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Ávila-González D, Romero-Morales I, Caro L, Martínez-Juárez A, Young LJ, Camacho-Barrios F, Martínez-Alarcón O, Castro AE, Paredes RG, Díaz NF, Portillo W. Increased proliferation and neuronal fate in prairie vole brain progenitor cells cultured in vitro: effects by social exposure and sexual dimorphism. Biol Sex Differ 2023; 14:77. [PMID: 37919790 PMCID: PMC10623709 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-023-00563-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) is a socially monogamous rodent that establishes an enduring pair bond after cohabitation, with (6 h) or without (24 h) mating. Previously, we reported that social interaction and mating increased cell proliferation and differentiation to neuronal fate in neurogenic niches in male voles. We hypothesized that neurogenesis may be a neural plasticity mechanism involved in mating-induced pair bond formation. Here, we evaluated the differentiation potential of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of both female and male adult voles as a function of sociosexual experience. Animals were assigned to one of the following groups: (1) control (Co), sexually naive female and male voles that had no contact with another vole of the opposite sex; (2) social exposure (SE), males and females exposed to olfactory, auditory, and visual stimuli from a vole of the opposite sex, but without physical contact; and (3) social cohabitation with mating (SCM), male and female voles copulating to induce pair bonding formation. Subsequently, the NPCs were isolated from the SVZ, maintained, and supplemented with growth factors to form neurospheres in vitro. RESULTS Notably, we detected in SE and SCM voles, a higher proliferation of neurosphere-derived Nestin + cells, as well as an increase in mature neurons (MAP2 +) and a decrease in glial (GFAP +) differentiated cells with some sex differences. These data suggest that when voles are exposed to sociosexual experiences that induce pair bonding, undifferentiated cells of the SVZ acquire a commitment to a neuronal lineage, and the determined potential of the neurosphere is conserved despite adaptations under in vitro conditions. Finally, we repeated the culture to obtain neurospheres under treatments with different hormones and factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone); the ability of SVZ-isolated cells to generate neurospheres and differentiate in vitro into neurons or glial lineages in response to hormones or factors is also dependent on sex and sociosexual context. CONCLUSION Social interactions that promote pair bonding in voles change the properties of cells isolated from the SVZ. Thus, SE or SCM induces a bias in the differentiation potential in both sexes, while SE is sufficient to promote proliferation in SVZ-isolated cells from male brains. In females, proliferation increases when mating is performed. The next question is whether the rise in proliferation and neurogenesis of cells from the SVZ are plastic processes essential for establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation. Highlights 1. Sociosexual experiences that promote pair bonding (social exposure and social cohabitation with mating) induce changes in the properties of neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from the SVZ in adult prairie voles. 2. Social interactions lead to increased proliferation and induce a bias in the differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells in both male and female voles. 3. The differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells is conserved under in vitro conditions, suggesting a commitment to a neuronal lineage under a sociosexual context. 4. Hormonal and growth factors treatments (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone) affect the generation and differentiation of neurospheres, with dependencies on sex and sociosexual context. 5. Proliferation and neurogenesis in the SVZ may play a crucial role in establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ávila-González
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Italo Romero-Morales
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Lizette Caro
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Martínez-Juárez
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Larry J Young
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory National Primate Research Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, USA
| | - Francisco Camacho-Barrios
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Omar Martínez-Alarcón
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Analía E Castro
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Raúl G Paredes
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Mexico
| | - Néstor F Díaz
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Wendy Portillo
- Departamento de Neurobiología Conductual y Cognitiva, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico.
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González-Martínez R, Márquez-Galera A, Del Blanco B, López-Atalaya JP, Barco A, Herrera E. CBP and p300 Jointly Maintain Neural Progenitor Viability but Play Unique Roles in the Differentiation of Neural Lineages. Cells 2022; 11:cells11244118. [PMID: 36552882 PMCID: PMC9777331 DOI: 10.3390/cells11244118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The paralogous lysine acetyltransferases 3 (KAT3), CBP and P300, play critical roles during neurodevelopment, but their specific roles in neural precursors maintenance and differentiation remain obscure. In fact, it is still unclear whether these proteins are individually or jointly essential in processes such as proliferation of neural precursors, differentiation to specific neural cell types, or both. Here, we use subventricular zone-derived neurospheres as a potential ex vivo developmental model to analyze the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) lacking CBP, p300, or both proteins. The results showed that CBP and p300 are not individually essential for maintenance and proliferation of NSCs, although their combined ablation seriously compromised cell division. In turn, the absence of either of the two proteins compromised the differentiation of NSC into the neuronal and astrocytic lineages. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing analysis of neural cell cultures derived from CBP or p300 mutant neurospheres revealed divergent trajectories of neural differentiation upon CBP or p300 ablation, confirming unique functions and nonredundant roles in neural development. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the shared and individual roles of KAT3 proteins in neural differentiation and the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders caused by their deficiency.
