Wealth in Middle and Old Age in Mexico: The Role of International Migration

Health Shocks and Economic Well-being of the Aging Population: Evidence from Mexico

We exploit the longitudinal Mexican Health and Aging Study to estimate the effects of health shocks in the short-run on the subsequent economic well-being of the aging population in Mexico. While there is substantial evidence indicating negative economic effects of such changes in industrialized countries, little is known about health impacts on the future economic position of older adults in low- and middle-income countries. This paper takes an important step towards filling this gap in knowledge. Our results are widely relevant, with a large percentage of the world's population residing in developing countries such as Mexico that are experiencing rapid aging. We find evidence of negative impacts of health shocks on subsequent economic well-being of older adults in Mexico, but the effect varies according to several dimensions. First, the impact is clearly on income, not wealth. Second, responses are heterogenous across sources of income, with evidence of an impact mainly on labor income. Third, we find clear differences by gender in the impact of a health shock, with a larger negative impact on men. Fourth, we conclude that the population groups most negatively affected are those with the greatest degree of vulnerability prior to the shock, as measured by education and access to health insurance. Even though Mexico has made important gains with anti-poverty programs such as the Programa 70+ pension and a move towards universal health insurance, additional interventions targeted at the most vulnerable subsets of the aging population might be warranted.

Estimating the effects of Mexico to U.S. migration on elevated depressive symptoms: evidence from pooled cross-national cohorts

PURPOSE

Migrating from Mexico to the U.S. is a major, stressful life event with potentially profound influences on mental health. However, estimating the health effects of migration is challenging because of differential selection into migration and time-varying confounder mediators of migration effects on health.

METHODS

We pooled data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study (N = 17,771) and Mexican-born U.S. Health and Retirement Study (N = 898) participants to evaluate the effects of migration to the U.S. (at any age and in models for migration in childhood or adulthood) on depressive symptom-count, measured with a modified Centers for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale. We modeled probability of migrating in each year of life from birth to either age at initial migration to the U.S. or enrollment and used these models to calculate inverse probability of migration weights. We applied the weights to covariate-adjusted negative binomial GEE models, estimating the ratio of average symptom-count associated with migration.

RESULTS

Mexico to U.S. migration was unrelated to depressive symptoms among men (ratio of average symptom-count= 0.98 [95% CI: 0.89, 1.08]) and women (ratio of average symptom-count = 1.00 [95% CI: 0.92, 1.09]). Results were similar for migration in childhood, early adulthood, or later adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

In this sample of older Mexican-born adults, migration to the U.S. was unrelated to depressive symptoms.

Quantifying Lifecourse Drivers of International Migration: A Cross-national Analysis of Mexico and the United States

BACKGROUND

Evaluating the long-term health consequences of migration requires longitudinal data on migrants and non-migrants to facilitate adjustment for time-varying confounder-mediators of the effect of migration on health.

METHODS

We merged harmonized data on subjects aged 50+ from the US-based Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS). Our exposed group includes MHAS-return migrants (n = 1555) and HRS Mexican-born migrants (n = 924). Our unexposed group includes MHAS-never migrants (n = 16,954). We constructed a lifecourse data set from birth (age 0) until either age at migration to the United States or age at study entry. To account for confounding via inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW), we modeled the probability of migration at each year of life using time-varying pre-migration characteristics. We then evaluated the effect of migration on mortality hazard estimated with and without IPTW.

RESULTS

Mexico to the United States migration was predicted by time-varying factors that occurred before migration. Using measured covariates at time of enrollment to account for selective migration, we estimated that, for women, migrating reduces mortality risk by 13%, although this estimate was imprecise and results were compatible with either large protective or deleterious associations (hazard ratio [HR] =0.87, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.60, 1.27). When instead using IPTWs, the estimated effect on mortality was similarly imprecise (HR = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.77, 1.25). The relationship among men was similarly uncertain in both models.

CONCLUSIONS

Although time-varying social factors predicted migration, IPTW weighting did not affect our estimates. Larger samples are needed to precisely estimate the health effects of migration.

