Health Care Social Robots in the Age of Generative AI: Protocol for a Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Social robots (SR), sensorimotor machines designed to interact with humans, can help to respond to the increasing demands in the health care sector. To ensure the successful use of this technology, acceptance is paramount. Generative artificial intelligence (AI) is an emerging technology with the potential to enhance the functionality of SR and promote user acceptance by further improving human-robot interaction.

OBJECTIVE

We present a protocol for a scoping review of the literature on the implementation of generative AI in SR in the health care sector. The aim of this scoping review is to map out the intersection of SR and generative AI in the health care sector; to explore if generative AI is applied in SR in the health care sector; to outline which models of generative AI and SR are used for these implementations; and to explore whether user acceptance is reported as an outcome following these implementations. This scoping review supports future research by providing an overview of the state of connectedness of 2 emerging technologies and by mapping out research gaps.

METHODS

We follow the methodological framework developed by Arksey and O'Malley and the recommendations by the Joanna Briggs Institute. Our protocol was drafted using the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for Scoping Reviews). We will conduct a systematic literature search of the online databases MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore, aiming to retrieve relevant data items via tabular data charting from references meeting specific inclusion criteria which are studies published from 2010 onwards, set in the health care sector, focusing on SR with physical bodies and implemented generative AI. There are no restrictions on study types. Results will be categorized, clustered, and summarized using tables, graphs, visual representations, and narratives.

RESULTS

After conducting a preliminary search and deduplication in the second quarter of 2024, we retrieved 3176 preliminary results. This scoping review will be supplemented with the next methodological steps, including retrieving the results in a reference management tool as well as screening titles, abstracts, and full text regarding specific inclusion criteria. The completion of these steps is scheduled for the second quarter of 2025. Limitations based on the heterogeneity of the included studies and the general breadth of a scoping review compared to a systematic review are to be expected. To reduce bias, we adopted a system of dual reviews and thorough documentation of the study selection.

CONCLUSIONS

The conducted preliminary search implies that there are a sufficient number of heterogeneous references to complete this scoping review. To our knowledge, this is the first scoping review on generative AI in health care SR.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/63017.

Robotic support for older adults with cognitive and mobility impairments

Introduction

Robots have the potential to support older adults with cognitive impairments and mobility impairments in daily tasks that could promote their independence, enhance their abilities, ensure safety, and lower healthcare costs.

Method

Using a participatory design approach, we focused on identifying the functional capabilities of the Stretch robot to support older adults with various cognitive or mobility impairments. Twelve participants (aged 60-97) were recruited to interact with the robot and give feedback regarding support in a home environment. Stretch is a mobile robot manipulator designed to support everyday activities using a lightweight telescoping arm mounted on a mobile base. We conducted a semi-structured interview with participants as they observed and interacted with Stretch, performing tasks such as providing reminders, picking up and delivering items, and facilitating video calls.

Results and Discussion

The participants were asked to share potential areas of application related to their daily activities to illustrate how Stretch could support them in their homes. Our user-centered design approach provided a unique opportunity to understand the needs of older adults with mobility impairments and cognitive impairments, to identify the type of tasks the robot could support, and to gain insights into potential facilitators and barriers for robot adoption.

An Assessment of an Inpatient Robotic Nurse Assistant: A Mixed-Method Study

The worldwide nursing shortage has led to the exploration of using robotics to support care delivery and reduce nurses' workload. In this observational, mixed-method study, we examined the implementation of a robotic nurse assistant (RNA) in a hospital ward to support vital signs measurements, medication, and item delivery. Human-robot interaction was assessed in four domains: usability, social acceptance, user experience, and its societal impact. Patients in a general medicine ward were recruited to participate in a one-time trial with the RNA and a post-trial 75-question survey. Patients' interactions with the RNA were video recorded for analysis including patients' behaviours, facial emotions, and visual attention. Focus group discussions with nurses elicited their perceptions of working with the RNA, areas for improvement, and scalability. Sixty-seven patients aged 21-79 participated in the trial. Eight in 10 patients reported positive interactions with the RNA. When the RNA did not perform to expectations, only 25% of patients attributed fault to the RNA. Video analysis showed patients at ease interacting with the RNA despite some technical problems. Nurses saw potential for the RNA taking over routine tasks. However, they were sceptical of real time savings and were concerned with the RNA's ability to work well with older patients. Patients and nurses suggested greater interactivity between RNA and patients. Future studies should examine potential timesaving and whether time saved translated to nurses performing higher value clinical tasks. The utility of improved RNA's social capability in a hospital setting should be explored as well.

Nursing Staff's Perspectives of Care Robots for Assisted Living Facilities: Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Care robots have been proposed in response to nursing shortages in assisted living facilities (ALFs) and the growing population of older adults. While the use of care robots may improve the general health and well-being of older adults, their introduction changes the work of nursing staff fundamentally, and it has implications for the entire health care system. In developing such technology, it is important to include end users, but so far, the nursing staff's perspectives have largely been ignored.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to examine the literature on nursing staff's attitudes, needs, and preferences related to the use of care robots in ALFs, in order to discover gaps in the literature and guide future research.

METHODS

This review follows the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 protocol. On May 12, 2023, we searched PubMed, CINAHL Plus with Full Text, PsycINFO, the IEEE Xplore Digital Library, and the ACM Digital Library using predetermined search terms. Included publications, written in English, focused on the predevelopment phase, in which information was gathered on nursing staff's attitudes, needs, and preferences regarding care robots for ALFs. Publications were excluded if they did not provide peer-reviewed empirical data. The studies' findings were summarized, coded, and analyzed into major themes using thematic analysis and narrative synthesis. Their quality was assessed using McGill University's Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool and the Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal tools.

RESULTS

The final sample included 15 studies. Most of the studies (n=11, 73%) were rated as good quality; however, there was a general lack of reporting on important methodological decisions and sample characteristics. Nursing staff desired care robots that could assist with physically demanding tasks and reduce their workload but had mixed feelings on whether robots could or should assist with social tasks. In addition, nursing staff are concerned about the ethics of care robots, as well as about their safety, accessibility, and operability. The nursing staff's culture, qualification, and role in the facility may influence their perspectives of care robots. The studies lacked theory-driven designs and large sample sizes. Eight (53%) studies mentioned using a participatory design approach, but a lack of established criteria for what constitutes participatory design leads to varying degrees of methodological quality.

CONCLUSIONS

There was consensus among nursing staff that care robots should serve as nursing assistants to reduce workload. Whether robots could or should assist with social tasks remains a question. Further research is needed to mitigate nursing staff's concerns and understand the socioecological factors that influence their perspectives of care robots and their adoption in ALFs. In addition, theory-driven and large sample size study designs are necessary, as well as work to develop clear criteria for related participatory design research.

Socially Assistive Robots for patients with Alzheimer's Disease: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

The most common form of dementia, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), is challenging for both those affected as well as for their care providers, and caregivers. Socially assistive robots (SARs) offer promising supportive care to assist in the complex management associated with AD.

OBJECTIVES

To conduct a scoping review of published articles that proposed, discussed, developed or tested SAR for interacting with AD patients.

METHODS

We performed a scoping review informed by the methodological framework of Arksey and O'Malley and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist for reporting the results. At the identification stage, an information specialist performed a comprehensive search of 8 electronic databases from the date of inception until January 2022 in eight bibliographic databases. The inclusion criteria were all populations who recive or provide care for AD, all interventions using SAR for AD and our outcomes of inteerst were any outcome related to AD patients or care providers or caregivers. All study types published in the English language were included.