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Boorman E, Killick R, Aarsland D, Zunszain P, Mann GE. NRF2: An emerging role in neural stem cell regulation and neurogenesis. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 193:437-446. [PMID: 36272667 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.10.301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The birth of new neurons from neural stem cells (NSC)s during developmental and adult neurogenesis arises from a myriad of highly complex signalling cascades. Emerging as one of these is the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2)-signaling pathway. Regulation by NRF2 is reported to span the neurogenic process from early neural lineage specification and NSC regulation to neuronal fate commitment and differentiation. Here, we review these reports selecting only those where NRF2 signaling was directly manipulated to provide a clearer case for a direct role of NRF2 in embryonic and adult neurogenesis. With few studies providing mechanistic insight into this relationship, we lastly discuss key pathways linking NRF2 and stem cell regulation outside the neural lineage to shed light on mechanisms that may also be relevant to NSCs and neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Boorman
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK; King's BHF Centre of Research Excellence, School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine & Sciences, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Richard Killick
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Dag Aarsland
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Patricia Zunszain
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Giovanni E Mann
- King's BHF Centre of Research Excellence, School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine & Sciences, King's College London, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
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Posypanova GA, Ratushnyak MG, Semochkina YP, Strepetov AN. Response of murine neural stem/progenitor cells to gamma-neutron radiation. Int J Radiat Biol 2022; 98:1559-1570. [PMID: 35311625 DOI: 10.1080/09553002.2022.2055802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE In recent years, a growing number of studies have focused on the mechanisms of action of densely ionizing radiation. This is associated with the development of radiation therapy of tumors using accelerated ions. The use of densely ionizing radiation appears to be the most promising method, optimal for treating patients with severe radioresistant forms, such as widespread head and neck tumors, recurrent and metastatic tumors, and some forms of brain tumors. The goal of our study was to investigate the effects of gamma-neutron radiation on mouse neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs/NPCs). METHODS NSCs/NPCs were isolated from neonatal mouse brains. Cells were irradiated in a collimated beam of neutrons and gamma rays of the IR-8 nuclear reactor. At 5 and 7 days after irradiation, cells and neurospheres were counted to assess survival. The number of DNA double-strand breaks and their repair efficiency were determined by immunocytochemical γH2AX staining followed by counting the number of γH2AX foci using a fluorescent microscope. RESULTS We observed a dose-dependent decrease in the survival of NSCs/NPCs after irradiation at doses above 100 mGy and stimulation of the proliferation of these cells at doses of 25 and 50 mGy. In terms of a decrease in cell survival, the effect of gamma-neutron irradiation significantly exceeded the effect of gamma irradiation: the maximum value of the relative biological efficiency for gamma-neutron irradiation comprised 9.7. Gamma-neutron irradiation led to the formation of double-strand DNA breaks detected by the formation of foci of histone γH2AX in the cell nuclei. The γH2AX foci formed after gamma-neutron irradiation of NSCs/NPCs at doses of 100-500 mGy were characterized by a larger size in comparison with foci induced by gamma irradiation and gamma-neutron irradiation at a dose of 50 mGy. The repair of double-strand DNA breaks induced by γ,n-irradiation was slow; the repair rate depended on the radiation dose. CONCLUSIONS The data obtained indicate high sensitivity of proliferating NSCs/NPCs to gamma-neutron radiation. High RBE of gamma-neutron radiation requires special measures to protect the neurogenic regions of the brain when using this type of radiation in radiation therapy.