Understanding the Consequences of Migration for Asset Accumulation: A Multi-Site and Intergenerational Perspective

This article is the first to explore the consequences of migration for asset accumulation from a multi-site and intergenerational perspective that moves beyond the prevailing migrant versus “native” comparisons performed within single destination-country contexts. It specifically investigates the non-financial investments (i.e., house, land, and business-related asset holdings) made in the country of residence by three family generations of migrants with origins in Turkey: those who resided in Europe (i.e., settlers), those who moved to Turkey (i.e., returnees), and those who remained in the origin country (i.e., stayers). The data are drawn from the 2000 Families Survey, which involved personal interviews with 5,980 individuals nested within 1,770 families. The analysis shows that migration’s greatest economic beneficiaries are returnees, who display a significant tendency to accumulate the most assets across all generations and asset types. Across all three groups, intergenerational family transfers are found to make a positive difference to younger generations’ non-financial investments. The chances of reaping the benefits of such transfers, however, is shown to be particularly limited for the descendants of settlers, given this group’s propensity to accumulate the fewest (especially house and land type) non-financial assets in European destinations where they reside. Through these unique multi-site and intergenerational comparisons between migrants and stayers, this article sheds new light upon the little-explored relationship between international migration and asset accumulation, and the economic dis/benefits of migration.

The reasons older immigrants in the United States of America report for returning to Mexico

Mexicans are the largest immigrant group in the United States and are ageing rapidly. Data support that many return to Mexico due to economic factors such as employment. Few studies have investigated if older immigrants return to Mexico for different reasons than younger immigrants. Using the Mexican Health and Aging Study (N=952), we examine whether Mexican immigrants in the United States who returned to Mexico at age 50 and older report different reasons for returning than those who returned at younger ages. Few immigrants (regardless of age) returned to Mexico for economic reasons. The most commonly reported reason for returning to Mexico for both groups was missing family. However, the odds of listing illness over missing family as their main reason for returning were higher for older immigrants than younger immigrants after controlling for duration in the United States and other sociodemographic factors (OR=0.27; 95% CI=0.11, 0.68). These results challenge existing theories of international migration which focus on employment considerations.

Dynamics of Economic Security among the Aging in Mexico: 2001-2012

Similar to other developing countries, population aging in Mexico has accelerated, raising concerns that economic disparities will widen even more. We use data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study for 2001 and 2012 to derive measures of economic security ─ income and its sources, and wealth and its components ─ and describe how they changed over time and varied across key characteristics. The database is unique for a developing country: longitudinal and spanning a relatively long time period, and nationally representative of older persons (n=12,400; ages 50+). We conduct descriptive analysis for the full sample, and for sub-samples defined by 'safety net' indicators, health status, and demographic characteristics. Given that this time period included crucial economic and social changes in Mexico, we derive period results, measuring differences across time in two cross-sections; and longitudinal results, capturing changes among individuals as they age. In-depth examination of income and wealth identifies important contributors to old-age economic security in Mexico; we confirm several expected patterns and provide first evidence about others. Older adults with low income and asset values in Mexico have less diverse income sources and asset types; real incomes of older persons decreased substantially, and their income and asset portfolios became less diverse over the period. With older age, Mexicans relied more heavily on transfers and family help, and less on earnings. Overall, limited safety net options and worse health conditions were associated with less robust and deteriorating economic profiles.

Late-Life Migration, Work Status, and Survival: The Case of Older Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union in Israel

This analysis examined mortality among late-life Soviet Jewish immigrants in Israel, and the contribution of post-migration work status to their survival. The study linked 1997 survey data to mortality records, seven years hence. The results revealed that mortality was associated with older age, male gender, morbidity, and having less resourceful social networks. More importantly, after controlling for these background variables work status remained a significant correlate. Late-life immigrants who had never worked in the host country had a significantly greater risk of death than their immigrant counterparts who had ever worked (or were still working).

Lifetime Socioeconomic Status and Late-life Health Trajectories: Longitudinal Results From the Mexican Health and Aging Study

Objective

This article examines the association between childhood and adult socioeconomic status (SES) and late-life health trajectories for older adults in Mexico.

Method

Data are from the Mexican Health and Aging Study, a panel survey that began with a nationally representative sample of Mexican adults 50 years and older at baseline (2001), with follow-up in 2003 and 2012. We use a hierarchical repeated measures model to estimate the relationship between SES and depressive symptoms, functional limitations, and self-rated health, respectively. We tested both discrete measures of SES in childhood and adulthood, as well as a combined indicator of lifetime SES.

Results

Childhood SES was significantly associated with later-life health trajectories net of adulthood SES indicators. Adult SES was significantly associated with late-life health trajectories, with some differences by gender and outcome. There were significant SES disparities in health outcomes over the 11-year study period. However, there were no significant multiplicative interactions between SES and age, which would have indicated either diminishing or widening SES health disparities with age.