RESULTS

After deduplication, 1251 articles were screened. Titles and abstracts screening resulted to 252 articles. Full-text review retained 125 included articles, with 72 focusing on daily life support, 46 on cognitive therapy, and 7 on cognitive assessment.

CONCLUSION

We conducted a comprehensive scoping review emphasizing on the interaction of SAR with AD patients, with a specific focus on daily life support, cognitive assessment, and cognitive therapy. We discussed our findings' pertinence relative to specific populations, interventions, and outcomes of human-SAR interaction on users and identified current knowledge gaps in SARs for AD patients.

Artificial Intelligence Support for Informal Patient Caregivers: A Systematic Review

This study aims to explore how artificial intelligence can help ease the burden on caregivers, filling a gap in current research and healthcare practices due to the growing challenge of an aging population and increased reliance on informal caregivers. We conducted a search with Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, and Web of Science, focusing on AI and caregiving. Our inclusion criteria were studies where AI supports informal caregivers, excluding those solely for data collection. Adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we eliminated duplicates and screened for relevance. From 947 initially identified articles, 10 met our criteria, focusing on AI's role in aiding informal caregivers. These studies, conducted between 2012 and 2023, were globally distributed, with 80% employing machine learning. Validation methods varied, with Hold-Out being the most frequent. Metrics across studies revealed accuracies ranging from 71.60% to 99.33%. Specific methods, like SCUT in conjunction with NNs and LibSVM, showcased accuracy between 93.42% and 95.36% as well as F-measures spanning 93.30% to 95.41%. AUC values indicated model performance variability, ranging from 0.50 to 0.85 in select models. Our review highlights AI's role in aiding informal caregivers, showing promising results despite different approaches. AI tools provide smart, adaptive support, improving caregivers' effectiveness and well-being.

Acceptance of a robotic system for nursing care: a cross-sectional survey with professional nurses, care recipients and relatives

BACKGROUND

The end-users' acceptance is a core concept in the development, implementation and evaluation of new systems like robotic systems in daily nursing practice. So far, studies have shown various findings concerning the acceptance of systems that are intended to assist people with support or care needs. Not much has been reported on the acceptance of robots that provide direct physical assistance to nurses in bedside care. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the acceptance along with ethical implications of the prototype of an assistive robotic arm aiming to support nurses in bedside care, from the perspective of nurses, care recipients and their relatives.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey design was applied at an early stage in the technological development of the system. Professional nurses, care recipients and relatives were recruited from a university hospital and a nursing home in Germany. The questionnaire was handed out following either a video or a live demonstration of the lab prototype and a subsequent one-to-one follow-up discussion. Data analysis was performed descriptively.

RESULTS

A total of 67 participants took part in the study. The rejection of specified ethical concerns across all the respondents was 77%. For items related to both perceived usefulness and intention to use, 75% of ratings across all the respondents were positive. In the follow-up discussions, the participants showed interest and openness toward the prototype, although there were varying opinions on aspects such as size, appearance, velocity, and potential impact on workload.

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the current state of development, the acceptance among the participants was high, and ethical concerns were relatively minor. Moving forward, it would be beneficial to explore the acceptance in further developmental stages of the system, particularly when the usability is tested.

Separable amygdala activation patterns in the evaluations of robots

Given the increasing presence of robots in everyday environments and the significant challenge posed by social interactions with robots, it is crucial to gain a deeper understanding into the social evaluations of robots. One potentially effective approach to comprehend the fundamental processes underlying controlled and automatic evaluations of robots is to probe brain response to different perception levels of robot-related stimuli. Here, we investigate controlled and automatic evaluations of robots based on brain responses during viewing of suprathreshold (duration: 200 ms) and subthreshold (duration: 17 ms) humanoid robot stimuli. Our behavioral analysis revealed that despite participants' self-reported positive attitudes, they held negative implicit attitudes toward humanoid robots. Neuroimaging analysis indicated that subthreshold presentation of humanoid robot stimuli elicited significant activation in the left amygdala, which was associated with negative implicit attitudes. Conversely, no significant left amygdala activation was observed during suprathreshold presentation. Following successful attenuation of negative attitudes, the left amygdala response to subthreshold presentation of humanoid robot stimuli decreased, and this decrease correlated positively with the reduction in negative attitudes. These findings provide evidence for separable patterns of amygdala activation between controlled and automatic processing of robots, suggesting that controlled evaluations may influence automatic evaluations of robots.

Comparison of assistance preferences of older adults with different functional dependence levels on domestic tasks performed by robots

BACKGROUND

Robots have the potential to assist older adults in their home-based daily living tasks. Previous studies indicated that older adults generally accept robot assistance. However, the preferences of older adults with different functional dependence levels are lacking. These older adults encounter varying levels of difficulty in daily living and may have distinct preferences for robot assistance. This study aimed to describe and compare the preferences for robot assistance on domestic tasks in older adults with different functional dependence levels.

METHODS

This cross-sectional descriptive study recruited a convenience sample of 385 older adults in Hong Kong. They were categorized as independent, partially dependent, and dependent using the Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living. Their preferences for robot assistance on a list of 48 domestic tasks under six categories were assessed through the Assistance Preference Checklist. Differences in preferences between the three groups were compared using one-way ANOVA test.

RESULTS

Findings revealed the differences and similarities in preferences between participants with different dependence levels. In most domestic tasks under the personal care category, dependent and partially dependent older adults reported a significantly lower preferences for human assistance or a higher preferences for robot assistance (p < 0.001), compared with the independent ones. The effect size varied from medium to large (eta squared = 0.07 to 0.52). However, participants, regardless of functional dependence levels, preferred human to assist in some domestic tasks under the health and leisure activities category and preferred robot to assist in most of the domestic tasks under the chores, information management, and manipulating objects category.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults with different levels of functional dependence exhibit different preferences for robotic assistance. To effectively use robots and assist older adults as they age, the specific preferences of older adults must be considered before designing and introducing robots in domestic care.

Research Hotspots and Trends of Social Robot Interaction Design: A Bibliometric Analysis

(1) Background: Social robot interaction design is crucial for determining user acceptance and experience. However, few studies have systematically discussed the current focus and future research directions of social robot interaction design from a bibliometric perspective. Therefore, we conducted this study in order to identify the latest research progress and evolution trajectory of research hotspots in social robot interaction design over the last decade. (2) Methods: We conducted a comprehensive review based on 2416 papers related to social robot interaction design obtained from the Web of Science (WOS) database. Our review utilized bibliometric techniques and integrated VOSviewer and CiteSpace to construct a knowledge map. (3) Conclusions: The current research hotspots of social robot interaction design mainly focus on #1 the study of human-robot relationships in social robots, #2 research on the emotional design of social robots, #3 research on social robots for children's psychotherapy, #4 research on companion robots for elderly rehabilitation, and #5 research on educational social robots. The reference co-citation analysis identifies the classic literature that forms the basis of the current research, which provides theoretical guidance and methods for the current research. Finally, we discuss several future research directions and challenges in this field.

The Effects of Stakeholder Perceptions on the Use of Humanoid Robots in Care for Older Adults: Postinteraction Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Efficient use of humanoid social robots in the care for older adults requires precise knowledge of expectations in this area. There is little research in this field that includes the interaction of stakeholders with the robot. Even fewer studies have compared the perceptions of older people (as care recipients) and professional caregivers (representing those taking care of older adults in teams with robots).

