Secular trends in aerobic fitness performance in a cohort of Norwegian adolescents

The relationship between online communication and mental health and cardiorespiratory fitness from ages 15 to 17: a longitudinal cohort study

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a critical developmental period marked by significant mental and physical health changes. This longitudinal study examines the relationship between online communication and health from age 15 to 17, focusing on mental health indicators (depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and body image) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). We aimed to assess whether increased time spent in online communication is associated with poorer mental health and lower CRF among adolescents, with consideration of potential moderating effects of sex and socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

Data were collected from 315 Icelandic adolescents at age 15 (2015) and age 17 (2017; N = 236). Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine the association between online communication and health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, body image, self-esteem, and CRF. Models accounted for year, sex, and SES, with random intercepts for individual variability.

RESULTS

More online communication was significantly associated with poorer mental health outcomes, including more symptoms of depression (p < 0.001, marginal R² = 0.14), anxiety (p = 0.032, marginal R² = 0.13), lower self-esteem (p = 0.006, marginal R² = 0.07), more negative body image (p = 0.010, marginal R² = 0.13), and lower CRF; p = 0.003, marginal R² = 0.35). These associations did not change between years and were consistent across sex and SES groups. CRF declined from age 15 to 17. Females reported generally worse mental health and lower CRF than males, while higher SES was linked to lower depression scores and higher self-esteem. However, no significant interactions were found between online communication, sex, or SES, suggesting that the impacts of online communication on health were broadly applicable across demographic groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study underscores the potential negative effects of online communication on mental and physical health among adolescents, regardless of sex or SES. The findings highlight the importance of balancing time spent online communicating with physical activity to support overall adolescent well-being. These insights could inform public health initiatives and preventive strategies to foster healthier digital habits in an increasingly online world, especially during this sensitive developmental period.

Adolescent mental health and cardiorespiratory fitness: A comparison of two cohorts 12 years apart

The aim of the study was to compare the mental health and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) of adolescents in two cross-sectional cohorts, one measured in 2003 and the other in 2015, both at age 15 and across sexes. The study also sought to estimate the association between mental health and CRF in the two cohorts and examine the relationship between the level of CRF and mental health in each cohort overall and by sex. Data from 443 participants born in 1988 (228 males, 215 females) and 303 participants born in 1999 (126 males, 177 females) were analyzed. Mental health was assessed using self-reports of body image, self-esteem, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. CRF was estimated using a maximal cycle ergometer test. From 2003 to 2015, body image scores improved (p = .043), self-esteem remained stable, and CRF declined significantly (p < .001). No self-esteem differences were observed between sexes in any cohort. Males had higher CRF and body image scores than females in both cohorts (p < .001 for all comparisons). Higher CRF correlated with fewer depressive symptoms across sexes and cohorts. Specifically, higher CRF was associated with anxiety in females and improved body image in males (2003) and both sexes (2015). Increased CRF was linked to higher self-esteem in females but not in males. Overall, higher CRF levels were associated with better mental health outcomes for both sexes. These results highlight the potential of improving adolescent mental health through increased physical fitness.

Does incorporating high intensity interval training in physical education classes improve fitness outcomes of students? A cluster randomized controlled trial

The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a high intensity interval training (HIIT) intervention lasting 12 weeks on fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, speed, flexibility, and balance) and adiposity of 10- to 15-year-old students implemented during their physical education (PE). The focus of this study was to compare two approaches to increasing fitness level among school-aged children, one approach focusing on regular PE sessions in accordance with the curriculum and another one on regular PE classes augmented by HIIT. A cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted (February-May 2022, Zagreb, Croatia). The total number of students across both groups was 207. General linear models were used to compare fitness and adiposity changes in both groups based on Eurofit test battery. A significant effect of the HIIT intervention was present for the 20-meter shuttle run test (p = 0.001; d = 0.31). The effect of the intervention compared to the control was estimated as an additional 181.2 m, 95 %CI (70.4 to 292.0). An additional intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis showed that the effect of the HIIT intervention on 20-meter shuttle run test remained statistically significant (p = 0.011), though the magnitude of the estimated effect was reduced from 181.2 m; SE = 55.4 to 119.6 m; SE = 46.4. Whilst it appears HIIT had the opposite of the expected effect on body fat percentiles, the effect on body composition was inconsistent. The intervention is registered at the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) [ACTRN12622000209796].