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Gault N, Szele FG. Immunohistochemical evidence for adult human neurogenesis in health and disease. WIREs Mech Dis 2021; 13:e1526. [PMID: 34730290 DOI: 10.1002/wsbm.1526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Postnatal and adult neurogenesis in the subventricular zone and subgranular zone of animals such as rodents and non-human primates has been observed with many different technical approaches. Since most techniques used in animals cannot be used in humans, the majority of human neurogenesis studies rely on postmortem immunohistochemistry. This technique is difficult in human tissue, due to poor and variable preservation of antigens and samples. Nevertheless, a survey of the literature reveals that most published studies provide evidence for childhood and adult neurogenesis in the human brain stem cell niches. There are some conflicting results even when assessing the same markers and when using the same antibodies. Focusing on immunohistochemical studies on post-mortem human sections, we discuss the relative robustness of the literature on adult neurogenesis. We also discuss the response of the subventricular and subgranular zones to human disease, showing that the two niches can respond differently and that the stage of disease impacts neurogenesis levels. Thus, we highlight strong evidence for adult human neurogenesis, discuss other work that did not find it, describe obstacles in analysis, and offer other approaches to evaluate the neurogenic potential of the subventricular and subgranular zones of Homo sapiens. This article is categorized under: Neurological Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Reproductive System Diseases > Stem Cells and Development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Francis G Szele
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Jalink P, Caiazzo M. Brain Organoids: Filling the Need for a Human Model of Neurological Disorder. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:740. [PMID: 34439972 PMCID: PMC8389592 DOI: 10.3390/biology10080740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Neurological disorders are among the leading causes of death worldwide, accounting for almost all onsets of dementia in the elderly, and are known to negatively affect motor ability, mental and cognitive performance, as well as overall wellbeing and happiness. Currently, most neurological disorders go untreated due to a lack of viable treatment options. The reason for this lack of options is s poor understanding of the disorders, primarily due to research models that do not translate well into the human in vivo system. Current models for researching neurological disorders, neurodevelopment, and drug interactions in the central nervous system include in vitro monolayer cell cultures, and in vivo animal models. These models have shortcomings when it comes to translating research about disorder pathology, development, and treatment to humans. Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D) cultures of stem cell-derived neural cells that mimic the development of the in vivo human brain with high degrees of accuracy. Researchers have started developing these miniature brains to model neurodevelopment, and neuropathology. Brain organoids have been used to model a wide range of neurological disorders, including the complex and poorly understood neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we discuss the brain organoid technology, placing special focus on the different brain organoid models that have been developed, discussing their strengths, weaknesses, and uses in neurological disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Jalink
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, CG 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Massimiliano Caiazzo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, CG 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands;
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Neurospheres: a potential in vitro model for the study of central nervous system disorders. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:3649-3663. [PMID: 33765252 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06301-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Neurogenesis was believed to end after the period of embryonic development. However, the possibility of obtaining an expressive number of cells with functional neuronal characteristics implied a great advance in experimental research. New techniques have emerged to demonstrate that the birth of new neurons continues to occur in the adult brain. Two main rich sources of these cells are the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (SGZ) where adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) have the ability to proliferate and differentiate into mature cell lines. The cultivation of neurospheres is a method to isolate, maintain and expand neural stem cells (NSCs) and has been used extensively by several research groups to analyze the biological properties of NSCs and their potential use in injured brains from animal models. Throughout this review, we highlight the areas where this type of cell culture has been applied and the advantages and limitations of using this model in experimental studies for the neurological clinical scenario.