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyze whether specific aspects of the perceptions about humanoid robots influence attitudes after interacting with the robot and to compare the opinions of different stakeholders (older people and their professional caregivers) on this topic. We analyzed the potential impact of the differences in perception of the robot between stakeholder groups with respect to how the robot should be designed and tailored to fit the specific needs of future users. We also attempted to define areas where targeted educational activities could bring the attitudes of the two groups of stakeholders closer to each other.

METHODS

The studied group was a conveniently available sample of individuals who took part in the presentation of and interaction with a humanoid social robot. Among them, there were 48 community-dwelling older adults (aged ≥60 years), who were participants of day care units (which may signal the presence of self-care needs), and 53 professional caregivers. The participants were asked to express their views after an interaction with a humanoid social robot (TIAGo) using the Users' Needs, Requirements and Abilities Questionnaire (UNRAQ) and the Godspeed Questionnaire Series (GQS).

RESULTS

Compared to the caregivers, older adults not only assessed the robot more positively with respect to its roles as a companion and assistant (P=.009 and P=.003, respectively) but also had higher scores on their need to increase their knowledge about the robot (P=.049). Regarding the robot's functions, the greatest differences between groups were observed for the social aspects on the UNRAQ, including decreasing the sense of loneliness (P=.003) and accompanying the user in everyday activities (P=.005). As for the GQS, the mean scores of the Animacy, Likeability, and Perceived Intelligence scales were significantly higher for older participants than for caregivers (P=.04, P<.001, and P<.001, respectively). The only parameter for which the caregivers' scores were higher than those of the older adults was the Artificial-Lifelike item from the Anthropomorphism scale of the GQS (P=.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The acceptance of the social functions of a humanoid robot is related to its perception in all analyzed aspects, whereas the expected usefulness of a care robot is not linked to aspects of anthropomorphism. Successful implementation of robots in the care for older people thus depends on considering not only the fears, needs, and requirements of various stakeholders but also on the perceptions of the robot. Given the differences between the stakeholders, targeted and properly structured educational and training activities for caregivers and prospective users may enable a seamless integration of robotic technologies in care provision.

Exploring the role of human-following robots in supporting the mobility and wellbeing of older people

With the ever-pressing challenges of societal ageing, robotic technologies for older people are increasingly portrayed as a solution for better independent living for longer. However, the application of human-following robots for elderly citizens has not yet been considered, and any prospective benefits offered by the technology for active ageing have previously been overlooked. This qualitative research aimed to explore older people's needs and requirements towards the human-following robot through the reflexive thematic analysis of semi-structured interview data from 17 independent older adults, supported by a video-based demonstration of the robot. The results indicate that older people believed that human-following robot has the potential to provide social benefits to an independent older adult by encouraging walking trips and prompting social interaction with others in the community. Practical limitations and cost of the robot are barriers to adoption at present. The findings indicate that there is potential for human-following robots to support active ageing, through increasing opportunities for the social participation of an older adult, but further development of the robot is needed for this potential to be realised.

Socially assistive robots in health and social care: Acceptance and cultural factors. Results from an exploratory international online survey

AIM

This study explored the views of an international sample of registered nurses and midwives working in health and social care concerning socially assistive robots (SARs), and the relationship between dimensions of culture and rejection of the idea that SARs had benefits in these settings.

METHODS

An online survey was used to obtain rankings of (among other topics) the extent to which SARs have benefits for health and social care. It also asked for free text responses regarding any concerns about SARs.

RESULTS

Most respondents were overwhelmingly positive about SARs' benefits. A small minority strongly rejected this idea, and qualitative analysis of the objections raised by them revealed three major themes: things might go wrong, depersonalization, and patient-related concerns. However, many participants who were highly accepting of the benefits of SARs expressed similar objections. Cultural dimensions of long-term orientation and uncertainty avoidance feature prominently in technology acceptance research. Therefore, the relationship between the proportion of respondents from each country who felt that SARs had no benefits and each country's ratings on long-term orientation and uncertainty avoidance were also examined. A significant positive correlation was found for long-term orientation, but not for uncertainty avoidance.

CONCLUSION

Most respondents were positive about the benefits of SARs, and similar concerns about their use were expressed both by those who strongly accepted the idea that they had benefits and those who did not. Some evidence was found to suggest that cultural factors were related to rejecting the idea that SARs had benefits.

The Use of Robotic Technology in the Healthcare of People above the Age of 65-A Systematic Review

AIM

The integration of robots can help provide solutions in regards to the need for an increase in resources in healthcare. The aim of this review was to identify how robots are utilized in the healthcare of people who are over the age of 65 and how this population experiences interacting with healthcare robots.

DESIGN

A systematic literature review with an integrated design was conducted.

METHODS

A literature search was performed in the electronic databases CINAHL via EBSCO, EMBASE, and Medline via Ovid. Content analysis was performed to assess the studies that were included in this review.

RESULTS

A total of 14 articles were included. Participants in the studies included 453 older people ranging from 65 to 108 years of age. Nine of the studies focused on people with dementia or cognitive impairment. Seven studies included different types of socially assistive human-like robots, six of the studies included two different types of animal-like robots, and one study focused on a robotic rollator. The robots mainly served as social assistive- or engagement robots.

Intelligent Physical Robots in Health Care: Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Intelligent physical robots based on artificial intelligence have been argued to bring about dramatic changes in health care services. Previous research has examined the use of intelligent physical robots in the health care context from different perspectives; however, an overview of the antecedents and consequences of intelligent physical robot use in health care is lacking in the literature.

OBJECTIVE

In this paper, we aimed to provide an overview of the antecedents and consequences of intelligent physical robot use in health care and to propose potential agendas for future research through a systematic literature review.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature review on intelligent physical robots in the health care field following the guidelines of PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). Literature searches were conducted in 5 databases (PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, Embase, and CINAHL) in May 2021, focusing on studies using intelligent physical robots for health care purposes. Subsequently, the quality of the included studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. We performed an exploratory content analysis and synthesized the findings extracted from the included articles.

RESULTS

A total of 94 research articles were included in the review. Intelligent physical robots, including mechanoid, humanoid, android, and animalistic robots, have been used in hospitals, nursing homes, mental health care centers, laboratories, and patients' homes by both end customers and health care professionals. The antecedents for intelligent physical robot use are categorized into individual-, organization-, and robot-related factors. Intelligent physical robot use in the health care context leads to both non-health-related consequences (emotional outcomes, attitude and evaluation outcomes, and behavioral outcomes) and consequences for (physical, mental, and social) health promotion for individual users. Accordingly, an integrative framework was proposed to obtain an overview of the antecedents and consequences of intelligent physical robot use in the health care context.

CONCLUSIONS

This study contributes to the literature by summarizing current knowledge in the field of intelligent physical robot use in health care, by identifying the antecedents and the consequences of intelligent physical robot use, and by proposing potential future research agendas in the specific area based on the research findings in the literature and the identified knowledge gaps.