Discussion

Socioeconomic disparities in health appear to persist into old age in the Mexican context. Efforts to reduce late-life health disparities in Mexico should target socioeconomic and material conditions across the life course.

Cohort Profile: The Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS)

The Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS) was designed to prospectively evaluate the impact of disease on the health, function and mortality of adults over the age of 50 in both urban and rural areas of Mexico. The overall goal of the study is to examine the ageing process and its disease and disability burden in a large representative panel of older Mexicans, using a wide socioeconomic perspective. The study protocols and survey instruments are highly comparable to the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (HRS).The MHAS 2001 baseline is a nationally and urban-rural representative survey of individuals born in 1951 or earlier. Three waves of data have been collected so far: baseline in 2001 and follow-ups in 2003 and 2012. In 2012, the study added a representative sample of the population from the 1952-62 birth cohorts. A fourth wave will be collected in 2015.The data files and documentation are available free of charge at the study website [www.MHASweb.org] in English and [www.ENASEM.org] in Spanish.

The consequences of migration to the United States for short-term changes in the health of Mexican immigrants

Although many studies have attempted to examine the consequences of Mexico-U.S. migration for Mexican immigrants' health, few have had adequate data to generate the appropriate comparisons. In this article, we use data from two waves of the Mexican Family Life Survey (MxFLS) to compare the health of current migrants from Mexico with those of earlier migrants and nonmigrants. Because the longitudinal data permit us to examine short-term changes in health status subsequent to the baseline survey for current migrants and for Mexican residents, as well as to control for the potential health selectivity of migrants, the results provide a clearer picture of the consequences of immigration for Mexican migrant health than have previous studies. Our findings demonstrate that current migrants are more likely to experience recent changes in health status-both improvements and declines-than either earlier migrants or nonmigrants. The net effect, however, is a decline in health for current migrants: compared with never migrants, the health of current migrants is much more likely to have declined in the year or two since migration and not significantly more likely to have improved. Thus, it appears that the migration process itself and/or the experiences of the immediate post-migration period detrimentally affect Mexican immigrants' health.

The effects of children's migration on elderly kin's health: a counterfactual approach

Recent studies of migration and the left-behind have found that elders with migrant children actually experience better health outcomes than those with no migrant children, yet these studies raise many concerns about self-selection. Using three rounds of panel survey data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey, we employ the counterfactual framework developed by Rosenbaum and Rubin to examine the relationship between having a migrant child and the health of elders aged 50 and older, as measured by activities of daily living (ADL), self-rated health (SRH), and mortality. As in earlier studies, we find a positive association between old-age health and children's migration, an effect that is partly explained by an individual's propensity to have migrant children. Positive impacts of migration are much greater among elders with a high propensity to have migrant children than among those with low propensity. We note that migration is one of the single greatest sources of health disparity among the elders in our study population, and point to the need for research and policy aimed at broadening the benefits of migration to better improve health systems rather than individual health.

Old-age disability and wealth among return Mexican migrants from the United States

OBJECTIVE

To examine the old-age consequences of international migration with a focus on disability and wealth from the perspective of the origin country.

METHOD

Analysis sample includes persons aged 60+ from the Mexican Health and Aging Study, a national survey of older adults in Mexico in 2001. Univariate methods are used to present a comparative profile of return migrants. Multivariate models are estimated for physical disability and wealth.

RESULTS

Gender differences are profound. Return migrant women are more likely to be disabled while men are wealthier than comparable older adults in Mexico.

DISCUSSION

Compared to current older adults, younger cohorts of Mexico-U.S. migrants increasingly include women, and more migrants seem likely to remain in the United States rather than return, thus more research will be needed on the old-age conditions of migrants of both countries.

Racial and ethnic differences in hypertension risk: new diagnoses after age 50

OBJECTIVES

Our study examines the differences in estimated risk of developing hypertension in Whites, Blacks, and Mexican-Americans aged > or = 50 for a period of 11 years.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Data came from 9,259 respondents who reported being hypertension-free at the baseline in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) with up to five time intervals (1998-2006). Discrete-time survival models were used to analyze ethnic variations in the probability of developing hypertension.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Estimated odds of developing hypertension.

