A population-based study of children with standard risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the five Nordic countries. A follow-up of 230 patients

Optimizing therapy in the modern age: differences in length of maintenance therapy in acute lymphoblastic leukemia

A majority of children and young adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are cured with contemporary multiagent chemotherapy regimens. The high rate of survival is largely the result of 70 years of randomized clinical trials performed by international cooperative groups. Contemporary ALL therapy usually consists of cycles of multiagent chemotherapy administered over 2 to 3 years that includes central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis, primarily consisting of CNS-penetrating systemic agents and intrathecal therapy. Although the treatment backbones vary among cooperative groups, the same agents are used, and the outcomes are comparable. ALL therapy typically begins with 5 to 9 months of more-intensive chemotherapy followed by a prolonged low-intensity maintenance phase. Historically, a few cooperative groups treated boys with 1 more year of maintenance therapy than girls; however, most groups treated boys and girls with equal therapy lengths. This practice arose because of inferior survival in boys with older less-intensive regimens. The extra year of therapy added significant burden to patients and families and involved short- and long-term risks that were potentially life threatening and debilitating. The Children's Oncology Group recently changed its approach as part of its current generation of trials in B-cell ALL and now treats boys and girls with the same duration of therapy. We discuss the rationale behind this change, review the data and differences in practice across cooperative groups, and provide our perspective regarding the length of maintenance therapy.

Motor nervous system impairment persists in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

BACKGROUND

The objective of the current study was to determine whether therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) results in long-lasting neurologic signs or electrophysiologic injuries within the motor tracts.

METHODS

Twenty-seven children who were treated for ALL were studied clinically 5 years after the cessation of therapy by means of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by magnetic stimulation transcranially and peripherally. An equal number of healthy children matched with regard to age, gender, and height served as the control group.

RESULTS

The MEP latencies to the hands and legs elicited by stimulation at the cortex were prolonged significantly in the children treated for ALL compared with the control group, with the differences being 2.2 milliseconds [ms] (P < 0.001) from the cortex to the thenar on the right side and 2.0 ms (P < 0.001) on the left, and 1.4 ms (P = 0.004) from the cortex to the leg on the right side and 1.3 ms (P = 0.004) on the left. Correspondingly, the MEP latency from the fifth lumbar vertebrae (LV) level to the leg also was prolonged, by 1.0 ms (P = 0.005) on the right side and 0.8 ms (P = 0.005) on the left side. The calculated latency between the cortex and the LV level was not found to be significantly longer in those patients treated for ALL compared with the healthy controls. Neurologic signs, in the form of depressed deep tendon reflexes, were observed in 8% of the patients, whereas approximately 33% of the patients were found to have fine or gross motor difficulties and dysdiadochokinesia.

CONCLUSIONS

Neurologic signs still persisted 5 years after therapy for ALL. Approximately 33% of the patients had fine or gross motor difficulties and dysdiadochokinesia, and demyelinative injuries to the peripheral nerve tracts were found proximally but not within the central nervous system.

Immunoglobulin class and subclass concentrations after treatment of childhood leukemia

With greatly increased survival rates after childhood leukemia during the last 3 decades, the long-term effects of the treatment have become more evident. The disease and its treatment impair the immune system, but the duration of this impairment is unknown. The authors studied the serum concentrations of immunoglobulins and IgG subclasses in 20 Icelandic children cured of leukemia on average 8 years and 3 months after their treatment ended. Although no marked deviations were found in the concentrations of the main immunoglobulin classes IgA, IgM, IgG, and IgE, the IgG subclass levels were below reference values. The patients had on average 0.9 of age standardized reference values of IgG1, 0.5 of IgG2, 0.8 of IgG3, and 0.7 of IgG4. However, none had any autoimmune diseases or a markedly increased tendency for infections. The results indicate that although the immunoglobulin classes regain their normal values within a few years after cessation of treatment, recovery of the IgG subclasses, especially IgG2, is impaired.