Acceptance of Remote Assistive Robots with and without Human-in-the-Loop for Healthcare Applications

Assistive social robots aim to facilitate outpatient-care including required safety critical measures. Accepting a robot to perform such measures, e.g., operate in close physical interaction for medical examinations, requires human trust towards the robot. Human-in-the-loop (HIL) applications where the robot is teleoperated by a human expert can help the person to accept even risky tasks performed by a robot. Therefore, the assistive humanoid GARMI was designed to enable HIL applications with varying autonomy. In this study, we use GARMI to understand which tasks in the framework of care may be accepted depending on human socio-demographics and user beliefs as well as the level of robot autonomy. Firstly, we seek to understand the general acceptance of GARMI using the Almere questionnaire. Secondly, we ask adults to rate their willingness to use several functionalities of GARMI. Lastly, we investigate the effect of the introduction method of GARMI on user acceptance. We assemble all relevant factors on acceptance to provide direction in the user-centered design process of assistive robots. The results of 166 participants show that alongside others, trust towards the robot and utilitarian variables such as perceived usefulness are the most influencing factors on the acceptance of GARMI and should be considered for the design of robotic semi-autonomous outpatient-services.

How do people think about the implementation of speech and video recognition technology in emergency medical practice?

Background

Recently, speech and video information recognition technology (SVRT) has developed rapidly. Introducing SVRT into the emergency medical practice process may lead to improvements in health care. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the level of acceptance of SVRT among patients, caregivers and emergency medical staff.

Methods

Structured questionnaires were developed for the patient or caregiver group and the emergency medical staff group. The survey was performed in one tertiary academic hospital emergency department. Questions were optimized for each specific group, and responses were provided mostly using Likert 5-scales. Additional multivariable logistic regression analyses for the whole cohort and subgroups were conducted to calculate odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (CI) to examine the association between individual characteristics and SVRT acceptance.

Results

Of 264 participants, respondents demonstrated a positive attitude and acceptance toward SVRT and artificial intelligence (AI) in future; 179 (67.8%) for video recordings, and 190 (72.0%) for speech recordings. A multivariable logistic regression model revealed that several factors were associated with acceptance of SVRT in emergency medical practice: belief in health care improvement by signal analysis technology (OR, 95% CIs: 2.48 (1.15–5.42)) and AI (OR, 95% CIs: 1.70 (0.91–3.17)), reliability of AI application in emergency medicine (OR, 95% CIs: 2.36 (1.28–4.35)) and the security of personal information (OR, 95% CIs: 1.98 (1.10–3.63)).

Conclusion

A high level of acceptance toward SVRT has been shown in patients or caregivers, and it also appears to be associated with positive attitudes toward new technology, AI and security of personal information.

Dances with Social Robots: A Pilot Study at Long-Term Care

Dance therapy can have significant physical, emotional and cognitive benefits for older adults. In particular, social robots can be developed to autonomously facilitate dance sessions to engage these individuals with the aim of improving quality of life. To successfully integrate and promote long-term use of social robots into long-term care homes for such recreational activities, it is important to explore both residents’ and staff’s perceptions of such robots. In this paper, we present the first pilot human–robot interaction study that investigates the overall experiences and attitudes of both residents and staff in a long-term care home for robot-facilitated dance sessions. In general, the questionnaire results from our study showed that both staff and residents had positive attitudes towards the robot-facilitated dance activity. Encouraging trends showed residents had higher ratings for statements on perceived ease of use, safety, and enjoyment than the staff. However, the staff had a statistically significantly higher rating for willingness to use the robots for dance facilitation. Some key statistical differences were also determined with respect to: (1) gender within the resident group (men had higher ratings for the robots being useful in helping facilitate recreational activities), as well as between staff and residents (resident men had higher perceived safety), and (2) prior robot experience (residents with limited prior experience had higher ratings on perceived ease of use and perceived enjoyment than staff with the same level of experience). The robot-facilitated dance activity was positively received by both older adults and staff as an activity of daily living that can enhance wellbeing while also being safe, easy to use and enjoyable.

Social Robots Acceptance and Marketability in Italy and Germany: A Cross-National Study Focusing on Assisted Living for Older Adults

In the last years, social robots have become a trending topic. Indeed, robots which communicate with us and mimic human behavior patterns are fascinating. However, while there is a massive body of research on their design and acceptance in different fields of application, their market potential has been rarely investigated. As their future integration in society may have a vast disruptive potential, this work aims at shedding light on the market potential, focusing on the assistive health domain. A study with 197 persons from Italy (age: M = 67.87; SD = 8.87) and Germany (age: M = 62.15; SD = 6.14) investigates cultural acceptance, desired functionalities, and purchase preferences. The participants filled in a questionnaire after watching a video illustrating some examples of social robots. Surprisingly, the individual perception of health status, social status as well as nationality did hardly influence the attitude towards social robots, although the German group was somewhat more reluctant to the idea of using them. Instead, there were significant correlations with most dimensions of the Almere model (like perceived enjoyment, sociability, usefulness and trustworthiness). Also, technology acceptance resulted strongly correlated with the individual readiness to invest money. However, as most persons consider social robots as “Assistive Technological Devices” (ATDs), they expected that their provision should mirror the usual practices followed in the two Countries for such devices. Thus, to facilitate social robots’ future visibility and adoption by both individuals and health care organisations, policy makers would need to start integrating them into official ATDs databases.

Robot-enhanced diabetes care for middle-aged and older adults living with diabetes in the community: A small sample size mixed-method evaluation

Purpose

This study assessed robot-enhanced healthcare in practical settings for the purpose of community diabetes care.

Methods

A mixed method evaluation collected quantitative and qualitative data on diabetes patients over 45 (N = 30) and community pharmacists (N = 10). It took 15–20 min for the diabetes patients to interact with the robot. Before and after the interaction, questionnaires including a diabetes knowledge test, self-efficacy for diabetes, and feasibility of use of the robot was administered. In-depth interviews with both pharmacists and patients were also conducted.

Results

After interacting with the robot, a statistically significant improvement in diabetes knowledge (p < .001) and feasibility of the robot (p = .012) was found, but self-efficacy (p = .171) was not significantly improved. Five themes emerged from interviewing the diabetes patients: Theme 1: meets the needs of self-directed learning for the elderly; Theme 2: reduces alertness and creates comfortable interaction; Theme 3: vividness and richness enhance interaction opportunities; Theme 4: Robots are not without disadvantages, and Theme 5: Every person has unique tastes. Three themes emerged from interviewing pharmacists: Theme 1: Technology must meet the real needs of the patient; Theme 2: creates new services, and Theme 3: The use of robots must conform to real-life situations.

Conclusions

Both the diabetes patients and the pharmacist reported more positive feedback on the robot-enhanced diabetes care than concerns. Self-directed learning, comfortable interaction, and vividness were the most focuses when using robot to enhance self-management for the patients. Pharmacists were most receptive to fit conforming with reality and creating new services.

Decision-makers’ attitudes toward the use of care robots in welfare services

The purpose of this study was to investigate the attitudes of decision-makers toward the use of care robots in welfare services. We investigated their knowledge regarding the use of care robots in welfare services as well as their attitudes toward using robots in their own care and in the care of various user groups, for example, children, youths, and older people. We conducted an online survey with a range of Finnish decision-makers as respondents (N = 176). The respondents were divided into two groups: service actors (n = 104) and research and development (R&D) actors (n = 72). The respondents did not regard themselves as having much knowledge about robotics; however, the results showed that the R&D actors had more overall knowledge of the use of robots than the service actors. The R&D actors were found to be more willing to accept a robot as part of their own care as well as part of the care for various user groups. The contribution of this study is a better understanding of the views of the decision-makers who are or will be in charge of the acquisition of technological devices in welfare services.