Temporal changes in physical fitness in Norwegian male and female military conscripts between 2006 and 2020

Reduced physical fitness has been documented in Western children and adults over the past five decades. The same trend has been observed among soldiers, but the number of studies is scarce. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate temporal changes in physical fitness in Norwegian conscripts. All conscripts who performed entry fitness tests between 2006 and 2020 were included in the study (n = 105 100; 17% females). Endurance was measured with the 3000 m run, while push-ups, sit-ups, and pull-ups (2006-2016) and medicine ball throw, standing long jump, and pull-ups (2017-2020) were used to measure muscle strength. Mean (95% confidence intervals) 3000 m run time was reduced by 52 (47, 57) seconds in men, 90 (76, 105) seconds in women, and 16 (11, 20) seconds in both sexes combined. Muscle strength increased statistically significantly in four out of five tests in men, three out of six tests in women, and two out of five tests for both sexes combined. Effect sizes for statistically significant changes ranged from 0.06 to 0.82. In conclusion, Norwegian conscripts improved their cardiorespiratory endurance between 2006 and 2020, with improvements observed for most muscle strength tests. When analyzing both sexes combined, the improvements diminished. The latter is attributed to a sevenfold increase in relative number of female conscripts over the 15-year period. The present findings should not be generalized to all young Norwegian men and women since conscripts are selected based on fitness, and only ~15% of the population end up serving.

The Temporal Association between Body Characteristics and Speed Performance over Twenty-Five Years in Italian Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Physical fitness (PF) is positively related to skeletal and metabolic health, and it had an inverse relation with obesity. Adolescents with obesity have the worst performance in PF and speed-agility (SA) that contributes to an augmented risk to develop pathologies. To the best of our knowledge, many studies analyzed the trends of obesity and SA separately, but there is a lack of data about SA ability trends in adolescents with obesity. We aimed to investigate SA trends in children with obesity in the last few decades to define the association between body weight and physical performance.

METHODS

We recruited 3.923 Caucasian children across the period 1985-2010 in the same school in Northern Italy, near Milan. Once a year, at the ages of 11-12- and 13-years-old, we collected anthropometric measures and SA performance. We pooled the data into 5-year-period study waves and then stratified our analysis into test-sex-age BMI-z-score specific groups.

RESULTS

We reported an undetermined trend across years. The 4×5 m run test significantly decreased in adolescents with overweight/obesity, while we did not report a decline in 30 m and 60 m run tests.

CONCLUSIONS

Fitness tests highlighted differences in normal weight compared to overweight/obese children, suggesting that it is crucial to carefully monitor PF capacities through the years.

Reference data on anthropometrics, aerobic fitness and muscle strength in young Norwegian men and women

Purpose

Anthropometrics, aerobic fitness and muscle strength are measured in one-third of all 18-year-old Norwegian men and women during yearly selection for compulsory military service. The large sample size and geographical representativity make these data valuable for reference. The main purpose of this study was to present reference data for anthropometrics and physical fitness in young Norwegian men and women.

Methods

All 154,659 subjects (66% men and 34% women, 17–21 years old) who completed physical examinations at conscript selection from 2011 to 2019 were included in the study. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from height and weight measurements. Peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak) was estimated from performance on a maximal treadmill test. Muscle strength was measured by isometric chest and leg press, or seated medicine ball throw, standing long jump and pull-ups.

