The effect of ergometer design on rowing stroke mechanics

Assessment of Angular and Straight Linear Rowing Ergometers at Different Intensities of Exercise

We aimed to conduct a biophysical comparison of angular (Biorower) and linear (Concept2) rowing ergometers across a wide spectrum of exercise intensities. Sixteen (eleven male) skilled rowers, aged 29.8 ± 8.6 and 23.6 ± 1.5 years, with international competitive experience, performed 7 × 3 min bouts with 30 W increments and 60 s intervals, plus 1 min of all-out rowing on both machines with 48 h in between. The ventilatory and kinematical variables were measured breath-by-breath using a telemetric portable gas analyzer and determined using a full-body markerless system, respectively. Similar values of oxygen uptake were observed between ergometers across all intensity domains (e.g., 60.36 ± 8.40 vs. 58.14 ± 7.55 mL/min/kg for the Biorower and Concept2 at severe intensity). The rowing rate was higher on the Biorower vs. Concept2 at heavy and severe intensities (27.88 ± 3.22 vs. 25.69 ± 1.99 and 30.63 ± 3.18 vs. 28.94 ± 2.29). Other differences in kinematics were observed across all intensity domains, particularly in the thorax angle at the finish (e.g., 19.44 ± 4.49 vs. 27.51 ± 7.59° for the Biorower compared to Concep2 at heavy intensity), likely due to closer alignment of the Biorower with an on-water rowing technique. The overall perceived effort was lower on the Biorower when compared to the Concept2 (14.38 ± 1.76 vs. 15.88 ± 1.88). Rowers presented similar cardiorespiratory function on both rowing ergometers, while important biomechanical differences were observed, possibly due to the Biorower's closer alignment with an on-water rowing technique.

The stroke rate influences performance, technique and core stability during rowing ergometer

The aim of this study is to determine the effect of stroke rate on performance, technique and core stability during rowing ergometer. Twenty-four high-level rowers performed maximal intensity one-minute bouts at 20, 28 and 34 spm on a RowPerfect3 ergometer. Power at the handle, legs, trunk and arms levels were determined, and core kinematics and neuromuscular activations were measured. The power at the handle was enhanced with a higher stroke rate in the first half of the drive phase due to higher segment's powers. This resulted in technical changes, as for instance greater mean to peak power ratio at each segment level. The higher trunk power preceded a delayed trunk extension but without significant increase in the erector spinae activation. This underlines the role of the core stability to transfer forces at a higher stroke rate. However, no co-activation parameters between trunk flexors and extensors helped further to understand this force transfer. Rowing at low stroke rate can be a training strategy to work on earlier trunk extension, while maintaining erectors spinae levels of activation. Training at higher stroke rate will induce a rowing technique closer to competition with greater neuromuscular activations, and maximise power production.

Characterizing the effects of an ergonomic handle on upper limbs kinematics and neuromuscular activity, comfort, and performance during ergometer rowing

Articular stress and discomfort during repetitive movements may impact the risk of injuries of the upper limbs during ergometer rowing, especially when using a regular circular handle. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to propose and evaluate the influence of an ergonomic handle on upper limbs biomechanics, comfort and performance during ergometer rowing. An ergonomic irregular hexagon handle, with a 1:1.25 width/length diameters ratio, has been developed. Left upper limb kinematics and neuromuscular activity, perceived comfort and power production were monitored for 29 expert rowers. The ergonomic handle increased the perceived comfort while maintaining the overall articular stress and performance as the same level compared to the regular handle. We recommend using irregular hexagon handles with 1:1.25 ratio for ergometer rowing. Further improvements of the ergonomic handle such as an individualization based on the user's hand length may further enhance comfort and achieve better performance.

Physiological and biomechanical responses to exercise on two different types of rowing ergometers in NCAA Division I oarswomen

BACKGROUND

Stationary (SE) and dynamic (DE) rowing ergometers, that are utilized for indoor training and physical assessment of competitive rowers, may elicit different physiological and biomechanical responses. The present study used SE and DE ergometers to examine submaximal and peak physiological and biomechanical responses during an incremental rowing test.

METHODS

Twelve National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I oarswomen performed seven-stage rowing tests with the last stage performed with maximal effort. Heart rate (HR), lactate (LA), oxygen uptake (VO₂), ventilation (VE), stroke rate (SR), gross efficiency (GE), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were obtained; while trunk, hip, knee, shoulder, and elbow ranges of motion (ROM) were measured.