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Zupanc GKH, Lehotzky D, Tripp IP. The Neurosphere Simulator: An educational online tool for modeling neural stem cell behavior and tissue growth. Dev Biol 2021; 469:80-85. [PMID: 32991866 PMCID: PMC7521883 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Until very recently, distance education, including digital science labs, served a rather small portion of postsecondary students in the United States and many other countries. This situation has, however, dramatically changed in 2020 in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced colleges to rapidly transit from face-to-face instructions to online classes. Here, we report the development of an interactive simulator that is freely available on the web (http://neurosphere.cos.northeastern.edu/) for teaching lab classes in developmental biology. This simulator is based on cellular automata models of neural-stem-cell-driven tissue growth in the neurosphere assay. By modifying model parameters, users can explore the role in tissue growth of several developmental mechanisms, such as regulation of mitosis or apoptotic cell death by contact inhibition. Besides providing an instantaneous animation of the simulated development of neurospheres, the Neurosphere Simulator tool offers also the possibility to download data for detailed analysis. The simulator function is complemented by a tutorial that introduces students to computational modeling of developmental processes. We developed an interactive neurosphere simulator. Simulations are based on cellular automata models of neurosphere growth. This educational tool is freely available on the web. The simulator can be used for online lab classes in developmental biology. Students explore through exercises mechanisms of stem-cell-driven tissue growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther K H Zupanc
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Dávid Lehotzky
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Isabel P Tripp
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
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Soares R, Ribeiro FF, Lourenço DM, Rodrigues RS, Moreira JB, Sebastião AM, Morais VA, Xapelli S. The neurosphere assay: an effective in vitro technique to study neural stem cells. Neural Regen Res 2021; 16:2229-2231. [PMID: 33818505 PMCID: PMC8354118 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.310678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rita Soares
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina; Instituto de Biologia Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Filipa F Ribeiro
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diogo M Lourenço
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rui S Rodrigues
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - João B Moreira
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana M Sebastião
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Vanessa A Morais
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Biologia Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sara Xapelli
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes; Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Tenorio-Mina A, Cortés D, Esquivel-Estudillo J, López-Ornelas A, Cabrera-Wrooman A, Lara-Rodarte R, Escobedo-Avila I, Vargas-Romero F, Toledo-Hernández D, Estudillo E, Acevedo-Fernández JJ, Tapia JSO, Velasco I. Human Keratinocytes Adopt Neuronal Fates After In Utero Transplantation in the Developing Rat Brain. Cell Transplant 2021; 30:963689720978219. [PMID: 33435710 PMCID: PMC7809298 DOI: 10.1177/0963689720978219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Human skin contains keratinocytes in the epidermis. Such cells share their ectodermal origin with the central nervous system (CNS). Recent studies have demonstrated that terminally differentiated somatic cells can adopt a pluripotent state, or can directly convert its phenotype to neurons, after ectopic expression of transcription factors. In this article we tested the hypothesis that human keratinocytes can adopt neural fates after culturing them in suspension with a neural medium. Initially, keratinocytes expressed Keratins and Vimentin. After neural induction, transcriptional upregulation of NESTIN, SOX2, VIMENTIN, SOX1, and MUSASHI1 was observed, concomitant with significant increases in NESTIN detected by immunostaining. However, in vitro differentiation did not yield the expression of neuronal or astrocytic markers. We tested the differentiation potential of control and neural-induced keratinocytes by grafting them in the developing CNS of rats, through ultrasound-guided injection. For this purpose, keratinocytes were transduced with lentivirus that contained the coding sequence of green fluorescent protein. Cell sorting was employed to select cells with high fluorescence. Unexpectedly, 4 days after grafting these cells in the ventricles, both control and neural-induced cells expressed green fluorescent protein together with the neuronal proteins βIII-Tubulin and Microtubule-Associated Protein 2. These results support the notion that in vivo environment provides appropriate signals to evaluate the neuronal differentiation potential of keratinocytes or other non-neural cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Tenorio-Mina
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Daniel Cortés
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Joel Esquivel-Estudillo
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
- Unidad de Diagnóstico y Medicina Molecular, “Dr. Ruy Pérez Tamayo”, Hospital del Niño Morelense/Facultad de Medicina-UAEM, Zapata, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Adolfo López-Ornelas
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
- División de Investigación, Hospital Juárez de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Cabrera-Wrooman
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Unidad de Diagnóstico y Medicina Molecular, “Dr. Ruy Pérez Tamayo”, Hospital del Niño Morelense/Facultad de Medicina-UAEM, Zapata, Morelos, Mexico
- Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rolando Lara-Rodarte
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Itzel Escobedo-Avila
