trafficking, apoptosis, endocytosis, and ageing, renders yeast a fascinating, powerful model for AD. In addition, the easy manipulation of the yeast genome and availability of methods to evaluate yeast cells rapidly in high throughput technological platforms strengthen the rationale of using yeast as a model. This review focuses on the description of the proteostasis network in yeast and its comparison with the human proteostasis network. It further elaborates on the AD-associated proteostasis failure and applications of the yeast proteostasis network to understand AD pathology and its potential to guide interventions against AD.

Cerebral transcriptome analysis reveals age-dependent progression of neuroinflammation in P301S mutant tau transgenic male mice

Aggregation of the microtubule-associated protein, tau, can lead to neurofibrillary tangle formation in neurons and glia which is the hallmark of tauopathy. The cellular damage induced by the formation of neurofibrillary tangles leads to neuroinflammation and consecutive neuronal death. However, detailed observation of transcriptomic changes under tauopathy together with the comparison of age-dependent progression of neuroinflammatory gene expressions mediated by tau overexpression is required. Employing RNA sequencing on PS19 transgenic mice that overexpress human mutant tau harboring the P301S mutation, we have examined the effects of age-dependent tau overexpression on transcriptomic changes of immune and inflammatory responses in the cerebral cortex. Compared to age-matched wild type control, P301S transgenic mice exhibit significant transcriptomic alterations. We have observed age-dependent neuroinflammatory gene expression changes in both wild type and P301S transgenic mice where tau overexpression further promoted the expression of neuroinflammatory genes in 10-month old P301S transgenic mice. Moreover, functional gene network analyses (gene ontology and pathway enrichment) and prospective target protein interactions predicted the potential involvement of multiple immune and inflammatory pathways that may contribute to tau-mediated neuronal pathology. Our current study on P301S transgenic mice model revealed for the first time, the differences of gene expression patterns in both early and late stage of tau pathology in cerebral cortex. Our analyses also revealed that tau overexpression alone induces multiple inflammatory and immune transcriptomic changes and may provide a roadmap to elucidate the targets of anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategy focused on tau pathology and related neurodegenerative diseases.

A 2'-O-Methyltransferase Responsible for Transfer RNA Anticodon Modification Is Pivotal for Resistance to Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 in Arabidopsis

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the most highly modified class of RNA species in all living organisms. Recent discoveries have revealed unprecedented complexity in the tRNA chemical structures, modification patterns, regulation, and function, suggesting that each modified nucleoside in tRNA may have its own specific function. However, in plants, our knowledge of the role of individual tRNA modifications and how they are regulated is very limited. In a genetic screen designed to identify factors regulating disease resistance in Arabidopsis, we identified SUPPRESSOR OF CSB3 9 (SCS9). Our results reveal SCS9 encodes a tRNA methyltransferase that mediates the 2'-O-ribose methylation of selected tRNA species in the anticodon loop. These SCS9-mediated tRNA modifications enhance susceptibility during infection with the virulent bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000. Lack of such tRNA modification, as observed in scs9 mutants, specifically dampens plant resistance against DC3000 without compromising the activation of the salicylic acid signaling pathway or the resistance to other biotrophic pathogens. Our results support a model that gives importance to the control of certain tRNA modifications for mounting an effective disease resistance in Arabidopsis toward DC3000 and, therefore, expands the repertoire of molecular components essential for an efficient disease resistance response.