Results

Mean BMI (SD) was 23.1 (3.4) and 22.9 (3.3) kg·m⁻² in men and women, respectively (P < 0.001), and 24% of men and 21% of women had a BMI ≥ 25 kg·m⁻². Estimated VO_2peak was 52.9 (4.6) and 42.7 (3.9) mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ in men and women, respectively (P < 0.001). Men performed significantly better than women on all muscle strength tests, with corresponding effect sizes varying from 1.14 for isometric leg press to 2.96 for seated medicine ball throw.

Conclusion

The presented reference data on physical fitness in young Norwegian men and women can be used to evaluate population health, serve as reference material for future studies and describes sex differences in several physical fitness parameters.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00421-021-04784-4.

Motor Competence and Health-related Fitness of School-Age Children: A Two-Year Latent Transition Analysis

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to identify latent physical performance profiles of motor competence (MC) and cardiorespiratory (CF) and muscular fitness (MF) among school-aged children and 2) explore transition probabilities in physical performance profiles over a two-year period.

METHODS

The present sample comprised 1148 (583 girls, 565 boys) elementary school students (baseline Mage = 11.27 ± .32), and data were collected annually (equal intervals) over a period of two years which resulted in a total of three measurements. The measures used were the throwing-catching combination test, 5-leaps and two-legged jumps from side-to-side test (MC), 20-meter shuttle run test (CF), and curl-up and push-up tests (MF). Latent transition analysis was used to identify and track physical performance profiles derived from the measurements of MC, CF, and MF scores.

RESULTS

The key findings were: 1) three physical performance profiles were identified: a) Low (28 % of the sample; lowest level in each category), b) Moderate (43 % of the sample; higher MC, CF and MF than Low), c) High (29 % of the sample; highest MF); 2) the number of physical performance profiles and probability to belong to a given profile were stable across time; 3) the highest transition probability was found in the High group, where some students had transitioned to the Moderate group at T2, and 4) girls were most likely to belong to the Low.

CONCLUSION

Results demonstrated that children's physical performance profiles are stable from late childhood to early adolescence. This study suggests that the early elementary school years are essential for the development of children's MC and health-related fitness.

Physical fitness reference standards in Italian children

Physical fitness in childhood is considered a marker of current and future health. For this reason, there is a need for a simple but reliable test to assess the different components of physical fitness even at school during physical education lessons. However, standard values are required to correctly interpret the results of such tests. Hence, this study aimed to generate sex- and age-specific normative percentile values for health-related physical fitness in Italian children. To this aim, 30,472 children aged 6-11 years from the Friuli Venezia-Giulia region (Italy) were examined. The fitness test battery included the Léger test (cardiorespiratory), the shuttle test (agility), standing long jumps, frontal throws of a basketball (lower and upper limb strength), the sit-and-reach test (flexibility), and the standing balance test. Sex- and age-percentile curves were determined using the General Additive Model for Location Scale and Shape (GAMLSS).Conclusion: The reference standards are provided as 1st, 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, 97th, and 99th percentiles in the form of both tables and charts and are roughly comparable with those of other European children. What is Known: • Physical fitness in childhood is considered a marker of current and future health; • Several tests have been developed to assess physical fitness in children; • There are general European reference standards for a series of tests of the main fitness components for children. What is New: • The present study provides specific reference standards for a series of tests that are indicative of the main fitness components and easily applied in children, particularly those in the Italian population; • Standing balance test and basketball frontal throw test references in a wide sample of children; • The performance of children in the present study was roughly comparable to that of other European children.