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Fernanda Vargas-Romero
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Diana Toledo-Hernández
- Unidad de Diagnóstico y Medicina Molecular, “Dr. Ruy Pérez Tamayo”, Hospital del Niño Morelense/Facultad de Medicina-UAEM, Zapata, Morelos, Mexico
- Centro de Investigación en Dinámica Celular, Instituto de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Enrique Estudillo
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Jesús Santa-Olalla Tapia
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
- Unidad de Diagnóstico y Medicina Molecular, “Dr. Ruy Pérez Tamayo”, Hospital del Niño Morelense/Facultad de Medicina-UAEM, Zapata, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Iván Velasco
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular - Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
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Zhang Y, Li S, Li X, Yang Y, Li W, Xiao X, Li M, Lv L, Luo X. Convergent lines of evidence support NOTCH4 as a schizophrenia risk gene. J Med Genet 2020; 58:666-678. [PMID: 32900838 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2020-106830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The association between NOTCH4 and schizophrenia has been repeatedly reported. However, the results from different genetic studies are inconsistent, and the role of NOTCH4 in schizophrenia pathogenesis remains unknown. Here, we provide convergent lines of evidence that support NOTCH4 as a schizophrenia risk gene. We first performed a meta-analysis and found that a genetic variant (rs2071287) in NOTCH4 was significantly associated with schizophrenia (a total of 125 848 subjects, p=8.31×10-17), with the same risk allele across all tested samples. Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analysis showed that rs2071287 was significantly associated with NOTCH4 expression (p=1.08×10-14) in human brain tissues, suggesting that rs2071287 may confer schizophrenia risk through regulating NOTCH4 expression. Sherlock integrative analysis using a large-scale schizophrenia GWAS and eQTL data from human brain tissues further revealed that NOTCH4 was significantly associated with schizophrenia (p=4.03×10-7 in CMC dataset and p=3.06×10-6 in xQTL dataset), implying that genetic variants confer schizophrenia risk through modulating NOTCH4 expression. Consistently, we found that NOTCH4 was significantly downregulated in brains of schizophrenia patients compared with controls (p=2.53×10-3), further suggesting that dysregulation of NOTCH4 may have a role in schizophrenia. Finally, we showed that NOTCH4 regulates proliferation, self-renewal, differentiation and migration of neural stem cells, suggesting that NOTCH4 may confer schizophrenia risk through affecting neurodevelopment. Our study provides convergent lines of evidence that support the involvement of NOTCH4 in schizophrenia. In addition, our study also elucidates a possible mechanism for the role of NOTCH4 in schizophrenia pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Henan Mental Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China
| | - Shiwu Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Xiaoyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Yongfeng Yang
- Henan Mental Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China.,Henan Key Lab of Biological Psychiatry of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Henan, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China
| | - Wenqiang Li
- Henan Mental Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China.,Henan Key Lab of Biological Psychiatry of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Henan, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Luxian Lv
- Henan Mental Hospital, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China .,Henan Key Lab of Biological Psychiatry of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China.,International Joint Research Laboratory for Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Henan, Xinxiang, Henan 453002, China
| | - XiongJian Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China .,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China.,Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China.,KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
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12
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Sipahi R, Zupanc GKH. Stochastic cellular automata model of neurosphere growth: Roles of proliferative potential, contact inhibition, cell death, and phagocytosis. J Theor Biol 2019; 445:151-165. [PMID: 29477556 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem and progenitor cells isolated from the central nervous system form, under specific culture conditions, clonal cell clusters known as neurospheres. The neurosphere assay has proven to be a powerful in vitro system to study the behavior of such cells and the development of their progeny. However, the theory of neurosphere growth has remained poorly understood. To overcome this limitation, we have, in the present paper, developed a cellular automata model, with which we examined the effects of proliferative potential, contact inhibition, cell death, and clearance of dead cells on growth rate, final size, and composition of neurospheres. Simulations based on this model indicated that the proliferative potential of the founder cell and its progenitors has a major influence on neurosphere size. On the other hand, contact inhibition of proliferation limits the final size, and reduces the growth rate, of neurospheres. The effect of this inhibition is particularly dramatic when a stem cell becomes encapsulated by differentiated or other non-proliferating cells, thereby suppressing any further mitotic division - despite the existing proliferative potential of the stem cell. Conversely, clearance of dead cells through phagocytosis is predicted to accelerate growth by reducing contact inhibition. A surprising prediction derived from our model is that cell death, while resulting in a decrease in growth rate and final size of neurospheres, increases the degree of differentiation of neurosphere cells. It is likely that the cellular automata model developed as part of the present investigation is applicable to the study of tissue growth in a wide range of systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rifat Sipahi