Improving outcome through two decades in childhood ALL in the Nordic countries: the impact of high-dose methotrexate in the reduction of CNS irradiation. Nordic Society of Pediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO)

In this population-based material from the five Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), 2860 children below 15 years of age were diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) from July 1981 to June 1998. The annual incidence was 3.9/100,000 children and was stable throughout the study period. The development from regional or national protocols to common Nordic treatment protocols for all risk groups was completed in 1992 through a successive intensification with multidrug chemotherapy, including pulses of methotrexate in high doses and avoidance of cranial irradiation in most children. The overall event-free survival (EFS) at 5 years has increased from 56.5 +/- 1.7% in the early 1980s to 77.6 +/- 1.4% during the 1990s. The main improvements were seen in children with non-high risk leukemia. In high-risk patients, progress has been moderate, especially in children with high WBC (> or =100 x 10(9)/l) at diagnosis. During the last time period (January 1992-June 1998), only 10% of the patients have received cranial irradiation in first remission, while 90% of the patients have received pulses of high dose methotrexate (5-8 g/m2) isolated or combined with high-dose cytosine arabinoside (total dose 12 g/m2) plus multiple intrathecal injections of methotrexate as CNS-targeted treatment, not translating into increased cumulative incidence of CNS relapse.

Cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Central nervous system treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) has been reported to cause changes in cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism. Little is known about the association of these functional changes with neuropsychological defects and structural changes. The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between changes in regional cerebral blood flow and glucose utilisation in long-term survivors of ALL, and the association of these functional abnormalities with neurocognitive and structural defects. 8 survivors of childhood ALL were studied with single photon emission tomography (SPECT) using Tc99m-ethyl cysteinate dimer (ECD) as tracer and with positron emission tomography (PET) using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) as tracer. 8 healthy controls also underwent FDG-PET. All subjects also underwent magnetic resonance imaging and neuropsychological assessment 5 years after cessation of the therapy. Focal cerebral blood flow abnormalities were found in ECD-SPECT in 5 of the 8 survivors. Glucose utilisation appeared normal in the corresponding regions. However, glucose utilisation was decreased in thalamus and cerebellum in the survivors of ALL as compared with healthy controls. 3 patients had severe and 5 patients mild neurocognitive difficulties. The changes in cerebral blood flow and FDG uptake did not correspond neuroanatomically with the neurocognitive defects. Focal defects in cerebral blood flow in long-term survivors of ALL are not associated with changes in local cerebral glucose utilisation. Neurocognitive difficulties are not consistently associated with either changes in cerebral blood flow or with decreased glucose utilisation. Therefore, based on the present set of studies FDG-PET and ECD-SPECT cannot yet be recommended for the evaluation of long-term neurocognitive defects associated with treatment of ALL.

Osteonecrosis during the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a prospective MRI study

BACKGROUND

Since the survival rates of childhood leukemia have improved, attention is increasingly focused on the long-term effects of the treatment. Osteonecrosis may complicate the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). To have more information about the natural history and clinical course of the development of osteonecrosis, a prospective MRI study was designed.

PROCEDURE

The development of osteonecrosis was studied prospectively in 24 consecutive children with ALL who underwent T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning of the lower extremities at the beginning of, during, and at the cessation of the chemotherapy. The general bone marrow signal intensity was assessed together with focal lesions. Circumscribed lesions with a rim of low signal intensity were considered typical of osteonecrosis.

RESULTS

Nine of the 24 patients (rate 38%) developed osteonecrosis during the treatment. Six of them were asymptomatic. MRI lesions regressed in size in six patients, and in three patients the MRI finding returned to normal. No operative treatment was needed. The osteonecroses appeared immediately or within a few months after the delayed intensification phase with intensive dexamethasone medication.

CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroids have been considered to be the main pathogenetic factor in the development of osteonecrosis in children with malignancies, which was also suggested by our findings. However, there is a lack of systematic prospective studies concerning the natural history and long-term follow-up observations of the prognosis of osteonecrosis, especially in pediatric patients. Based on our results, the lesions are often asymptomatic and cause no disability, and spontaneous improvement or even resolution may occur.

Bone marrow changes on MRI in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia 5 years after treatment

T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lower extremities was performed 5 years after the cessation of therapy on 25 children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Signal intensity pathologies considered to be related with the leukaemia itself or the treatment of ALL were found in nine of 25 children (36%). Two of these children had findings of osteonecrosis, five had a patchy signal pattern, one had diffuse inhomogeneity of the bone marrow signal intensity in complete remission and one had diffusely decreased signal intensity preceding the diagnosis of relapse. MRI unexpectedly revealed many bone marrow pathologies in symptomless children successfully treated for ALL. Especially, osteonecrosis might cause significant disability, and the aetiology, clinical course and prognosis of this complication are not well known. The intensive dexamethasone medication included in the treatment protocols may be responsible for the development of osteonecrosis. However, the prognosis of osteonecrosis in the long run requires further studies.