GILZ-dependent modulation of mTORC1 regulates spermatogonial maintenance

Male fertility is dependent on spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) that self-renew and produce differentiating germ cells. Growth factors produced within the testis are essential for SSC maintenance but intrinsic factors that dictate the SSC response to these stimuli are poorly characterised. Here, we have studied the role of GILZ, a TSC22D family protein and spermatogenesis regulator, in spermatogonial function and signalling. Although broadly expressed in the germline, GILZ was prominent in undifferentiated spermatogonia and Gilz deletion in adults resulted in exhaustion of the GFRα1⁺ SSC-containing population and germline degeneration. GILZ loss was associated with mTORC1 activation, suggesting enhanced growth factor signalling. Expression of deubiquitylase USP9X, an mTORC1 modulator required for spermatogenesis, was disrupted in Gilz mutants. Treatment with an mTOR inhibitor rescued GFRα1⁺ spermatogonial failure, indicating that GILZ-dependent mTORC1 inhibition is crucial for SSC maintenance. Analysis of cultured undifferentiated spermatogonia lacking GILZ confirmed aberrant activation of ERK MAPK upstream mTORC1 plus USP9X downregulation and interaction of GILZ with TSC22D proteins. Our data indicate an essential role for GILZ-TSC22D complexes in ensuring the appropriate response of undifferentiated spermatogonia to growth factors via distinct inputs to mTORC1.

TSC-22 inhibits CSF-1R function and induces apoptosis in cervical cancer

Colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R) regulates the monocyte/macrophage system, which is an essential component of cancer development. Therefore, CSF-1R might be an effective target for anti-cancer therapy. The overexpression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β stimulated clone-22 (TSC-22) inhibits cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis, and TSC-22 is emerging as a key factor in tumorigenesis. In this study, we discovered CSF-1R as a new interacting partner of TSC-22 and identified its elevated expression in cervical cancer cells. In particular, we found that TSC-22 interacted with the intracellular tyrosine kinase insert domain (539–749) of CSF-1R, which activates the AKT and ERK signaling pathways. This binding blocked AKT and ERK signaling, thereby suppressing the transcriptional activity of NF-κB. The overexpression of TSC-22 significantly decreased CSF-1R protein levels, affecting their autocrine loop. TSC-22 injected into a xenograft mouse model of human cervical cancer markedly inhibited tumor growth. The reduction of CSF-1R protein significantly suppresses cervical cancer cell proliferation and motility and induces apoptotic cell death. This association between TSC-22 and CSF-1R could be used as a novel therapeutic target and prognostic marker for cervical cancer.

Identification of human ferritin, heavy polypeptide 1 (FTH1) and yeast RGI1 (YER067W) as pro-survival sequences that counteract the effects of Bax and copper in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Ferritin is a sub-family of iron binding proteins that form multi-subunit nanotype iron storage structures and prevent oxidative stress induced apoptosis. Here we describe the identification and characterization of human ferritin, heavy polypeptide 1 (FTH1) as a suppressor of the pro-apoptotic murine Bax sequence in yeast. In addition we demonstrate that FTH1 is a general pro-survival sequence since it also prevents the cell death inducing effects of copper when heterologously expressed in yeast. Although ferritins are phylogenetically widely distributed and are present in most species of Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya, ferritin is conspicuously absent in most fungal species including Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An in silico analysis of the yeast proteome lead to the identification of the 161 residue RGI1 (YER067W) encoded protein as a candidate for being a yeast ferritin. In addition to sharing 20% sequence identity with the 183 residue FTH1, RGI1 also has similar pro-survival properties as ferritin when overexpressed in yeast. Analysis of recombinant protein by SDS-PAGE and by electron microscopy revealed the expected formation of higher-order structures for FTH1 that was not observed with Rgi1p. Further analysis revealed that cells overexpressing RGI1 do not show increased resistance to iron toxicity and do not have enhanced capacity to store iron. In contrast, cells lacking RGI1 were found to be hypersensitive to the toxic effects of iron. Overall, our results suggest that Rgi1p is a novel pro-survival protein whose function is not related to ferritin but nevertheless it may have a role in regulating yeast sensitivity to iron stress.