- Complex Dynamic Systems and Control Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Günther K H Zupanc
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
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13
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Lehotzky D, Zupanc GKH. Cellular Automata Modeling of Stem-Cell-Driven Development of Tissue in the Nervous System. Dev Neurobiol 2019; 79:497-517. [PMID: 31102334 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mathematical and computational modeling enables biologists to integrate data from observations and experiments into a theoretical framework. In this review, we describe how developmental processes associated with stem-cell-driven growth of tissue in both the embryonic and adult nervous system can be modeled using cellular automata (CA). A cellular automaton is defined by its discrete nature in time, space, and state. The discrete space is represented by a uniform grid or lattice containing agents that interact with other agents within their local neighborhood. This possibility of local interactions of agents makes the cellular automata approach particularly well suited for studying through modeling how complex patterns at the tissue level emerge from fundamental developmental processes (such as proliferation, migration, differentiation, and death) at the single-cell level. As part of this review, we provide a primer for how to define biologically inspired rules governing these processes so that they can be implemented into a CA model. We then demonstrate the power of the CA approach by presenting simulations (in the form of figures and movies) based on building models of three developmental systems: the formation of the enteric nervous system through invasion by neural crest cells; the growth of normal and tumorous neurospheres induced by proliferation of adult neural stem/progenitor cells; and the neural fate specification through lateral inhibition of embryonic stem cells in the neurogenic region of Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dávid Lehotzky
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Günther K H Zupanc
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts
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Liu N, Petchakup C, Tay HM, Li KHH, Hou HW. Spiral Inertial Microfluidics for Cell Separation and Biomedical Applications. Bioanalysis 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-6229-3_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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15
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Mohammad MH, Al-Shammari AM, Al-Juboory AA, Yaseen NY. Characterization of neural stemness status through the neurogenesis process for bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. STEM CELLS AND CLONING-ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS 2016; 9:1-15. [PMID: 27143939 PMCID: PMC4846075 DOI: 10.2147/sccaa.s94545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The in vitro isolation, identification, differentiation, and neurogenesis characterization of the sources of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were investigated to produce two types of cells in culture: neural cells and neural stem cells (NSCs). These types of stem cells were used as successful sources for the further treatment of central nervous system defects and injuries. The mouse bone marrow MSCs were used as the source of the stem cells in this study. β-Mercaptoethanol (BME) was used as the main inducer of the neurogenesis pathway to induce neural cells and to identify NSCs. Three types of neural markers were used: nestin as the immaturation stage marker, neurofilament light chain as the early neural marker, and microtubule-associated protein 2 as the maturation marker through different time intervals in the neurogenesis process starting from the MSCs, (as undifferentiated cells), NSCs, production stages, and toward neuron cells (as differentiated cells). The results of different exposure times to BME of the neural markers analysis done by immunocytochemistry and real time-polymerase chain reaction helped us to identify the exact timing for the neural stemness state. The results showed that the best exposure time that may be used for the production of NSCs was 6 hours. The best maintenance media for NSCs were also identified. Furthermore, we optimized exposure to BME with different times and concentrations, which could be an interesting way to modulate specific neuronal differentiation and obtain autologous neuronal phenotypes. This study was able to characterize NSCs in culture under differentiation for neurogenesis in the pathway of the neural differentiation process by studying the expressed neural genes and the ability to maintain these NSCs in culture for further differentiation in thousands of functional neurons for the treatment of brain and spinal cord injuries and defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maeda H Mohammad
- Experimental Therapy Department, Iraqi Center of Cancer and Medical Genetic Research, Al-Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Ahmed M Al-Shammari
- Experimental Therapy Department, Iraqi Center of Cancer and Medical Genetic Research, Al-Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq
| | | | - Nahi Y Yaseen
- Experimental Therapy Department, Iraqi Center of Cancer and Medical Genetic Research, Al-Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad, Iraq
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16