Robotic Assistance in Medication Intake: A Complete Pipeline

During the last few decades, great research endeavors have been applied to healthcare robots, aiming to develop companions that extend the independent living of elderly people. To deploy such robots into the market, it is expected that certain applications should be addressed with repeatability and robustness. Such application is the assistance with medication-related activity, a common need for the majority of elderly people, referred from here on as medication adherence. This paper presents a novel and complete pipeline for assistance provision in monitoring and serving of medication, using a mobile manipulator embedded with action, perception and cognition skills. The challenges tackled in this work comprise, among others, that the robot locates the medication box placed in challenging spots by applying vision based strategies, thus enabling robust grasping. The grasping is performed with strategies that allow environmental contact, accommodated by the manipulator’s admittance controller which offers compliance behavior during interaction with the environment. Robot navigation is applied for the medication delivery, which, combined with active vision methods, enables the automatic selection of parking positions, allowing efficient interaction and monitoring of medication intake activity. The robot skills are orchestrated by a partially observable Markov decision process mechanism which is coupled with a task planner. This enables assistance scenario guidance and offers repeatability as well as gentle degradation of the system upon a failure, thus avoiding uncomfortable situations during human–robot interaction. Experiments have been conducted on the full pipeline, including robot’s deployment in 12 real house environments with real participants that led to very promising results with valuable findings for similar future applications.

Robots and the Possibility of Humanistic Care

Care robots are likely to perform increasingly sophisticated caring activities that some will consider comforting and valuable. They will get increasingly humanlike and lifelike. This paper addresses the conceptual question: Even if robots can assist and ease people's suffering, can such machines provide humanistic care? Arguably, humanistic care is the most humanly distinctive and deepest form of care there is. As such, it may be thought to show most starkly the gulf between human and robot caregiving. The paper argues that humanistic caregiving is indeed a distinctive form of 'affective' care dependent on certain uniquely human characteristics or aspects of our humanity which can provide a profound kind of comfort to suffering people. It then argues that there is an important conceptual sense in which robots cannot provide humanistic care. Nonetheless, the paper subsequently suggests that we may recognize a useful sense in which robots, of a suitably anthropomorphic type, can provide humanistic care. Robots might 'express' to people with physical, social, or emotional needs the kind of humanistic care that only human beings can provide but that sufferers can nonetheless receive comfort from precisely because of what is expressed to them. Although this sense of humanistic robot care is derivative from uniquely human care, and although it is wide open to social and ethical criticism, it is nonetheless an idea worth clarifying for anyone interested in the possibilities and limits of robot care.

Patients' Perceptions Toward Human-Artificial Intelligence Interaction in Health Care: Experimental Study

Background

It is believed that artificial intelligence (AI) will be an integral part of health care services in the near future and will be incorporated into several aspects of clinical care such as prognosis, diagnostics, and care planning. Thus, many technology companies have invested in producing AI clinical applications. Patients are one of the most important beneficiaries who potentially interact with these technologies and applications; thus, patients’ perceptions may affect the widespread use of clinical AI. Patients should be ensured that AI clinical applications will not harm them, and that they will instead benefit from using AI technology for health care purposes. Although human-AI interaction can enhance health care outcomes, possible dimensions of concerns and risks should be addressed before its integration with routine clinical care.

Objective

The main objective of this study was to examine how potential users (patients) perceive the benefits, risks, and use of AI clinical applications for their health care purposes and how their perceptions may be different if faced with three health care service encounter scenarios.

Methods

We designed a 2×3 experiment that crossed a type of health condition (ie, acute or chronic) with three different types of clinical encounters between patients and physicians (ie, AI clinical applications as substituting technology, AI clinical applications as augmenting technology, and no AI as a traditional in-person visit). We used an online survey to collect data from 634 individuals in the United States.

Results

The interactions between the types of health care service encounters and health conditions significantly influenced individuals’ perceptions of privacy concerns, trust issues, communication barriers, concerns about transparency in regulatory standards, liability risks, benefits, and intention to use across the six scenarios. We found no significant differences among scenarios regarding perceptions of performance risk and social biases.

Conclusions

The results imply that incompatibility with instrumental, technical, ethical, or regulatory values can be a reason for rejecting AI applications in health care. Thus, there are still various risks associated with implementing AI applications in diagnostics and treatment recommendations for patients with both acute and chronic illnesses. The concerns are also evident if the AI applications are used as a recommendation system under physician experience, wisdom, and control. Prior to the widespread rollout of AI, more studies are needed to identify the challenges that may raise concerns for implementing and using AI applications. This study could provide researchers and managers with critical insights into the determinants of individuals’ intention to use AI clinical applications. Regulatory agencies should establish normative standards and evaluation guidelines for implementing AI in health care in cooperation with health care institutions. Regular audits and ongoing monitoring and reporting systems can be used to continuously evaluate the safety, quality, transparency, and ethical factors of AI clinical applications.

Companion robots for older adults: Rodgers' evolutionary concept analysis approach

This study aims to analyze the concept of companion robots for older adults from the perspective of nursing. This study employed a concept analysis. The literature from July 2011 to June 2021 was sought from databases using specific keywords. Any quantitative or qualitative study published in English or Korean focusing on companion robots for older adults was included in the study. Rodgers' evolutionary concept analysis was used to clarify the antecedents, attributes, and consequences. Seventy-five eligible articles were studied. The findings were categorized into antecedents, attributes, and consequences. Companion robot antecedents were classified into individual factors, attitude toward robots, and caregiver and social factors. The defining attributes included human-robot interaction, function, features, structure, cost, and management of the robot being a companion. Consequences were categorized into user, caregiver, and health related. Companion robots are designed to enhance well-being, quality of life, and independence by providing service and companionship and assisting daily life. This mainly includes cognitive and social support, mobility support, relaxation, health monitoring, and self-care support through human-robot interaction. The attributes, antecedents, and consequences of companion robots identified in this study can inform future decision making and interventions by caregivers for aging in place.

A qualitative exploration of care homes workers' views and training needs in relation to the use of socially assistive humanoid robots in their workplace

AIM

The study aimed to explore the views and attitudes of care home workers about the socially assistive robot that was trialled in their workplace, in order to identify training needs in relation to the hypothetical future use of these robots in their workplace.

BACKGROUND

Care home workers face challenging workload conditions which may require the exploration of new solutions such as the use of socially assistive robots (SARs).

METHODS

This is a qualitative descriptive study which used semi-structured interviews. Care home workers (n = 23) in the UK participated in the study, and data collection took place between October 2019 and January 2020. NVivo software was used for data management, and a thematic inductive analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that many participants were open to the use of robots and valued the potential usefulness of SARs in the care setting. However, some participants showed resistance to the use of robots and did not feel comfortable with the idea of working alongside them. Participants wished to receive technical training that would enable them to be competent in using SARs. Participants took seriously their duty of care to the older people and thus wanted to ensure that the use of the SAR would not negatively impact on the care being provided. Robots were viewed as having potential to be supplementary to human carers, such as sharing the workload and improving upon the care already being provided.

CONCLUSIONS

Care home workers express both positive and negative views in relation to the hypothetical future deployment of socially assistive humanoid robots in their workplace.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The findings highlighted the importance of values around person-centred care which should be taken into account when planning for the implementation of robots in social care settings and training care home workers in how to work with robots.