Estimation of maximal oxygen uptake from the 3,000 m run in adult men and women

The 3,000 m run is a frequently used field test for evaluating aerobic fitness. The test has previously been validated using smaller sample sizes and with focus restricted to the correlation between run performance and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O_2max). The aim of the present study was to generate equations for converting 3,000 m performance into predicted V̇O_2max , and present corresponding validity statistics. In total 259 (30 female) military cadets and recruits (18-39 years) participated in the study. The subjects carried out a 3,000 m run and a direct treadmill V̇O_2max test. The Pearson r between V̇O_2max and average 3,000 m run speed were 0.74 and 0.79 in men and women, respectively. Two V̇O_2max prediction equations were generated: (1) Men: Ŷ = 17.5 + 2.57X and (2) Women: Ŷ = 14.6 + 2.48X (X = 3,000 m average run speed in km·h^-1). The equations produced a standard error of estimate of 3.3 and 2.6 mL·kg^-1·min^-1, and limits of agreement of 6.4 and 5.0 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 in men and women, respectively. The validity of the 3,000 m test is comparable to other indirect maximal running tests and is a time-effective alternative aerobic fitness test in healthy and motivated subjects.

Secular Trends in Physical Fitness of Children and Adolescents: A Review of Large-Scale Epidemiological Studies Published after 2006

Physical fitness (PF) of children and adolescents is an important resource for their future health. Population-based studies, however, rarely report secular changes of PF, although monitoring of these is crucial to deriving information for adequate interventions. This review aims to report trends in PF of children and adolescents. A literature search was conducted in PubMed in July 2019. Cohort studies published in English allowing statements to be made on trends in PF by comparing youth between the ages of four and 18 years were included. The review identified 24 studies from 16 countries meeting the inclusion criteria, with an overall sample size of more than 860,000 children and adolescents. Through a standardized quality assessment tool, we classified two studies as strong, 21 as moderate, and only one as weak. We analyzed specific secular trends separately for the five different dimensions: endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, and coordination. The majority of studies report a decline of PF over time; however, a few studies report conflicting results. Performance in endurance, strength, and flexibility decreased over time, whereas there was no consistent trend reported for speed and coordination. Overall, there is no international standard on examining and reporting changes or secular trends in PF of children and adolescents, and comparability of studies is limited due to heterogeneous conditions of conducting and analyzing PF tests. Consequently, standardized and consistent international monitoring should be implemented.

Trends in Physical Fitness Among School-Aged Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Introduction and Objective: This systematic review aimed to analyse the international evolution of fitness with its distributional changes in the performance on tests of physical fitness among school-aged children and adolescents. Methods: In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, the search was undertaken in four international databases (ERIC, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) to identify the studies reporting temporal trends in the physical fitness among school-aged children and adolescents. Results: A total of 485 potential articles were identified, of which 19 articles were relevant for the qualitative synthesis; 1,746,023 children and adolescents from 14 countries (China, Finland, Sweden, Belgium, New Zealand, Denmark, Spain, Norway, Mozambique, Poland, USA, Lithuania, Portugal, Canada), for the period between 1969 and 2017 were included. The subjects were tested using 45 motor tests from eight battery tests. The quality of the study in eight articles was rated as strong, while in 11 articles it was rated as moderate. Discussion: The vast majority of studies show a constant decline in strength and endurance. Three Chinese studies show an increase in strength from 1985 to 1995 and then a decline until 2014. For endurance, similar patterns were found in the two most comprehensive Chinese studies. The decline in flexibility is also evident in European countries. For agility, speed, balance, and coordination, the trend differs among populations.

Predictive validity of objective measures of physical fitness for the new onset of mental disorders in adolescents and young adults

AIM

To systematically review evidence that objectively assessed level of physical fitness is associated with future risk of adverse mental health outcomes during the peak age range for onset of adult mental disorders.

METHODS

Searches of Electronic databases (EBSCOhost, SPORTDISCUS, EMBASE, MedLINE, Cochrane database, CINAHL, PsychInfo, and Dissertation Abstracts), supplemented by hand searches of journals, conference proceedings and citations. Random-effects meta-analysis models were used to pool the intervention effects.