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Ilieva M, Dufva M. SOX2 and OCT4 mRNA-expressing cells, detected by molecular beacons, localize to the center of neurospheres during differentiation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73669. [PMID: 24013403 PMCID: PMC3754928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurospheres are used as in vitro assay to measure the properties of neural stem cells. To investigate the molecular and phenotypic heterogeneity of neurospheres, molecular beacons (MBs) targeted against the stem cell markers OCT4 and SOX2 were designed, and synthesized with a 2'-O-methyl RNA backbone. OCT4 and SOX2 MBs were transfected into human embryonic mesencephalon derived cells, which spontaneously form neurospheres when grown on poly-L-ornitine/fibronectin matrix and medium complemented with bFGF. OCT4 and SOX2 gene expression were tracked in individual cell using the MBs. Quantitative image analysis every day for seven days showed that the OCT4 and SOX2 mRNA-expressing cells clustered in the centre of the neurospheres cultured in differentiation medium. By contrast, cells at the periphery of the differentiating spheres developed neurite outgrowths and expressed the tyrosine hydroxylase protein, indicating terminal differentiation. Neurospheres cultured in growth medium contained OCT4 and SOX2-positive cells distributed throughout the entire sphere, and no differentiating neurones. Gene expression of SOX2 and OCT4 mRNA detected by MBs correlated well with gene and protein expression measured by qRT-PCR and immunostaining, respectively. These experimental data support the theoretical model that stem cells cluster in the centre of neurospheres, and demonstrate the use of MBs for the spatial localization of specific gene-expressing cells within heterogeneous cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirolyuba Ilieva
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Martin Dufva
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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17
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Dong Q, Wang D, Bandyopadhyay A, Gao H, Gorena KM, Hildreth K, Rebel VI, Walter CA, Huang C, Sun LZ. Mammospheres from murine mammary stem cell-enriched basal cells: clonal characteristics and repopulating potential. Stem Cell Res 2013; 10:396-404. [PMID: 23466563 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2013.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Identification of murine mammary stem cells (MaSCs) has been attempted with various in vitro and in vivo assays. While, the in vivo repopulation assay remains as the most definitive assay for MaSC detection, it is expensive, time-consuming, and technically challenging. The in vitro mammosphere assay was considered unreliable because of major concerns about its clonal origin. In the current study, co-culture experiments with mammary cells from fluorescent protein transgenic mice and time-lapse video microscopy revealed that >90% mammospheres formed from sorted basal epithelial-enriched cells were of clonal origin in terms of stem cell. These basal-cell derived mammospheres were further distinguished morphologically in a 3-dimensional extracellular matrix culture and functionally in the in vivo repopulation assay. Transplant of single mammospheres or the resultant 3-dimensional solid structures into gland-free mammary fat pads yielded a 70% success rate of multilineage mammary gland reconstitution. Thus, this in vitro sphere formation and differentiation assay is a reliable alternative to the in vivo repopulation assay for the study of MaSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoxiang Dong
- Department of Cellular & Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78299, USA.
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18
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Hou L, Jin D, Gu E, Pu Y, Li F, Guan W, Ma Y. Isolation and characterization of duck embryonic neural stem and progenitor cells. Poult Sci 2011; 90:609-17. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2010-01011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
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19
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Elkouris M, Balaskas N, Poulou M, Politis PK, Panayiotou E, Malas S, Thomaidou D, Remboutsika E. Sox1 Maintains the Undifferentiated State of Cortical Neural Progenitor Cells via the Suppression of Prox1-Mediated Cell Cycle Exit and Neurogenesis. Stem Cells 2011; 29:89-98. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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20
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Servili A, Bufalino MR, Nishikawa R, de Melo IS, Muñoz-Cueto JA, Lee LE. Establishment of long term cultures of neural stem cells from adult sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2009; 152:245-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Revised: 10/10/2008] [Accepted: 10/14/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Cordey M, Limacher M, Kobel S, Taylor V, Lutolf MP. Enhancing the reliability and throughput of neurosphere culture on hydrogel microwell arrays. Stem Cells 2008; 26:2586-94. [PMID: 18669905 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2008-0498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The neurosphere assay is the standard retrospective assay to test the self-renewal capability and multipotency of neural stem cells (NSCs) in vitro. However, it has recently become clear that not all neurospheres are derived from a NSC and that on conventional cell culture substrates, neurosphere motility may cause frequent neurosphere "merging" [Nat Methods 2006;3:801-806; Stem Cells 2007;25:871-874]. Combining biomimetic hydrogel matrix technology with microengineering, we developed a microwell array platform on which NSC fate and neurosphere formation can be unequivocally attributed to a single founding cell. Using time-lapse microscopy and retrospective immunostaining, the fate of several hundred single NSCs was quantified. Compared with conventional neurosphere culture methods on plastic dishes, we detected a more than 100% increase in single NSC viability on soft hydrogels. Effective confinement of single proliferating cells to microwells led to neurosphere formation of vastly different sizes, a high percentage of which showed stem cell phenotypes after one week in culture. The reliability and increased throughput of this platform should help to better elucidate the function of sphere-forming stem/progenitor cells independent of their proliferation dynamics. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Cordey
- Institute of Bioengineering, Laboratory of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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