Robots in Healthcare? What Patients Say

In this paper, we analyse patients’ perspectives on the introduction of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotic systems in healthcare. Based on citizens’ experiences when hospitalised for COVID-19, we explore how the opinions and concerns regarding healthcare automation could not be disassociated from a context of high pressure on the health system and lack of resources, and a political discourse on AI and robotics; a situation intensified by the pandemic. Thus, through the analysis of a set of interviews, a series of issues are identified that revolve around the following: the empirical effects of imagined robots, the vivid experience of citizens with the care crisis, the discomfort of the ineffective, the virtualised care assemblages, the human-based face-to-face relationships, and the automatisation of healthcare tasks. In light of these results, we show the variability in patients’ perspectives on AI and robotic systems and explain it by distinguishing two interpretive repertoires that account for different views and opinions: a well-being repertoire and a responsibility repertoire. Both interpretative repertoires are relevant in order to grasp the complexity of citizens’ approaches to automatisation of healthcare. Attending to both allows us to move beyond the dominant (political) discourse of technology markets as the only way to respond to healthcare challenges. Thus, we can analyse and integrate patients’ perspectives to develop AI and robotic systems in healthcare to serve citizens’ needs and collective well-being.

Attitudes toward the use of humanoid robots in healthcare—a cross-sectional study

The use of robotic technology in healthcare is increasing. The aim was to explore attitudes toward the use of humanoid robots in healthcare among patients, relatives, care professionals, school actors and other relevant actors in healthcare and to analyze the associations between participants’ background variables and attitudes. The data were collected through a cross-sectional survey (N = 264) in 2018 where participants met a humanoid robot. The survey was comprised of background variables and items from a modified Robot Attitude Scale. Multiple linear regression analysis and Spearman’s Rho correlation were used to analyze associations between variables. Most of the participants were positive toward the use of humanoid robots in healthcare and only a few were negative. Attitudes toward the use of humanoid robots were more positive among other relevant actors, such as service personnel and politicians in healthcare, participants with a higher educational level and older adults. More research is needed on the reasons underlying negative attitudes because these might affect the introduction of humanoid robots in healthcare. A careful evaluation of appropriate first target groups as well as which tasks are appropriate for humanoid robots to perform in healthcare are needed.

Robocalypse? Yes, Please! The Role of Robot Autonomy in the Development of Ambivalent Attitudes Towards Robots

Attitudes towards robots are not always unequivocally positive or negative: when attitudes encompass both strong positive and strong negative evaluations about an attitude object, people experience an unpleasant state of evaluative conflict, called ambivalence. To shed light on ambivalence towards robots, we conducted a mixed-methods experiment with N = 163 German university students that investigated the influence of robot autonomy on robot-related attitudes. With technological progress, robots become increasingly autonomous. We hypothesized that high levels of robot autonomy would increase both positive and negative robot-related evaluations, resulting in more attitudinal ambivalence. We experimentally manipulated robot autonomy through text vignettes and assessed objective ambivalence (i.e., the amount of reported conflicting thoughts and feelings) and subjective ambivalence (i.e., self-reported experienced conflict) towards the robot ‘VIVA’ using qualitative and quantitative measures. Autonomy did not impact objective ambivalence. However, subjective ambivalence was higher towards the robot high versus low in autonomy. Interestingly, this effect turned non-significant when controlling for individual differences in technology commitment. Qualitative results were categorized by two independent raters into assets (e.g., assistance, companionship) and risks (e.g., privacy/data security, social isolation). Taken together, the present research demonstrated that attitudes towards robots are indeed ambivalent and that this ambivalence might influence behavioral intentions towards robots. Moreover, the findings highlight the important role of technology commitment. Finally, qualitative results shed light on potential users’ concerns and aspirations. This way, these data provide useful insights into factors that facilitate human–robot research.

Reducing loneliness and improving well-being among older adults with animatronic pets

BACKGROUND

Studies consistently demonstrate that older adults who are lonely have higher rates of depression and increased mortality risk. Pet ownership may be a solution for loneliness; however, challenges related to pet ownership exist for older adults. Therefore, researchers and practitioners are examining the use of animatronic pets to reduce loneliness.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the feasibility of an animatronic pet program, and whether ownership of animatronic pets would decrease loneliness and improve well-being among lonely older adults.

METHODS

Eligible individuals were identified as lonely through a prior survey. Participants were provided with the choice of an animatronic pet and completed T1/T2/T3 surveys.

RESULTS

Attrition was high; 168 (63%) participants completed T1/T2 surveys, and 125 (48%) also completed a T3 survey. Post survey data indicated that loneliness decreased, while mental well-being, resilience, and purpose in life improved. Frequent interactions with the pets were associated with greater improvement in mental well-being and optimism.

CONCLUSIONS

Animatronic pets appear to provide benefits for the well-being of lonely older adults. Future studies should employ randomized controlled designs examining the impact of animatronic pets.

Needs and Preferences of Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Taiwan for Companion Robots and Pets: Survey Study

Background

In recent years, robots have been considered a new tech industry that can be used to solve the shortage in human resources in the field of health care. Also, animal-assisted therapy has been used to provide assistance, companionship, and interaction among the elderly and has been shown to have a positive impact on their emotional and psychological well-being. Both pets and robots can provide dynamic communication and positive interaction patterns. However, preferences for middle-aged and older adults in this regard are not clear.

Objective

This study explored the degree of acceptance of robots and pets as partners in later life and to determine the needs and preferences of elderly individuals related to companion robots.

Methods

A total of 273 middle-aged and older adults aged ≥45 years and living in the community were invited to answer a structured questionnaire after watching a companion robot video. Sociodemographic data, physical health status and activities, experience with technology, eHealth literacy, and acceptance and attitude toward robots and pets were recorded and analyzed using multinomial logistic regression analysis.

Results

Age, level of education, type of dwelling, occupation, retirement status, number of comorbidities, experience with pets, experience using apps, and eHealth literacy were significantly associated with acceptance of robots and pets. Middle-aged and older women preferred robots with an animal-like appearance, while men preferred robots that resembled a human adult. In terms of robot functions, participants preferred a companion robot with dancing, singing, storytelling, or news-reporting functions. Participants’ marital status and whether or not they lived alone affected their preference of functions in the companion robot.

Conclusions

Findings from this study inform the development of social robots with regard to their appearance and functions to address loneliness in later life in fast-aging societies.

The introduction of care robots as a leadership challenge in home care facilities in Finland

Aims

This paper analyses the factors that influence home care employees’ intention to introduce robots.

Background

The introduction of different kinds of care robots is a topical issue in elderly care now and in the near future.

Methods

Cross‐sectional research conducted through a questionnaire. The survey data (N = 162) were collected in five locations around Finland in 2019. The analysis was carried out by regression analysis, Sobel test and by Hayes’ bootstrapping method.

Results

The results show that self‐efficacy is pivotal in the willingness to introduce care robots. Employees’ age increases the enthusiasm to introduce robots but reduces self‐efficacy. Work engagement does not correlate with self‐efficacy or behavioural intention related to the introduction of care robots.

Conclusions

The present paper reveals the significance of attitudes, cognitive factors and age in the adoption of care robots in home care facilities.

Practical implications

It is important to pay attention to supporting the employees’ sense of technology management and the construction of a robot‐positive atmosphere when introducing care robots, and the development of skills of older employees and employees with a lower educational level should be supported.