TSC-22 Promotes Interleukin-2-Deprivation Induced Apoptosis in T-Lymphocytes

Originally described as a TGF-β-inducible gene, tsc-22 (Transforming growth factor-beta Stimulated Clone 22) encodes a transcriptional regulator affecting biological processes such as cell growth, differentiation, or apoptosis. Along with GILZ (Glucocorticoid-Induced Leucine Zipper), TSC-22 belongs to the evolutionary conserved TSC-22 Domain family. We previously showed that, in T-lymphocytes, GILZ expression was induced upon IL-2 withdrawal, delaying apoptosis through down-regulation of the pro-apoptotic protein BIM expression. The aim of this work was then to elucidate the respective roles of GILZ and TSC-22 upon IL-2 deprivation-induced apoptosis. We report here that these two highly homologous genes are concomitantly expressed in most human tissues and in primary T-lymphocytes and that expression of TSC-22 promotes T-lymphocytes apoptosis by inhibiting GILZ functions. Indeed, we demonstrated that TSC-22 expression in the murine lymphoid CTLL-2 cell line promoted IL-2 deprivation-induced apoptosis. BIM expression and caspases-9 and -3 activities were markedly increased in TSC-22 expressing clones compared to control clones. Analysis of GILZ expression revealed that TSC-22 prevented the induction of the GILZ protein upon IL-2 deprivation, by inhibiting gilz mRNA transcription. These results suggested that TSC-22 could counteract the protective effect of GILZ on IL-2-deprivation-induced apoptosis. Moreover, TSC-22-induced inhibition of GILZ expression was also found in CTLL-2 cells treated with glucocorticoids or TGF-β. In the human NKL cell line deprived of IL-2, TSC-22 showed the same effect and thus may represent a potent repressor of GILZ expression in IL-2-dependent cells, independently of the cell type, or the stimulus, leading to an increase of IL-2-deprived T-cells apoptosis. J. Cell. Biochem. 117: 1855-1868, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Loss of a Conserved tRNA Anticodon Modification Perturbs Plant Immunity

tRNA is the most highly modified class of RNA species, and modifications are found in tRNAs from all organisms that have been examined. Despite their vastly different chemical structures and their presence in different tRNAs, occurring in different locations in tRNA, the biosynthetic pathways of the majority of tRNA modifications include a methylation step(s). Recent discoveries have revealed unprecedented complexity in the modification patterns of tRNA, their regulation and function, suggesting that each modified nucleoside in tRNA may have its own specific function. However, in plants, our knowledge on the role of individual tRNA modifications and how they are regulated is very limited. In a genetic screen designed to identify factors regulating disease resistance and activation of defenses in Arabidopsis, we identified SUPPRESSOR OF CSB3 9 (SCS9). Our results reveal SCS9 encodes a tRNA methyltransferase that mediates the 2´-O-ribose methylation of selected tRNA species in the anticodon loop. These SCS9-mediated tRNA modifications enhance during the course of infection with the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000, and lack of such tRNA modification, as observed in scs9 mutants, severely compromise plant immunity against the same pathogen without affecting the salicylic acid (SA) signaling pathway which regulates plant immune responses. Our results support a model that gives importance to the control of certain tRNA modifications for mounting an effective immune response in Arabidopsis, and therefore expands the repertoire of molecular components essential for an efficient disease resistance response.

Numerous studies revealed the existence of nearly 110 ribonucleoside structures incorporated as post-transcriptional modifications in tRNA, with 25–30 modifications present in any one organism. Emerging evidence points to the critical role of tRNA modifications in various cellular responses to stimuli, including transcription of stress response genes and control of cell viability and growth. The primary function of tRNA modifications, and in particular tRNA methylations, are linked to different steps in protein synthesis including stabilization of tRNA structures, reinforcement of the codon-anticodon interaction, regulation of wobble base pairing, and prevention of frameshift errors. Furthermore, tRNA methylations are involved in the RNA quality control system and regulation of tRNA localization in the cell, all of which affect translation rate, but modifications in the anti-codon, which exhibit important roles in decoding mRNA are particularly important. We identified that the SCS9 gene from Arabidopsis encodes a tRNA 2´-O-ribose methyltransferase homologous to the TRM7 methyltransferase from yeast. We identify that SCS9 is crucial for the 2´-O-ribose methylation of nucleotides 32 and 34 of the tRNAs anticodon loop of certain tRNA molecules. We show that SCS9 is required for effectiveness of plant immunity and suggest the importance of precise tRNA modifications in this process.