RESULTS

Eight studies of adolescents and young adults were included in the qualitative review and six studies derived from four independent cohorts were included in the statistical analyses. Most publications reported on large samples (including >1 million), but male conscripts were over-represented in the study cohorts; quality of included studies was modest, and heterogeneity was significant. Meta-analytic estimates were conducted for different adverse mental health outcomes, but all showed an inverse association between fitness and incidence of mental disorders or suicidality. Overall, higher level of physical fitness was associated with lower rates of onset of mental health problems (odds ratio: 0.59; 95% confidence intervals: 0.54, 0.65).

CONCLUSIONS

All eligible studies were undertaken since 2010, suggesting this is an emerging but unfinished field of research. The study design and methodological limitations indicate that the reported results should be treated with caution. However, if the meta-analytic findings are reliably replicated for new cohorts of males and females, they have implications for research into the prevention of non-communicable diseases, as our review suggests that interventions should target physical and mental health in equal measure.

Economic Growth and Cardiorespiratory Fitness of Children and Adolescents in Urban Areas: A Panel Data Analysis of 27 Provinces in China, 1985-2014

With rapid economic development in China, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) of children and adolescents is on a decline. However, this appears to have slowed down, reaching stagnation in certain areas. However, it is unclear if the change in CRF is related to economic growth and development or not. This study describes trends in CRF of Chinese children and adolescents, and empirically tests the relationships between China's macro-economic developments and cardiorespiratory fitness of children and adolescents over the past 30 years using provincial panel data collected from one million samples. We used per capita disposable income as the economic indicator. CRF was assessed by using running tests: 50 m × 8 for boys and girls (7-12 years), 1000 m for boys (13-22 years), and 800 m for girls (13-22 years). The results show that economic growth has a U-shaped relationship with CRF of children and adolescents (both boys and girls). It appears that as incomes increased, CRF of urban male and female students in China gradually decreased to its lowest point, after which it showed an upward trend. From a horizontal perspective, it can be inferred that for low-developed provinces, increases in incomes cause a decrease in CRF levels. In contrast, for highly developed provinces, as incomes increase, CRF levels increase. This study provides the first empirical evidence of the relationship between macro-economy and CRF of youth, based on provincial panel data. The results presented here can be used to formulate health policies targeting the cardiorespiratory fitness of children and adolescents from middle-income provinces in China. This study also provides a reference for developing countries.

A Comparative Study of Fitness Levels among Norwegian Youth in 1988 and 2001

We compared the fitness levels of cohorts of 15-year-old youth in 1988 and 2001 to ascertain whether there was a negative trend in fitness. The subjects were 15-year-old boys and girls from the same geographical area, n = 192 in 1988 and n = 191 in 2001. They participated voluntarily and could leave the project whenever they wished. The following variables were used to assess fitness: Maximal oxygen uptake, jump height, shoulder flexibility, and hamstring flexibility. Maximal oxygen uptake was estimated with submaximal ergometer cycling, jump height by the Sargent jump-and-reach test, shoulder flexibility as the distance between thumbs when doing straight-arm backwards circling while holding a broomstick, and hamstring flexibility by an active straight-leg-raise test. Differences between groups and quartiles were analyzed by Gosset’s (Student’s) t-test, using a significance level of 0.05. The two cohorts did show different levels of physical fitness. The 1988 group was 3.9 cm better on jump height and 4.2 cm better on shoulder flexibility, while the 2001 group had 3.3° better hamstring flexibility. The lowest performing quartile did less well in 2001 on oxygen uptake and jump height. We recommend an increased focus on improving fitness in low-performing adolescents.