Users' ambivalent sense of security with humanoid robots in healthcare

Humanoid robots have already been shown to be useful in healthcare. To ensure successful interactions with humanoid robots, is it essential that the factors that influence users' sense of security be understood. Ensuring patients' sense of security is considered a key principle of good caring. The aim of this study was to illuminate users' sense of security with humanoid robots in healthcare. Twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted. The participants consisted of five women and seven men aged 24-77. Before being interviewed, the participants were shown a video vignette with Pepper, a fully developed humanoid robot, used in the daily care of patients. The data material was analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Most participants perceived the use of humanoid robots in healthcare to be both positive and negative. The overarching theme was: Ambivalent sense of security with humanoid robots in healthcare. The four categories revealed were: Humanoid robots are both reliable and unreliable, Humanoid robots are both safe and unsafe, Humanoid robots are both likable and scary, and Humanoid robots are both caring and uncaring. Here we increased knowledge of whether patients perceive a sense of security with humanoid robots in healthcare, including which fears users have. This is vital information that should be taken into consideration when further developing and introducing humanoid robots into the healthcare setting.

Older adults' experiences and perceptions of living with Bomy, an assistive dailycare robot: a qualitative study

An aging global population and preference for aging-in-place pose the opportunity for home-based robots to assist older adults with their daily routines. However, there is limited research into the experiences of older adults using robots in their own homes. In this descriptive qualitative feasibility study, older self-supporting and community-dwelling adults with various age-related health needs used Bomy, a dailycare robot in their homes for up to one week. The study explored the usefulness of the robot and participants' perceptions and experiences of using it. Bomy reminded them of daily activities and delivered cognitive stimulation games. Semi-structured in-person interviews were conducted, and data were analyzed thematically. Findings revealed an acceptance toward robots and the value of assistive dailycare robots. Participants perceived Bomy as a companion and made suggestions for improvement, including resolving technical issues associated with long-term use. Future functions should be personalizable, to accommodate each user's health needs and could also include smoke detection and reading aloud functions. Dailycare robots show promising potential in elderly care, especially in providing reminders for medication, health and wellbeing. This study highlights the importance of co-design and testing robotics in the environments for which they have been developed. Widespread implementation of Bomy might be feasible in the future, with some further adjustments.

Impact and Challenges of Integrating Artificial Intelligence and Telemedicine into Clinical Ophthalmology

ABSTRACT

Aging populations and worsening burden of chronic, treatable disease is increasingly creating a global shortfall in ophthalmic care provision. Remote and automated systems carry the promise to expand the scale and potential of health care interventions, and reduce strain on health care services through safe, personalized, efficient, and cost-effective services. However, significant challenges remain. Forward planning in service design is paramount to safeguard patient safety, trust in digital services, data privacy, medico-legal implications, and digital exclusion. We explore the impact and challenges facing patients and clinicians in integrating AI and telemedicine into ophthalmic care-and how these may influence its direction.

The Role of Frustration in Human-Robot Interaction - What Is Needed for a Successful Collaboration?

To realize a successful and collaborative interaction between human and robots remains a big challenge. Emotional reactions of the user provide crucial information for a successful interaction. These reactions carry key factors to prevent errors and fatal bidirectional misunderstanding. In cases where human-machine interaction does not proceed as expected, negative emotions, like frustration, can arise. Therefore, it is important to identify frustration in a human-machine interaction and to investigate its impact on other influencing factors such as dominance, sense of control and task performance. This paper presents a study that investigates a close cooperative work situation between human and robot, and explore the influence frustration has on the interaction. The task for the participants was to hand over colored balls to two different robot systems (an anthropomorphic robot and a robotic arm). The robot systems had to throw the balls into appropriate baskets. The coordination between human and robot was controlled by various gestures and words by means of trial and error. Participants were divided into two groups, a frustration- (FRUST) and a no frustration- (NOFRUST) group. Frustration was induced by the behavior of the robotic systems which made errors during the ball handover. Subjective and objective methods were used. The sample size of participants was N = 30 and the study was conducted in a between-subject design. Results show clear differences in perceived frustration in the two condition groups and different behavioral interactions were shown by the participants. Furthermore, frustration has a negative influence on interaction factors such as dominance and sense of control. The study provides important information concerning the influence of frustration on human-robot interaction (HRI) for the requirements of a successful, natural, and social HRI. The results (qualitative and quantitative) are discussed in favor of how a successful und effortless interaction between human and robot can be realized and what relevant factors, like appearance of the robot and influence of frustration on sense of control, have to be regarded.

Service Robots in the Healthcare Sector

Traditionally, advances in robotic technology have been in the manufacturing industry due to the need for collaborative robots. However, this is not the case in the service sectors, especially in the healthcare sector. The lack of emphasis put on the healthcare sector has led to new opportunities in developing service robots that aid patients with illnesses, cognition challenges and disabilities. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has acted as a catalyst for the development of service robots in the healthcare sector in an attempt to overcome the difficulties and hardships caused by this virus. The use of service robots are advantageous as they not only prevent the spread of infection, and reduce human error but they also allow front-line staff to reduce direct contact, focusing their attention on higher priority tasks and creating separation from direct exposure to infection. This paper presents a review of various types of robotic technologies and their uses in the healthcare sector. The reviewed technologies are a collaboration between academia and the healthcare industry, demonstrating the research and testing needed in the creation of service robots before they can be deployed in real-world applications and use cases. We focus on how robots can provide benefits to patients, healthcare workers, customers, and organisations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, we investigate the emerging focal issues of effective cleaning, logistics of patients and supplies, reduction of human errors, and remote monitoring of patients to increase system capacity, efficiency, resource equality in hospitals, and related healthcare environments.

Theory of Robot Communication: I. The Medium is the Communication Partner

When people use electronic media for their communication, Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) theories describe the social and communicative aspects of people’s interpersonal transactions. When people interact via a remote-controlled robot, many of the CMC theses hold. Yet, what if people communicate with a conversation robot that is (partly) autonomous? Do the same theories apply? This paper discusses CMC theories in confrontation with observations and research data gained from human–robot communication. As a result, I argue for an addition to CMC theorizing when the robot as a medium itself becomes the communication partner. In view of the rise of social robots in coming years, I define the theoretical precepts of a possible next step in CMC, which I elaborate in a second paper.

The Perceptions of People with Dementia and Key Stakeholders Regarding the Use and Impact of the Social Robot MARIO

People with dementia often experience loneliness and social isolation. This can result in increased cognitive decline which, in turn, has a negative impact on quality of life. This paper explores the use of the social robot, MARIO, with older people living with dementia as a way of addressing these issues. A descriptive qualitative study was conducted to explore the perceptions and experiences of the use and impact of MARIO. The research took place in the UK, Italy and Ireland. Semi-structured interviews were held in each location with people with dementia (n = 38), relatives/carers (n = 28), formal carers (n = 28) and managers (n = 13). The data was analyzed using qualitative content analysis. The findings revealed that despite challenges in relation to voice recognition and the practicalities of conducting research involving robots in real-life settings, most participants were positive about MARIO. Through the robot's user-led design and personalized applications, MARIO provided a point of interest, social activities, and cognitive engagement increased. However, some formal carers and managers voiced concern that robots might replace care staff.

The Human Side of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial moral agents raise complex ethical questions both in terms of the potential decisions they may make as well as the inputs that create their cognitive architecture. There are multiple differences between human and artificial cognition which create potential barriers for artificial moral agency, at least as understood anthropocentrically and it is unclear that artificial moral agents should emulate human cognition and decision-making. It is conceptually possible for artificial moral agency to emerge that reflects alternative ethical methodologies without creating ontological challenges or existential crises for human moral agents.