Human Thyroid Cancer-1 (TC-1) is a vertebrate specific oncogenic protein that protects against copper and pro-apoptotic genes in yeast

The human Thyroid Cancer-1 (hTC-1) protein, also known as C8orf4 was initially identified as a gene that was up-regulated in human thyroid cancer. Here we show that hTC-1 is a peptide that prevents the effects of over-expressing Bax in yeast. Analysis of the 106 residues of hTC-1 in available protein databases revealed direct orthologues in jawed-vertebrates, including mammals, frogs, fish and sharks. No TC-1 orthologue was detected in lower organisms, including yeast. Here we show that TC-1 is a general pro-survival peptide since it prevents the growth- and cell death-inducing effects of copper in yeast. Human TC-1 also prevented the deleterious effects that occur due to the over-expression of a number of key pro-apoptotic peptides, including YCA1, YBH3, NUC1, and AIF1. Even though the protective effects were more pronounced with the over-expression of YBH3 and YCA1, hTC-1 could still protect yeast mutants lacking YBH3 and YCA1 from the effects of copper sulfate. This suggests that the protective effects of TC-1 are not limited to specific pathways or processes. Taken together, our results indicate that hTC-1 is a pro-survival protein that retains its function when heterologously expressed in yeast. Thus yeast is a useful model to characterize the potential roles in cell death and survival of cancer related genes.

Establishment and Validation of an Orthotopic Metastatic Mouse Model of Colorectal Cancer

Metastases are largely responsible for cancer deaths in solid tumors due to the lack of effective therapies against disseminated disease, and there is an urgent need to fill this gap. This study demonstrates an orthotopic colorectal cancer (CRC) mouse model system to develop spontaneous metastasis in vivo and compare its reproducibility against human CRC. IGF1R-dependent GEO human CRC cells were used to study metastatic colonization using orthotopic transplantation procedures and demonstrated robust liver metastasis. Cell proliferation assays were performed both in the orthotopic primary colon and liver metastatic tumors, and human CRC patient's specimen and similar patterns in H&E and Ki67 staining were observed between the orthotopically generated primary and liver metastatic tumors and human CRC specimens. Microarray analysis was performed to generate gene signatures, compared with deposited human CRC gene expression data sets, analyzed by Oncomine, and revealed similarity in gene signatures with increased aggressive markers expression associated with CRC in orthotopically generated liver metastasis. Thus, we have developed an orthotopic mouse model that reproduces human CRC metastasis. This model system can be effective in developing new therapeutic strategies against disseminated disease and could be implemented for identifying genes that regulate the development and/or maintenance of established metastasis.

Boolean model of yeast apoptosis as a tool to study yeast and human apoptotic regulations

Programmed cell death (PCD) is an essential cellular mechanism that is evolutionary conserved, mediated through various pathways and acts by integrating different stimuli. Many diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases and cancers are found to be caused by, or associated with, regulations in the cell death pathways. Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a unicellular eukaryotic organism that shares with human cells components and pathways of the PCD and is therefore used as a model organism. Boolean modeling is becoming promising approach to capture qualitative behavior and describe essential properties of such complex networks. Here we present large literature-based and to our knowledge first Boolean model that combines pathways leading to apoptosis (a type of PCD) in yeast. Analysis of the yeast model confirmed experimental findings of anti-apoptotic role of Bir1p and pro-apoptotic role of Stm1p and revealed activation of the stress protein kinase Hog proposing the maximal level of activation upon heat stress. In addition we extended the yeast model and created an in silico humanized yeast in which human pro- and anti-apoptotic regulators Bcl-2 family and Valosin-contain protein (VCP) are included in the model. We showed that accumulation of Bax in silico humanized yeast shows apoptotic markers and that VCP is essential target of Akt Signaling. The presented Boolean model provides comprehensive description of yeast apoptosis network behavior. Extended model of humanized yeast gives new insights of how complex human disease like neurodegeneration can initially be tested.