Anthropometric measures as fitness indicators in primary school children: The Health Oriented Pedagogical Project (HOPP)

Aims: As children’s fitness continues to decline, frequent and systematic monitoring of fitness is important. Easy-to-use and low-cost methods with acceptable accuracy are essential in screening situations. This study aimed to investigate how the measurements of body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) relate to selected measurements of fitness in children. Methods: A total of 1731 children from grades 1 to 6 were selected who had a complete set of height, body mass, running performance, handgrip strength and muscle mass measurements. A composite fitness score was established from the sum of sex- and age-specific z-scores for the variables running performance, handgrip strength and muscle mass. This fitness z-score was compared to z-scores and quartiles of BMI, WC and WHtR using analysis of variance, linear regression and receiver operator characteristic analysis. Results: The regression analysis showed that z-scores for BMI, WC and WHtR all were linearly related to the composite fitness score, with WHtR having the highest R2 at 0.80. The correct classification of fit and unfit was relatively high for all three measurements. WHtR had the best prediction of fitness of the three with an area under the curve of 0.92 ( p < 0.001). Conclusions: BMI, WC and WHtR were all found to be feasible measurements, but WHtR had a higher precision in its classification into fit and unfit in this population.

Longitudinal Changes in Physical Activity Level, Body Mass Index, and Oxygen Uptake Among Norwegian Adolescents

Several studies have investigated activity levels among adolescents, but no study has examined longitudinal changes in physical activity (PA) level, body mass, and oxygen uptake among the same adolescents from the age of 14 to 19 years. The present study examined data from a research project that included a group of randomly selected students (N = 116) with objective measurements of PA (accelerometer data), self-reported PA level, and body mass and oxygen uptake during a 5-year period. The results show a significant decrease in the accelerometer-based PA level over time, from age 14 to 19. At 14 years of age, the minutes of moderate and/or vigorous PA was 66.7 min·day^-1, but was less than half, at only 24.4 min·day^-1, at 19 years of age. The self-reported activity data show a decrease in girls' general activity level over time, while boys' activity level during school breaks decreased strongly during the period: at age 14, 61% of the boys were classified as active, while at age 19, only 11% were physically active. Furthermore, body mass index increased during the period for both genders, while oxygen uptake decreased. Since both BMI and maximal oxygen uptake are important risk factors for future CVD, these findings point toward the importance of maintaining a high activity level during childhood and adolescence, in order to keep fit later in life.

Secular Trends in the Physical Fitness of United States Army Recruits on Entry to Service, 1975-2013

Knapik, JJ, Sharp, MA, and Steelman, RA. Secular trends in the physical fitness of United States Army recruits on entry to service, 1975-2013. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 2030-2052, 2017-A systematic literature search was conducted to identify and analyze articles that reported on physical fitness of new US Army recruits. The National Library of Medicine's PubMed and the Defense Technical Information Center were searched using the keywords (military personnel OR trainee OR recruit OR soldier) AND (physical fitness OR strength OR endurance OR flexibility OR balance OR coordination OR muscle contraction OR running OR exercise OR physical conditioning). Reference lists of obtained articles and contact with authors enhanced the search. Studies were selected if they involved recruits in Basic Combat Training or One-Station Unit Training, provided a quantitative assessment of at least one fitness measure, and the fitness measure(s) were obtained early in training. Average values for each fitness measure were obtained, plotted by the year of data collection, and fitted to linear regression models (fitness measure × year). Fifty-three articles met the review criteria. Regression analysis indicated little temporal change in height, but body weight, body mass index, body fat, and fat-free mass increased over time. Limited V[Combining Dot Above]O2max data suggested no temporal change in male recruits, but those in female recruits V[Combining Dot Above]O2max seem to have slightly improved. Apparently contradicting the V[Combining Dot Above]O2max findings, performance on endurance runs (1- and 2-mile) declined, possibly because of the increase in body weight. Muscular endurance (push-ups, sit-ups) demonstrated little systematic change over time. Limited but multiple measures of muscular strength suggest a temporal increase in strength. Specific components of US Army recruit fitness seem to have changed over time.