RESULTS

SR was higher at maximal stage DE (29.3 vs. 34.8 strokes/min, p = 0.018, d = 1.213). No difference occurred in responses of maximal stage HR, RPE, VO2, VE, LA, or GE between the two ergometers. Submaximal LA and SR were greater on the DE for all submaximal stages. Submaximal VE was greater on the DE for all submaximal stages except Stage 3 (p = 0.160, d = 0.655). VO₂ was higher on the DE Stages 2-5. GE was higher on the SE for Stages 2-5. Athletes showed increased trunk (p = 0.025, [Formula: see text] = 0.488) and knee (p = 0.004, [Formula: see text] = 0.668) ROM on SE.

CONCLUSION

Rowing on the DE appears to elicit a greater stroke rate and more optimal joint angles especially at high intensities. Hence, the DE is worthy of consideration as a preferred ergometer for women rowers.

The role of stroke rate and intensity on rowing technique

We investigated the notion that ergometer rowing technique at different intensities, but self-chosen stroke rates (SR) would resemble each other more than when rowing at other intensity-SR combinations. Twelve competitive male rowers performed ergometer rowing at three intensities x three SR, including the self-chosen one. Kinetics were recorded and inverse dynamics applied to estimate joint powers. Our results indicate strong effects of intensity and SR on most kinetic variables (e.g., drive length, time and velocity, recovery time, work per stroke). These effects were hardly reduced when only considering the preferred SR-intensity combinations, except for time profiles of elbow, shoulder, and hip joint powers. SR was mostly regulated by adapting recovery time, leaving drive time and its kinetics mostly affected by intensity. SR and intensity had marginal effects on relative joint power. Kinetics of drive only are largely independent of intensity and SR instruction. Still, this kinetic resemblance is strongest at preferred SR. We conclude that, given a fixed resistance, work rate is mostly steered through SR: Work per stroke is 'set' for the given power requirement. A necessary additional large adjustment in stroke rate is done mostly by modifying recovery time.

Validation of Plantar Pressure and Reaction Force Measured by Moticon Pressure Sensor Insoles on a Concept2 Rowing Ergometer

The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability and validity of plantar pressure and reaction force measured using the Moticon and Pedar-x sensor insoles while rowing on a Concept2 ergometer. Nineteen participants performed four 500 m trials of ergometer rowing at 22-24 strokes/min; two trials wearing Moticon insoles and two wearing Pedar-x insoles in a randomised order. Moticon and Pedar-x insoles both showed moderate to strong test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.57-0.92) for mean and peak plantar pressure and reaction force. Paired t-test demonstrated a significant difference (p < 0.001) between Moticon and Pedar-x insoles, effect size showed a large bias (ES > 1.13), and Pearson's correlation (r < 0.37) showed poor agreement for all plantar pressure and reaction force variables. Compared to Pedar-x, the Moticon insoles demonstrated poor validity, however, the Moticon insoles had strong reliability. Due to poor validity, caution should be used when considering Moticon insoles to assess changes in pressure and force reliably over time, across multiple trials or sessions. Moticon's wireless and user-friendly application would be beneficial for assessing and monitoring biomechanical parameters in rowing if validity between measures of interest and Moticon's results can be established.

The relationship between rowing-related low back pain and rowing biomechanics: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Low back pain (LBP) is common in rowers. Understanding rowing biomechanics may help facilitate prevention and improve rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVES

To define the kinematics and muscle activity of rowers and to compare with rowers with current or LBP history.

DESIGN

Systematic review.

DATA SOURCES

EMBASE, MEDLINE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Web of Science and Scopus from inception to December 2019. Grey literature was searched.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Experimental and non-experimental designs.

METHODS

Primary outcomes were kinematics and muscle activity. Modified Quality Index (QI) checklist was used.

RESULTS

22 studies were included (429 participants). Modified QI score had a mean of 16.7/28 points (range: 15-21). Thirteen studies investigated kinematics and nine investigated muscle activity. Rowers without LBP ('healthy') have distinct kinematics (neutral or anterior pelvic rotation at the catch, greater hip range of motion, flatter low back spinal position at the finish) and muscle activity (trunk extensor dominant with less flexor activity). Rowers with LBP had relatively greater posterior pelvic rotation at the catch, greater hip extension at the finish and less efficient trunk muscle activity. In both groups fatigue results in increased lumbar spine flexion at the catch, which is greater on the ergometer. There is insufficient evidence to recommend one ergometer type (fixed vs dynamic) over the other to avoid LBP. Trunk asymmetries are not associated with LBP in rowers.

CONCLUSION

Improving clinicians' and coaches' understanding of safe and effective rowing biomechanics, particularly of the spine, pelvis and hips may be an important strategy in reducing incidence and burden of LBP.