Nerve lesions after therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

BACKGROUND

The objective of the current study was to use somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) to detect signs of nerve lesions in the peripheral nerve and in the central nervous system (CNS) after 3 years of treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).

METHODS

The somatosensory potentials evoked by stimulation of the median nerve and posterior tibial nerve were recorded in 31 children with ALL after 3 years of therapy. All patients were examined clinically. The 14 standard risk patients had been treated with chemotherapy according to the Nordic regimen, and the 17 intermediate risk or high risk patients had been treated with chemotherapy and cranial irradiation according to the ALL BFM-83 protocol.

RESULTS

A decrease in amplitudes was observed at the brachial plexus and spinal cord (C7) in the median SEP, and at the knee, spinal cord (Th12), and cortex in the tibial SEP, indicating axonal injury within the entire CNS in the patients with ALL compared with healthy age-, gender-, and height-matched controls. Prolongation of the SEP latencies was found within the spinal cord, indicating demyelination. These SEP changes had persisted for 2 years since the last injection/infusion of vincristine or methotrexate, which are the principal neurotoxic drugs used in chemotherapy for ALL. Clinical signs of nerve injury such as depressed deep tendon reflexes and gross or fine motor difficulties were found in approximately 33% of the patients and dysdiadochokinesia in 50%.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of ALL in children principally with vincristine and methotrexate causes long-standing axonal injury throughout the nervous system and demyelination within the spinal cord. These changes are associated with clinical neurologic findings.

Abdominal ultrasound findings during and after treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

BACKGROUND

The treatment of acute leukemia in childhood has been increasingly successful. Concurrently, severe leukemia-related gastrointestinal complications have become more common.

METHODS

We evaluated the findings of the abdominal ultrasound (US) examinations of 52 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) who had severe clinical symptoms indicating infection or abdominal complication during chemotherapy treatment or after the cessation of such treatment and assessed the impact of these findings on patients' subsequent treatment and survival.

RESULTS

Our study presents ten cases of typhlitis with a prevalence of 9%, all of which were rapidly diagnosed by US and had a favourable outcome. We also found focal intra-abdominal parenchymal lesions in six children, five of them due to fungal infection and one due to leukemic infiltration. Several other intra-abdominal pathologies significant for the patients' treatment are also reported.

DISCUSSION

We believe that abdominal US is a useful, rapid, safe, and accurate imaging method for children with ALL suspected to suffer from leukemia- or chemotherapy-related gastrointestinal complications. More invasive imaging methods are seldom needed.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our results, abdominal US gives the necessary information in most of the cases and provides prompt diagnosis, which may prevent possible fatal complications.

Osteonecrosis in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a magnetic resonance imaging study after treatment

The purpose of the study was to find out the prevalence of osteonecrosis in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in complete bone marrow remission at the end of the treatment. Twenty-eight children with ALL underwent MRI of the upper and/or lower extremities. Bone marrow signal intensity was analyzed on T1-weighted images, where circumscribed lesions with a rim of low signal intensity were considered typical of osteonecrosis. Osteonecrosis was found in 9 of the 28 children (32%, 95% CI 16% to 52%). Five of them were asymptomatic. They had been treated with high risk and intermediate risk protocols, both of which include a delayed intensification phase with dexamethasone. None of the patients with standard risk ALL were found to have developed osteonecrosis. Osteonecroses occurred unexpectedly in symptomless patients and in patients with mild transient symptoms treated with high risk and intermediate risk protocols. Our study suggests that the intensification phase of the treatment protocols with intensive dexamethasone medication might be responsible for the development of osteonecrosis.

Chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia may cause subtle changes of the spinal cord detectable by somatosensory evoked potentials