Oxidative stress and programmed cell death in yeast

Yeasts, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, have long served as useful models for the study of oxidative stress, an event associated with cell death and severe human pathologies. This review will discuss oxidative stress in yeast, in terms of sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS), their molecular targets, and the metabolic responses elicited by cellular ROS accumulation. Responses of yeast to accumulated ROS include upregulation of antioxidants mediated by complex transcriptional changes, activation of pro-survival pathways such as mitophagy, and programmed cell death (PCD) which, apart from apoptosis, includes pathways such as autophagy and necrosis, a form of cell death long considered accidental and uncoordinated. The role of ROS in yeast aging will also be discussed.

Untangling the Roles of Anti-Apoptosis in Regulating Programmed Cell Death using Humanized Yeast Cells

Genetically programmed cell death (PCD) mechanisms, including apoptosis, are important for the survival of metazoans since it allows, among things, the removal of damaged cells that interfere with normal function. Cell death due to PCD is observed in normal processes such as aging and in a number of pathophysiologies including hypoxia (common causes of heart attacks and strokes) and subsequent tissue reperfusion. Conversely, the loss of normal apoptotic responses is associated with the development of tumors. So far, limited success in preventing unwanted PCD has been reported with current therapeutic approaches despite the fact that inhibitors of key apoptotic inducers such as caspases have been developed. Alternative approaches have focused on mimicking anti-apoptotic processes observed in cells displaying increased resistance to apoptotic stimuli. Hormesis and pre-conditioning are commonly observed cellular strategies where sub-lethal levels of pro-apoptotic stimuli lead to increased resistance to higher or lethal levels of stress. Increased expression of anti-apoptotic sequences is a common mechanism mediating these protective effects. The relevance of the latter observation is exemplified by the observation that transgenic mice overexpressing anti-apoptotic genes show significant reductions in tissue damage following ischemia. Thus strategies aimed at increasing the levels of anti-apoptotic proteins, using gene therapy or cell penetrating recombinant proteins are being evaluated as novel therapeutics to decrease cell death following acute periods of cell death inducing stress. In spite of its functional and therapeutic importance, more is known regarding the processes involved in apoptosis than anti-apoptosis. The genetically tractable yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has emerged as an exceptional model to study multiple aspects of PCD including the mitochondrial mediated apoptosis observed in metazoans. To increase our knowledge of the process of anti-apoptosis, we screened a human heart cDNA expression library in yeast cells undergoing PCD due to the conditional expression of a mammalian pro-apoptotic Bax cDNA. Analysis of the multiple Bax suppressors identified revealed several previously known as well as a large number of clones representing potential novel anti-apoptotic sequences. The focus of this review is to report on recent achievements in the use of humanized yeast in genetic screens to identify novel stress-induced PCD suppressors, supporting the use of yeast as a unicellular model organism to elucidate anti-apoptotic and cell survival mechanisms.

TSC-22 promotes transforming growth factor β-mediated cardiac myofibroblast differentiation by antagonizing Smad7 activity

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) plays a critical role in tissue fibrosis. The duration and intensity of TGF-β signaling are tightly regulated. Here we report that TSC-22 (TGF-β-stimulated clone 22) facilitates TGF-β signaling by antagonizing Smad7 activity to increase receptor stability. TSC-22 enhances TGF-β-induced Smad2/3 phosphorylation and transcriptional responsiveness. The stimulatory effect of TSC-22 is dependent on Smad7, as silencing Smad7 expression abolishes it. TSC-22 interacts with TGF-β type I receptor TβRI and Smad7 in mutually exclusive ways and disrupts the association of Smad7/Smurfs with TβRI, thereby preventing ubiquitination and degradation of the receptor. We also found that TSC-22 can promote the differentiation of cardiac myofibroblasts by increasing expression of the fibrotic genes for α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), PAI-1, fibronectin, and collagen I, which is consistent with upregulation of TSC-22, phospho-Smad2/3, and the fibrotic genes in isoproterenol-induced rat myocardial fibrotic hearts. Taken together with the notion that TGF-β induces TSC-22 expression, our findings suggest that TSC-22 regulates TGF-β signaling via a positive-feedback mechanism and may contribute to myocardial fibrosis.