Body Motion and Rowing Performance: Association between Hip Angle and Rowing Performance: A Pilot Study

The importance of aerobic fitness in rowing has been widely studied, and it is accepted that aerobic fitness is a key factor in rowing performance. In contrast, the impact of rowing efficacy, especially rowing form, on rowing performance has not yet been fully elucidated. The present study aimed to investigate this subject via the analysis of hip kinematics and the association of this variable with 2000 m ergometer rowing test performance. Eleven adult male rowers underwent a 2000 m rowing test on an ergometer and the exhaled gas was analyzed. The hip joint angle, the pelvic rotation, and the knee joint angle were measured at the catch position throughout the test. Peak VO₂ was strongly associated with the time taken to complete the test (ρ=-0.96, P<0.01), thereby confirming the importance of aerobic capacity in rowing performance. The variance of the hip joint angle of each rower was associated with peak VO₂, lean mass, and test time (ρ=-0.72, -0.84, and 0.66, respectively, all P<0.05). Greater knee flexion was accompanied by larger posterior rotation of the pelvis (ρ=0.74, P<0.05), and was negatively associated with hip flexion (ρ=-0.76, P<0.05). Although we cannot confirm whether the consistency of the hip joint angle actually leads to better rowing performance, our results suggest that there are associations between the consistency of the hip joint angle, aerobic capacity, lean mass, and the time taken to complete the 2000 m ergometer rowing test.

The Design of a New Manual Wheelchair for Sport

In this paper, an innovative system of propulsion inspired by a rowing gesture for manual wheelchairs is shown. The innovative system of propulsion, named Handwheelchair.q, can be applied to wheelchairs employed in everyday life and to sports wheelchairs for speed races, such as Handbike and Wheelchair racing. The general features of the innovative system of propulsion and the functional designs of the different solutions are described in detail. In addition, the design of the mechanism for the transmission of motion, employed in a second prototype, Handwheelchair.q02, is presented and analysed. Finally, the dynamic model of the Handwheelchair.q has been developed in order to obtain important results for the executive design of Handwheelchair.q.

Force coordination strategies in on-water single sculling: Are asymmetries related to better rowing performance?

Asymmetries of the rowing stroke cycle have been assessed with reference to kinematics and foot-force measures in laboratory testing environments. It remains unclear how asymmetries in propulsive kinetic measures are related to on-water rowing performance. A new approach for the evaluation of both global and local asymmetries across the entire movement was used to assess the continuous role of asymmetries and whether these change according to the level of competitive representation. Twenty-seven highly skilled female rowers (national and international competition level), rowing at 32 strokes per minute in a single scull boat, were evaluated. A symmetry index (SI) and functional data analysis (FDA) techniques were applied to a continuous difference time-series, which described fluctuating asymmetry in propulsive pin forces for each rower. Univariate ANOVAs revealed that differences in asymmetries were present as a factor of competition level for the SI and results of FDA. International athletes were more likely to utilize an asymmetry strategy with increased stroke-side (port-side) force early in the drive phase and increased bow-side (starboard) force through the second half of the drive. This was likely the result of international performers customizing their movement strategies relative to known boat mechanical offsets. The first half of the drive phase was also found to be an adaptive part of the rowing stroke cycle, suggesting asymmetries may have a functional role in successful execution of movements during the rowing stroke.

Lower limb reaction force asymmetry in rowers with and without a history of back injury

Back injury is common in rowers. Asymmetrical lower limb reaction force on the foot stretchers during rowing may compromise trunk biomechanics and lead to back injury. However, such a mechanism remains putative. Therefore, this study examined lower limb reaction force in experienced rowers with and without a history of back injury. Six rowers who suffered from back injury for more than one week in the past year and another 19 rowers who were never injured performed maximal exertion rowing on a fixed-head rowing machine for 30 strokes. Peak force, average and peak loading rate of the lower limb reaction force during the middle 10-stroke were recorded using strain-gauge transducers placed at the foot stretchers. Asymmetries and intra-limb variability were quantified as asymmetry indices and coefficients of variation, respectively. No significant asymmetry was observed in all selected kinetic parameters between the injured and healthy rowers (p = 0.448-0.722, Hedges' g = 0.162-0.310). Subgroup analyses also did not reveal any significant kinetic differences between injured and healthy scullers or sweepers (p = 0.194-0.855, Hedges' g = 0.203-0.518). Rowers with a history of back injury, regardless of the rowing types, did not demonstrate greater lower limb reaction force asymmetry when compared with healthy rowers.