Intrathecal chemotherapy has been determined to cause transient or permanent paraparesis due to myelopathy in patients with leukemia or other malignancies. To systematically evaluate the effect of methotrexate on spinal cord function, somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) were measured in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). A prospective evaluation was performed in 38 consecutive children aged 1.4-15.3 years with newly diagnosed ALL during treatment. Intrathecal methotrexate therapy was included in the therapy schedule of all patients as central nervous system (CNS) therapy in addition to intravenous chemotherapy in 19 standard risk patients and intravenous chemotherapy with cranial irradiation in 19 intermediate or high-risk patients. The measured conduction times were compared with those of 38 control children matched for age, height, and sex. A significant increase in the conduction time of the tibial nerve SEP was found between the Th12 level and the cortex in children with ALL after receiving intrathecal methotrexate therapy during the induction and CNS therapy phases when compared with their controls. The difference of the mean latencies was 1.45 ms (95% CI 0.39-2.51; P < 0.01). There was no significant delay in the median nerve SEP from the brain stem to the cortex, indicating that the conduction delay was in the area of the spinal cord exposed to intrathecal methotrexate. Moreover, the cortical amplitudes of the median nerve SEPs were significantly reduced when measured immediately after intravenous and intrathecal methotrexate and compared to the amplitudes measured after induction therapy in standard risk patients (P = 0.001). Intrathecal methotrexate with systemic chemotherapy causes a deterioration in the somatosensory pathways within the CNS, suggesting also spinal cord dysfunction in children with ALL in addition to the cerebral dysfunction described earlier.

Minor changes on cranial MRI during treatment in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Cranial MRI was used to study treatment-related changes in children undergoing therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) or lymphoma. Nineteen children (18 with ALL, 1 with lymphoma) underwent MRI at the beginning of treatment and at intervals during it, to a total of 105 imaging studies and a minimum of 3 per case. Nine patients had finished all therapy, all received consolidation treatment. No patient had central nervous system (CNS) leukaemia at diagnosis or developed a CNS relapse. Mild treatment-related white matter changes were observed in only 2 patients after consolidation therapy with three 5 g/m2 pulses of intravenous methotrexate. Transient enlargement of the ventricles and cortical sulci was observed in 13 patients, always temporally related to steroid treatment. These preliminary data suggest that treatment-related white matter changes are rare and no routine MRI follow-up is needed during treatment in asymptomatic children after a baseline assessment.

Vincristine therapy for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia impairs conduction in the entire peripheral nerve

Somatosensory evoked potentials were measured prospectively in 38 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia to evaluate the side effects of vincristine therapy on conduction of the peripheral nerves. Nineteen patients at standard risk received vincristine 12 mg/m2 during induction therapy and 19 patients at intermediate or high risk received 6 mg/m2 during induction therapy and an additional 6 mg/m2 during delayed intensification therapy. These latencies were compared with those of 38 age-, height-, and sex-matched controls. A prolongation in the peripheral conduction time of the posterior tibial nerve was found in the standard risk patients after induction compared with that of the controls, and a delay was found not only from the ankle to the popliteal fossa, but also from the popliteal fossa to the spinal cord (P < .01). The conduction times of the median nerve from the wrist to the plexus (P < .01) and from the wrist to the spinal cord (P < .01) were prolonged after delayed intensification therapy. There was a significant delay in the median and tibial nerve conduction between the intermediate and high risk patients and their controls after a total vincristine dose of 12 mg/m2. These delays were found along the entire length of the nerves, especially in the proximal part of the tibial nerve (P < .001).

Recovery of natural killer cells after chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and solid tumors

Recovery of natural killer (NK) cells after cessation of chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and solid tumors was investigated in 25 children aged 3 to 18 years. The numbers of CD3-CD56+, CD16+, and CD8-CD57+ cells in peripheral blood were analyzed with monoclonal antibodies and flow cytometry at 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after discontinuation of therapy. The CD3-CD56+ and CD16+ cell counts of ALL patients (n = 14) were below the mean -1 SD values of controls at cessation but normalized within one month due to a rapid 2.1 and 4.5 fold increase, respectively. The CD8-CD57+ cell count of ALL patients was normal compared to controls at cessation. In solid tumor patients (n = 11), the counts of all NK cell phenotypes studied were of normal amount compared to controls at cessation and no vigorous increase occurred after the therapy. NK cell function was determined by killing K 562 target cells in five patients. In the two standard risk ALL patients tested, the activity was still low at 5 months after therapy. In contrast, the function was normal at 1 month (Wilms' tumor), 3 months (Mb Hodgkin's) and 6 months (Burkitt lymphoma). In conclusion, NK cell counts were decreased compared to controls during therapy for ALL, but recovered rapidly afterwards. In spite of normal counts, NK cell function may be impaired for several months. The number and function of NK cells is less affected in solid tumor patients. These differences may reflect the milder immunosuppressive effect of interval cytostatic medication in solid tumor patients when compared to the more intensive continuous therapy in ALL patients.