Association of perceived physical health and physical fitness in two Swedish national samples from 1990 and 2015

Perceived health and physical fitness have been shown to correlate, and low levels of either variable increase the risk for future illness and mortality. However, risk factors and their interrelationship may vary between societies and over time. In this study, the associations of physical fitness and perceived health were therefore assessed in two Swedish national samples 25 years apart. Perceived physical health, dichotomized as "good" or "bad," maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max), counter movement jump (CMJ), balance (one-legged 60 second stance), and self-reported demographics and lifestyle were recorded in two cross-sectional samples (sample size, number of eligible participants) of Swedish adults, aged 20-65 years, in 1990-1991 (2203, 1365), and 2013-2015 (3357, 422). The odds for good perceived physical health increased by 5% per mL·kg^-1 ·min^-1 of VO₂ max, 3% per cm CMJ height, and decreased by 4% per 1 time of overbalancing, in both samples. Mutually adjusted regression models showed that perceived physical health was best predicted by VO₂ max and chronic illness in 1990 and by age, BMI, and educational level in 2015.

CONCLUSION

Perceived physical health was related to physical fitness in two samples of Swedish adults from 1990 and 2015. However, multivariate and mutually adjusted models indicate that the most important covariates of perceived physical health may have changed from VO₂ max and chronic illness in 1990, to age, BMI, and educational level in 2015.

'FIFA 11 for Health' for Europe. II: effect on health markers and physical fitness in Danish schoolchildren aged 10-12 years

Objectives

To evaluate whether a modified ‘FIFA 11 for Health’ programme for non-communicable diseases had effects on body composition, blood pressure and physical fitness of Danish schoolchildren aged 10–12 years.

Design

A cluster-randomised controlled study with 7 intervention and 2 control schools.

Participants

546 Danish 5th grade municipal schoolchildren allocated to an intervention group (IG; n=402: 11.1±0.4 (±SD) years, 150.1±7.0 cm, 41.3±8.4 kg) and a control group (CG; n=144: 11.0±0.5 years, 151.2±7.8 cm, 41.3±9.0 kg).

Intervention

As part of the physical education (PE) curriculum, IG carried out 2 weekly 45 min ‘FIFA 11 for Health’ sessions focusing on health issues, football skills and 3v3 games. CG continued regular school PE activities. Measurements of body composition, blood pressure at rest, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 children's test (YYIR1C), balance, jump and sprint performance were performed before and after the 11-week study period.

Results

During the 11-week study period, systolic blood pressure (−3.5 vs 0.9 mm Hg), mean arterial blood pressure (−1.9 vs 0.4 mm Hg), body mass index (−0.02 vs 0.13 kg/m²) and body fat percentage (−0.83% vs −0.04%) decreased more (p<0.05) in IG than in CG. Within-group improvements (p<0.05) were observed in IG for 20 m sprint (4.09±0.29 to 4.06±0.28 s) and YYIR1C performance (852±464 to 896±517 m), but these changes were not significantly different from CG, and balance or jump performance remained unchanged in both groups.

Conclusions

The modified ‘FIFA 11 for Health’ programme has beneficial effects on body composition and blood pressure for Danish schoolchildren aged 10–12 years, thereby providing evidence that this football-based health education programme can directly impact participants' cardiovascular health profile.

Cross-Validation of FITNESSGRAM® Health-Related Fitness Standards in Hungarian Youth

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to cross-validate FITNESSGRAM® aerobic and body composition standards in a representative sample of Hungarian youth.

METHOD

A nationally representative sample (N = 405) of Hungarian adolescents from the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study (ages 12-18.9 years) participated in an aerobic capacity assessment via treadmill test to maximum to determine peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) and a bioelectrical impedance assessment to estimate percent body fat (%BF). Additionally, metabolic syndrome status was assessed via finger-stick blood sample. Youth were categorized into Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) and Needs Improvement (NI) groups based on Fitnessgram standards. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome was calculated and logistic regression was used to estimate odds of metabolic syndrome.