Impacts of a Care Robotics Project on Finnish Home Care Workers' Attitudes towards Robots

Technological advances in elderly care have been rapid, and the introduction of robots in care will be a topical issue in the near future. There has been little research into the possibility of influencing care workers’ attitudes towards robots by project activities, and how to make the change easier for work communities. This study focuses on a robotics project that took place in elderly and home care services in one municipality in Finland (total of 45 care workers). During the project, four robotics workshops and one extended pilot session were implemented. The study follows quasi-experimental settings, and it included two measurements (before and after project activities) and a control group, but no randomization. The data were collected by questionnaires and were analyzed statistically. The project under study brought about minor positive changes in home care workers’ attitudes towards the usefulness of care robots. In the final measurement, the difference between the test group and the control group was significant in the two dimensions of positive attitudes. The research supports the hypothesis that project activities can be used to influence home care workers’ attitudes towards robots. This can also facilitate the introduction of care robots in home care services. However, the construction of a technology-positive care culture is a long-term process, which requires training and development, technological development and strong strategic management at various levels.

A dual-factor theory of WTs adoption in aged care service operations – a cross-country analysis

Purpose

This study focuses on the adoption of wearable technologies in a context where care-providing organizations can offer, in collaboration with caregivers, better care. Drawing on dual-factor theory and from the caregiver perspective, this study identifies and examines factors of technology adoption in four developing countries.

Design/methodology/approach

This study was undertaken using a quantitative approach. A survey was distributed among 1,013 caregivers in four developing countries in Asia including Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Iraq and collected quantitative data for model validation and hypotheses analysis. Building on the technology adoption literature, we identified six constructs that impact the behavioral intention of caregivers to use wearable technologies in aged care-providing organizations.

Findings

Our dual-factor model was successfully validated, and all hypotheses were supported. However, different results were found in the selected countries within the cross-country analysis.

Originality/value

This study has significant implications for the study of emerging technologies in aged care service operations. It provides a theoretical framework that may be adapted for future research, enabling practitioners in aged care to better understand the crucial role of technology adoption in service operations. Less attention was paid to the adoption of wearable technologies in aged care, particularly in developing countries, where healthcare services in aged care impose heavy costs on care providers.

Lio-A Personal Robot Assistant for Human-Robot Interaction and Care Applications

Lio is a mobile robot platform with a multi-functional arm explicitly designed for human-robot interaction and personal care assistant tasks. The robot has already been deployed in several health care facilities, where it is functioning autonomously, assisting staff and patients on an everyday basis. Lio is intrinsically safe by having full coverage in soft artificial-leather material as well as collision detection, limited speed and forces. Furthermore, the robot has a compliant motion controller. A combination of visual, audio, laser, ultrasound and mechanical sensors are used for safe navigation and environment understanding. The ROS-enabled setup allows researchers to access raw sensor data as well as have direct control of the robot. The friendly appearance of Lio has resulted in the robot being well accepted by health care staff and patients. Fully autonomous operation is made possible by a flexible decision engine, autonomous navigation and automatic recharging. Combined with time-scheduled task triggers, this allows Lio to operate throughout the day, with a battery life of up to 8 hours and recharging during idle times. A combination of powerful computing units provides enough processing power to deploy artificial intelligence and deep learning-based solutions on-board the robot without the need to send any sensitive data to cloud services, guaranteeing compliance with privacy requirements. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Lio was rapidly adjusted to perform additional functionality like disinfection and remote elevated body temperature detection. It complies with ISO13482 - Safety requirements for personal care robots, meaning it can be directly tested and deployed in care facilities.

Significant challenges when introducing care robots in Swedish elder care

Introduction: Care robots are machines, operating partly or completely autonomously, that are intended to assist older people and their caregivers. Care robots are seen as one part of the solution to the aging population, allowing fewer professional caregivers to provide the necessary assistance and care. Despite the potential benefits, the dissemination of care robots, and welfare technology in general, is limited in Swedish elder care.Purpose: To explore the challenges of introducing welfare technology, particularly care robots, in elder care.Materials and methods: Twenty-one individual interviews with key actors at the societal level, analysed by thematic analysis.Results: The challenges, from the societal actors' perspectives, were related to; the beliefs in technology, attitudes, ethics, collaboration, and the need for knowledge and skills regarding care robots (individual and group challenges). Challenges of a national character were: national governance, infrastructure, laws and regulations, economics, and procurement (systemic and societal challenges). In addition, the necessary preconditions for successful introduction were revealed as: the utility of the technology, implementation, evaluation and safety, security, and integrity (preconditional challenges).Conclusions: The introduction of care robots in elder care services seems to be more challenging than that of welfare technology in general, given the context and prevailing attitudes and preconceptions about robotics. Significant challenges need to be managed, at all levels of the society, before care robots can become an integral part of daily care and assist older people and their caregivers in activities and rehabilitation.IMPLICATION FOR REHABILITATIONThe challenges described by the societal actors', are partly similar to those of the end users', in terms of attitudes, ethics, knowledge and skills, and collaboration. This consensus should provide a solid foundation for the conceptualization and introduction of care robots in elderly care.The challenges follow the pattern of an ecosystem involving all sections of society, which are intertwined and require consideration before the expected benefits can be realised.A user-centred approach is necessary to support the design, implementation, and usefulness of care robots and their suitability for meeting the real needs of older persons and professional caregivers.

A Systematic Review of Attitudes, Anxiety, Acceptance, and Trust Towards Social Robots

As social robots become more common, there is a need to understand how people perceive and interact with such technology. This systematic review seeks to estimate people’s attitudes toward, trust in, anxiety associated with, and acceptance of social robots; as well as factors that are associated with these beliefs. Ninety-seven studies were identified with a combined sample of over 13,000 participants and a standardized score was computed for each in order to represent the valence (positive, negative, or neutral) and magnitude (on a scale from 1 to − 1) of people’s beliefs about robots. Potential moderating factors such as the robots’ domain of application and design, the type of exposure to the robot, and the characteristics of potential users were also investigated. The findings suggest that people generally have positive attitudes towards social robots and are willing to interact with them. This finding may challenge some of the existing doubt surrounding the adoption of robotics in social domains of application but more research is needed to fully understand the factors that influence attitudes.

Care Robot Orientation: What, Who and How? Potential Users’ Perceptions

Exploring the specific field of care robot orientation generates many questions regarding the meaning, content and how it should be conducted. The issue is important due to the general digitalisation and implementation of welfare technology and care robots. The aim of the study was to explore perceptions of care robot orientation from the potential users’ perspective. Data were collected by focus group interviews in Finland, Germany and Sweden. In all three countries, potential user groups were represented: older adults, relatives, professional caregivers and care service managers. A qualitative descriptive method was used for analysing data. The data revealed three aspects of care robot orientation: (1) What care robot orientation is, (2) Who needs it and by Whom it should be given and (3) How it should be performed. The need for care robot orientation is general in society. In the absence of knowledge about care robots, it is nearly impossible to know what to ask for or actually seek information about. Therefore, care robot orientation must be founded on agile implementation planning for care robots, with a firm basis in trustworthy knowledge and information and respecting individuals’ wishes. This also gives rise to an ethical challenge when care robots are offered to people having reduced decision-making ability (dementia, cognitive impairment), along with the issue of who then should make the decision. The mapping of the What, Who/Whom and How aspects of care robot orientation offers a foundation for the creation of orientation models, which might facilitate structured and goal-oriented care robot orientation strategies.