Developmental defects of teeth in survivors of childhood ALL are related to the therapy and age at diagnosis

The relation of the therapy used and age at diagnosis to developmental defects of dental enamel and root was analyzed in 45 survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and compared to that of age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Chemotherapy alone increased the number of enamel defects, but it did not affect the roots. The scattered irradiation of 0.72-1.44 Gy to the dental arches during central nervous system (CNS) irradiation caused an increased number of developmental defects both in enamel and root. Age at diagnosis is an important factor and it showed that the irradiation of 10 Gy did not cause enamel defects if amelogenesis was complete. In conclusion, the therapy is related to developmental defects of the teeth but the most important factor is age, both at diagnosis and during the therapy.

Recovery of blood T-cell subsets after chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Recovery of cell-mediated immunity after cessation of chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) was investigated in 14 children to monitor the duration of immune deficiency. The numbers of blood T cells and their subsets were analyzed at 0, 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months after discontinuation of therapy with monoclonal antibodies and flow cytometry. The total T-cell count was low at cessation but normalized at 1 to 3 months, whereas the T-cell subsets CD4+, CD8+, CD4+Leu8-, and CD4+CD45RA+ recovered differently. In children ages 3 to 6 years, the numbers of CD4+ cells and their subsets were normal at cessation, whereas in children ages 7 to 18 years, CD4+ and CD4+Leu8+ cell counts normalized only at 6 months. The numbers of CD8+ cells or activated T cells were not increased and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio was not inverted, unlike recovery after bone marrow transplantation. Although the groups showed a mean reversion to normal values by 6 months, there were individual patients who continued to have subnormal values for 1 year after therapy, some of whom exhibited increased susceptibility to infections.

Clinical neurological findings of children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia at diagnosis and during treatment

Serial neurological evaluation was performed on 40 consecutive children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) at the time of diagnosis and during treatment. Abnormal neurological signs were found in 23% of the patients, including some without neurological symptoms on admission. Six patients (15%) had abnormal funduscopy findings, papilloedema or preretinal haemorrhages, and 3 of them had increased intracranial pressure measured in connection with a diagnostic lumbar puncture but without blasts in their CSF. The reason for the increased intracranial pressure remained unclear. The development of neurological symptoms caused by peripheral neuropathy during induction therapy was related to the total dose and duration of vincristine therapy. The most severe walking difficulties, patients moving about on all fours for as long as 6 weeks-5 months, occurred in a group who were significantly younger than the other children (P < 0.03). Fine and gross motor disturbances occurred in 18% and 30% of the whole patient group, respectively, after 2-3 years of therapy. Impaired short-term memory was observed in 21% of the patients after 2-3 years of therapy, indicating impaired CNS function. The results indicate that chemotherapy also seems to influence CNS abilities, since there was no significant difference between the patients treated with or without cranial irradiation. Neurological evaluation of children with ALL at diagnosis and during treatment is of value with respect to abnormal findings which persist and are not caused by leukaemia, in order to determine the types of difficulties involved and to consider intervention.

Recovery of blood B-lymphocytes and serum immunoglobulins after chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Recovery of humoral immunity after cessation of chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) was investigated by determining blood leukocyte, lymphocyte and B-lymphocyte, and serum immunoglobulin (Ig) levels and IgG subclasses at 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after cessation of chemotherapy for ALL in 14 patients. Blood B-lymphocytes were analyzed with the use of flow cytometry and monoclonal CD20 antibody. At cessation of chemotherapy, the amount of blood B-lymphocytes was subnormal in most patients but increased to normal levels in 1 month after therapy was discontinued. The recovery of serum Ig, which reflect B-cell function, was slower, but occurred by 6 months after therapy was discontinued in most patients. The authors conclude that by 6 months after cessation of chemotherapy for ALL, a sufficiently functioning immune system by these parameters is established and that prophylactic antibiotics can be withdrawn and immunizations started.