Antagonistic TSC22D1 variants control BRAF(E600)-induced senescence

Oncogene-induced cellular senescence (OIS) is an increasingly recognized tumour suppressor mechanism that confines the outgrowth of neoplastic cells in vivo. It relies on a complex signalling network, but only few components have been identified so far. Gene-expression profiling revealed a >100-fold increase in the levels of the transcription factor and putative tumour suppressor gene TGFβ-stimulated clone 22 (TSC22D1) in BRAF(E600)-induced senescence, in both human fibroblasts and melanocytes. Only the short TSC22D1 transcript was upregulated, whereas the abundance of the large protein variant was suppressed by proteasomal degradation. The TSC22D1 protein variants, in complex with their dimerization partner TSC22 homologue gene 1 (THG1), exerted opposing functions, as selective depletion of the short form, or conversely, overexpression of the large variant, resulted in abrogation of OIS. This was accompanied by the suppression of several inflammatory factors and p15(INK4B), with TSC22D1 acting as a critical effector of C/EBPβ. Our results demonstrate that the differential regulation of antagonistic TSC22D1 variants is required for the establishment of OIS and suggest distinct contributions of TSC22 family members to the progression of BRAF(E600)-driven neoplasia.

Evidence for a second messenger function of dUTP during Bax mediated apoptosis of yeast and mammalian cells

The identification of novel anti-apoptotic sequences has lead to new insights into the mechanisms involved in regulating different forms of programmed cell death. For example, the anti-apoptotic function of free radical scavenging proteins supports the pro-apoptotic function of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Using yeast as a model of eukaryotic mitochondrial apoptosis, we show that a cDNA corresponding to the mitochondrial variant of the human DUT gene (DUT-M) encoding the deoxyuridine triphosphatase (dUTPase) enzyme can prevent apoptosis in yeast in response to internal (Bax expression) and to exogenous (H(2)O(2) and cadmium) stresses. Of interest, cell death was not prevented under culture conditions modeling chronological aging, suggesting that DUT-M only protects dividing cells. The anti-apoptotic function of DUT-M was confirmed by demonstrating that an increase in dUTPase protein levels is sufficient to confer increased resistance to H(2)O(2) in cultured C2C12 mouse skeletal myoblasts. Given that the function of dUTPase is to decrease the levels of dUTP, our results strongly support an emerging role for dUTP as a pro-apoptotic second messenger in the same vein as ROS and ceramide.

Anti-apoptosis and cell survival: a review

Type I programmed cell death (PCD) or apoptosis is critical for cellular self-destruction for a variety of processes such as development or the prevention of oncogenic transformation. Alternative forms, including type II (autophagy) and type III (necrotic) represent the other major types of PCD that also serve to trigger cell death. PCD must be tightly controlled since disregulated cell death is involved in the development of a large number of different pathologies. To counter the multitude of processes that are capable of triggering death, cells have devised a large number of cellular processes that serve to prevent inappropriate or premature PCD. These cell survival strategies involve a myriad of coordinated and systematic physiological and genetic changes that serve to ward off death. Here we will discuss the different strategies that are used to prevent cell death and focus on illustrating that although anti-apoptosis and cellular survival serve to counteract PCD, they are nevertheless mechanistically distinct from the processes that regulate cell death.

Harnessing gene expression to identify the genetic basis of drug resistance

The advent of cost-effective genotyping and sequencing methods have recently made it possible to ask questions that address the genetic basis of phenotypic diversity and how natural variants interact with the environment. We developed Camelot (CAusal Modelling with Expression Linkage for cOmplex Traits), a statistical method that integrates genotype, gene expression and phenotype data to automatically build models that both predict complex quantitative phenotypes and identify genes that actively influence these traits. Camelot integrates genotype and gene expression data, both generated under a reference condition, to predict the response to entirely different conditions. We systematically applied our algorithm to data generated from a collection of yeast segregants, using genotype and gene expression data generated under drug-free conditions to predict the response to 94 drugs and experimentally confirmed 14 novel gene-drug interactions. Our approach is robust, applicable to other phenotypes and species, and has potential for applications in personalized medicine, for example, in predicting how an individual will respond to a previously unseen drug.