RESULTS

The risk of newly diagnosed hypertension increased between 1995 and 2006 for HRS participants aged > or = 50. After adjusting for demographic and health status, the probability of incident hypertension among Black Americans was .10 during the period of 1995/96-1998, which increased steadily to .17 in 2004-2006, with cumulative incidence over the 11-year period at 51%. In contrast, among White Americans the risk was .07 during 1995/96-1998 and .13 in 2004-2006, with cumulative incidence at 43%. For Mexican-Americans, the probability also increased from .08 during 1995/ 96-1998 to .14 during 2004-2006, with cumulative incidence at 42%.

CONCLUSIONS

Relative to White and Mexican-Americans, Black Americans had an elevated risk of incident hypertension throughout the 11-year period of observation. These variations persisted even when differences in health behaviors, socioeconomic status, demographic, and time-varying health characteristics were accounted for.

The Linkage of Life Course, Migration, Health, and Aging

Migration is a phenomenon that impacts individuals throughout the life course. Particularly, Mexican elderly migrants show evidence of lifetime accumulations of the effects of migration on health conditions. Objectives: Examine how the relationship between historical time and individual time explains different factors impacting the health of Mexican adult and elderly migrants in Mexico and the United States. Method: Data from in-depth interviews with Mexican migrants living in selected locations in Mexico and the United States were used to illustrate the links between life course conditions, aging, migration, and health outcomes. Results and Discussion: According to this theoretical perspective and the data, historical time, age at migration, and the conditions under which the migration trajectory developed, show different impacts on the health and quality of life of the elderly, as revealed through analysis of labor experience, disease and accidents, medical service, health treatment, transnational networks, and family formation.

Healthier before they migrate, less healthy when they return? The health of returned migrants in Mexico

Over the course of the 20th century, Mexico-U.S. migration has emerged as an important facet of both countries, with far reaching economic and social impacts. The health of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. has been well studied, but relatively less is known about the health of returned migrants to Mexico. The objectives of this paper are twofold. Relying on health data pertaining to two stages of the life course, early life health (pre-migration) and adult health (post-migration) from the Mexican Migration Project gathered between 2007 and 2009, we aim to assess disparities in adult health status between male returned migrants and male non-migrants in Mexico, accounting for their potentially different early life health profiles. While we find evidence that returned migrants had more favorable early life health, the results for adult health are more complex. Returned migrants have a higher prevalence of heart disease, emotional/psychiatric disorders, obesity, and smoking than non-migrants but no differences are found in self-rated health, diabetes, or hypertension.

Old-Age Wealth in Mexico: The Role of Reproductive, Human Capital, and Employment Decisions

The authors examined relationships between the wealth of older adults and their early-life decisions regarding investment in human capital, family formation, and work activities in Mexico, using the 2001 Mexican Health and Aging Study. The authors examined correlates of accumulated financial wealth by gender and across three age cohorts: 50 to 59, 60 to 69, and 70 years or older. The authors outline the changing context these cohorts experienced during their lifetimes; describe patterns of net financial worth by main covariates across groups defined by age, sex, and marital status; and present the results of multivariate models of net worth. Simulations were conducted to illustrate patterns of net worth associated with alternative scenarios depicting differing representative combinations of life-course characteristics by age cohort. The findings suggest that old-age financial wealth in Mexico is more closely associated with family formation and human capital decisions than with employment decisions over the lifetime.

Immigration and suicidal behavior among Mexicans and Mexican Americans

OBJECTIVES

We examined migration to the United States as a risk factor for suicidal behavior among people of Mexican origin.

METHODS

We pooled data from 2 nationally representative surveys in the United States (2001-2003; n = 1284) and Mexico (2001-2002; n = 5782). We used discrete time survival models to account for time-varying and time-invariant characteristics, including psychiatric disorders.

RESULTS

Risk for suicidal ideation was higher among Mexicans with a family member in the United States (odds ratio [OR] = 1.50; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.06, 2.11), Mexican-born immigrants who arrived in the United States at 12 years or younger (OR = 1.84; 95% CI = 1.09, 3.09), and US-born Mexican Americans (OR = 1.56; 95% CI = 1.03, 2.38) than among Mexicans with neither a history of migration to the United States nor a family member currently living there. Risk for suicide attempts was also higher among Mexicans with a family member in the United States (OR = 1.68; 95% CI = 1.13, 2.52) and US-born Mexican Americans (OR = 1.97; 95% CI = 1.06, 3.65). Selection bias caused by differential migration or differential return migration of persons at higher risk of suicidal ideation or attempt did not account for these findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Public health efforts should focus on the impact of Mexico-US migration on family members of migrants and on US-born Mexican Americans.