Cranial computed tomographic findings in children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a prospective follow-up study during treatment

Cranial computed tomography (CT) was performed on 40 consecutive children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) on admission before any chemotherapy, 5 months after CNS therapy (n = 39) and after 2 to 3 years of therapy (n = 31). Changes related to leukemia were found in only 10% of the patients at the time of diagnosis (4/40). These initial changes, two intracranial hemorrhages, one dural thickening and one contrast enhancement, all disappeared during therapy. The findings which persisted unchanged in the next two CT scans were thought to be normal variations or caused by earlier disorders. CNS therapy consisted of intrathecally and intravenously administered methotrexate in 20 standard risk (SR) patients and cranial irradiation in addition to chemotherapy in 19 intermediate risk (IR) or high risk (HR) patients. Four SR patients developed changes during therapy. Three had enlarged cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spaces and one developed a focal low density area suggesting disturbances in brain blood circulation and also experienced disturbances in level of consciousness. Of the 19 IR or HR patients, eight developed changes related to the therapy, including four with white matter hypodensity areas, of whom three also had enlarged CSF spaces, and four others who developed enlarged CSF spaces. The medians of the widths of the cortical sulci (P less than .001), insular cisterns (P less than .01), third ventricles (P less than .01), and frontal horns (P less than .05), and also of Evans' ratios (P less than .05) increased significantly after CNS therapy as compared with the findings at diagnosis in the patients who had received cranial irradiation. Most of these changes persisted during the follow-up. We conclude that the clinical value of CT scanning during therapy for ALL is restricted to patients with neurological symptoms or those who have undergone CNS irradiation.

Low levels of serum transport proteins indicate catabolic protein status during induction therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Twelve children with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) were followed during the first 24 weeks of induction and consolidation therapy. Twelve additional patients with other types of cancer, receiving no prednisone medication, served as a reference group. The serum total protein, albumin, transferrin, and prealbumin concentrations were measured at 0, 2, 4, 6-10, 16, and 24 weeks and used as biochemical indices of protein nutritional status. In all patients studied, serum albumin and prealbumin concentrations were low at diagnosis. Decreasing serum total protein and transferrin concentrations, stable low serum albumin, and increasing prealbumin levels were observed during the ALL induction therapy. In contrast, these protein levels remained stable in the children with other malignancies. By week 8 the patients with ALL had lower serum total protein, albumin, and transferrin than the children with other types of cancer. We conclude that the low levels of the serum transport proteins indicate catabolic protein status in children with ALL during early weeks of therapy.

Serum immunoreactive erythropoietin in children with acute leukaemia at various stages of disease--and the effects of treatment

Most children with leukaemia are anaemic at diagnosis and at various times during treatment. Serum erythropoietin (EPO) was estimated in 27 children with acute leukaemia (n = 26) or lymphoma (n = 1) at diagnosis (n = 16), in relation to treatment with high-dose methotrexate (MTX, n = 11) or cytosine arabinoside (Ara-C, n = 8), and during oral maintenance therapy (n = 10). At diagnosis, in children with anaemia serum EPO was increased, and was inversely related to haemoglobin (Hb). After treatment with high-dose MTX, in some children serum EPO increased where Hb was unchanged or increased. After treatment with high-dose Ara-C, Hb declined, and serum EPO increased markedly in everyone. During oral maintenance therapy without significant anaemia, serum EPO was slightly increased in some children. In conclusion, children with leukaemia respond to anaemia with increased serum EPO concentration, but in relation to treatment with high-dose MTX and Ara-C, additional mechanisms may influence the EPO concentration.

Fibronectin concentration in cerebrospinal fluid reflects early central nervous system involvement in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

We measured concentrations of fibronectin (FN) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in long-term follow-up patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). In 11 patients with neuroleukemia the CSF-FN level was elevated already at the time of diagnosis of ALL, 3.8 +/- 0.6 mg/l, increased during therapy to 4.7 +/- 0.5 mg/l, and at the time of concurrent blast cell finding it was 5.5 +/- 1.0 mg/l. In 11 patients with no subsequent CNS leukemia, the mean CSF-FN level was 2.4 +/- 0.6 mg/l at the time of diagnosis of ALL and 2.8 +/- 0.6 mg/l during therapy, and increased to 3.2 +/- 0.8 mg/l. The neuroleukemia rate was 43% in patients with initial CSF-FN levels greater than 2 mg/l, compared with 5% in patients with CSF-FN levels less than or equal to 2 mg/l (p less than 0.005) in a group of 45 long-term follow-up patients with ALL. Regression analysis on the 21 clinical or laboratory parameters studied showed that the only variable independently associated with CSF-FN was the total protein concentration in the CSF; this, however, explained only 14% of the observed variation in the CSF-FN concentration and did not show any correlation with CNS involvement. We conclude that the CSF-FN test at diagnosis of ALL showed significant differences between groups of patients with and without CNS leukemia, and may prove to be a new early marker for neuroleukemia.