RESULTS

Hungarian youth were generally fit with a low prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Approximately 69% to 77% of boys and 55% to 57% of girls were classified into the HFZ based on %BF and VO2peak. Youth in the NI health risk zones for VO2peak and %BF were 4 times to 5 and 2 times to 3 times more likely to have metabolic syndrome than children in the lower-risk groups, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Fitnessgram standards for aerobic capacity and body composition were associated with metabolic syndrome status, though odds ratios were larger for VO2peak than for %BF and varied by sex. Even though these standards were developed in U.S. youth, they can be applied in Hungary and still provide a criterion-referenced indication of fitness.

Fatness but Not Fitness Relative to the Fat-Free Mass Is Related to C-Reactive Protein in 18 Year-Old Adolescents

Introduction

The interaction between fatness, fitness, and C-reactive protein (CRP) in adolescents is not well characterized but may be important to prevent low grade inflammation. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between adiposity, different expressions of fitness, and CRP in late adolescence using direct measures of fitness and fatness.

Methods

Anthropometric measurements were taken on 245 eighteen-year-old participants (116 girls). Fasting CRP, glucose, and insulin were measured and homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) calculated. Body composition was estimated via dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Fitness was assessed with maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) during a treadmill test and also expressed relative to the fat-free mass (VO₂max_FFM).

Results

Prevalence of overweight/obesity based on body mass index (BMI) was 20.7% and 25.6% among girls and boys, respectively (p = 0.407), but 42.5% and 58.1% when based on body fat percentage (%fat, p = 0.015). Higher proportion of boys (81.3%) than girls (54.5%) were highly fit (p<0.001), but the percentage of girls with high levels of CRP was greater (12.1% vs 6.2%, p = 0.028). Adiposity, indicated with BMI, waist circumference, fat mass, android fat mass (aFM), or %fat, was positively associated with CRP independent of VO₂max (r = 0.13-0.18, p<0.05) and VO₂max_FFM (r = 0.24-0.32, p<0.001). VO₂max, was negatively associated with CRP independent only of BMI and waist circumference (r = -0.21, p = 0.001), but not %fat, fat mass or aFM (r = -0.08 to -0.12, p>0.05). VO₂max_FFM was unrelated to CRP with (r = -0.07 to -0.11, p>0.05) or without (r = -0.10, p = 0.142) adjustment for adiposity. Additional adjustment for HOMA did not change any of the relationships, although the coefficients were attenuated.

Conclusions

Fatness has a greater association with CRP than fitness in late adolescence. However, VO₂max_FFM, which is truly independent of adiposity, is unrelated to CRP, indicating that the effects of fitness might be mediated via the fatness component embedded in fitness expressed relative to body mass.

Physical fitness percentiles for Portuguese children and adolescents aged 10-18 years

This study aimed to produce age- and sex-specific physical fitness reference data for Portuguese youth; to report the prevalence of youth in the healthy zone of physical fitness according to the FITNESSGRAM(®) criteria; to verify the agreement between the Portuguese physical fitness percentiles and the FITNESSGRAM(®) healthy zones. In 2008, 22,048 Portuguese children and adolescents (10-18 years) were evaluated. Physical fitness (curl-ups, push-ups, 20-m shuttle run and modified-back-saver-sit-and-reach tests) was evaluated using the FITNESSGRAM(®) Test Battery 8.0. Smoothed percentile curves were estimated using Cole's LMS method. Boys consistently outperformed girls in every physical fitness test, except for the modified-back-saver-sit-and-reach tests. In both sexes and for all physical fitness tests, higher percentile values were observed at older ages. The 50th percentile of all physical fitness tests had the highest accuracy to discriminate between under healthy zone and healthy zone of the FITNESSGRAM(®). Portuguese schools and physical education teachers may considerer the 50th percentile for age and sex or the FITNESSGRAM(®) criteria for classifying participants in the healthy zone as acceptable cut-offs, above which youth should be considered fit. These reference values can be used as normative data and for baseline values for subsequent surveillance of the physical fitness of Portuguese youth.