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Ma C, Wu X, Shen X, Yang Y, Chen Z, Sun X, Wang Z. Sex differences in traumatic brain injury: a multi-dimensional exploration in genes, hormones, cells, individuals, and society. Chin Neurosurg J 2019; 5:24. [PMID: 32922923 PMCID: PMC7398330 DOI: 10.1186/s41016-019-0173-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is exceptionally prevalent in society and often imposes a massive burden on patients' families and poor prognosis. The evidence reviewed here suggests that gender can influence clinical outcomes of TBI in many aspects, ranges from patients' mortality and short-term outcome to their long-term outcome, as well as the incidence of cognitive impairment. We mainly focused on the causes and mechanisms underlying the differences between male and female after TBI, from both biological and sociological views. As it turns out that multiple factors contribute to the gender differences after TBI, not merely the perspective of gender and sex hormones. Centered on this, we discussed how female steroid hormones exert neuroprotective effects through the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanism, along with the cognitive impairment and the social integration problems it caused. As to the treatment, both instant and long-term treatment of TBI requires adjustments according to gender. A further study with more focus on this topic is therefore suggested to provide better treatment options for these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
| | - Xin Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
| | - Xiaotian Shen
- Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Yanbo Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
| | - Zhouqing Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
| | - Xiaoou Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Jiangsu Province, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006 China
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Frick KM, Tuscher JJ, Koss WA, Kim J, Taxier LR. Estrogenic regulation of memory consolidation: A look beyond the hippocampus, ovaries, and females. Physiol Behav 2018; 187:57-66. [PMID: 28755863 PMCID: PMC5787049 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The potent estrogen 17β-estradiol (E2) has long been known to regulate the hippocampus and hippocampal-dependent memories in females, and research from the past decade has begun to shed light on the molecular mechanisms through which E2 mediates memory formation in females. Although E2 can also regulate hippocampal function in males, relatively little is known about how E2 influences memory formation in males, or whether sex differences in underlying mechanisms exist. This review, based on a talk given in April 2017 at the American University symposium entitled, "Sex Differences: From Neuroscience to the Clinic and Beyond", first provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms in the dorsal hippocampus through which E2 enhances memory consolidation in ovariectomized female mice. Next, newer research is described demonstrating key roles for the prefrontal cortex and de novo hippocampal E2 synthesis to the memory-enhancing effects of E2 in females. The review then discusses the effects of de novo and exogenous E2 on hippocampal memory consolidation in both sexes, and putative sex differences in the underlying molecular mechanisms through which E2 enhances memory formation. The review concludes by discussing the importance and implications of sex differences in the molecular mechanisms underlying E2-induced memory consolidation for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karyn M Frick
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States.
| | - Jennifer J Tuscher
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States
| | - Wendy A Koss
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States
| | - Jaekyoon Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States
| | - Lisa R Taxier
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States
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Devidze N, Lee AW, Zhou J, Pfaff DW. CNS arousal mechanisms bearing on sex and other biologically regulated behaviors. Physiol Behav 2006; 88:283-93. [PMID: 16769096 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
It now seems possible to move beyond analyzing only the mechanisms for specific sexual behaviors to the analysis of 'generalized arousal' that underlies all motivated behaviors. Our science has advanced sufficiently to attack mechanisms linking specific motivations to these general arousal mechanisms that intrinsically activate all biologically-regulated behaviors including ingestive behaviors. Learning from the well-developed reproductive behavior paradigm, we know that sex hormone effects on hypothalamic neurons have been studied to a point where receptor mechanisms are relatively well understood, a neural circuit for a sex steroid-dependent behavior has been worked out, and several functional genomic regulations have been discovered. Here we focus for the first time on three chemical systems that signal 'generalized arousal' and which impact hormone-dependent hypothalamic neurons of importance to sexual arousal: histamine, norepinephrine and enkephalin. Progress in linking generalized arousal to specific motivational mechanisms is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Devidze
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, Box 275, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Lee AW, Devidze N, Pfaff DW, Zhou J. Functional genomics of sex hormone-dependent neuroendocrine systems: specific and generalized actions in the CNS. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2006; 158:243-72. [PMID: 17027700 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)58012-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Sex hormone effects on hypothalamic neurons have been worked out to a point where receptor mechanisms are relatively well understood, a neural circuit for a sex steroid-dependent behavior has been determined, and several functional genomic regulations have been discovered and conceptualized. With that knowledge in hand, we approach deeper problems of explaining sexual arousal and generalized CNS arousal. After a brief summary of arousal mechanisms, we focus on three chemical systems which signal generalized arousal and impact hormone-dependent hypothalamic neurons of behavioral importance: histamine, norepinephrine and enkephalin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna W Lee
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, Box 275, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA
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5
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Ulloa RE, Nicolini H, Fernández-Guasti A. Sex differences on spontaneous alternation in prepubertal rats: implications for an animal model of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28:687-92. [PMID: 15276694 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Sex differences in the prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in prepubertal children have been described. Deficits on spontaneous alternation behavior (SAB) have been proposed as an animal model of OCD. OBJECTIVES To explore possible sex differences in the ontogeny of SAB and in the effect of the 5-HT1A agonist, 8-OH-hydroxy-2 (di-n-propylamino)-tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) in an animal model of OCD. METHODS The ontogeny of SAB and the perseveration produced by 8-OH-DPAT were compared between male and female prepubertal rats. RESULTS Males alternated their arm choose from postnatal day 32 onwards, while females perseverated in the chosen arm until postnatal day 38. The mean number of repetitive choices remained close to 1 in males from postnatal day 23 onwards, but females showed a mean number of repetitive choices higher than 1.5 until the end of the test. The 8-OH-DPAT (0.125, 0.5 and 2.0 mg/kg, 15 min) produced perseveration in males but not in females. CONCLUSIONS These data show important sex differences in the ontogeny of SAB and the effect of 8-OH-DPAT in a model of OCD. Such differences could be relevant for the sex differences in the prevalence of childhood OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa-Elena Ulloa
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados, Mexico City, Mexico
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Abstract
Genes induced by estrogens in the mammalian forebrain influence a variety of neural functions. Among them, reproductive behavior mechanisms are very well understood. Their functional genomics provide a theoretical paradigm for linking genes to neural circuits to behavior. We propose that estrogen-induced genes are organized in modules: Growth of hypothalamic neurons; Amplification of the estrogen effect by progesterone; Preparative behaviors; Permissive actions on sex behavior circuitry; and Synchronization of mating behavior with ovulation. These modules may represent mechanistic routes for CNS management of successful reproduction. Moreover, new microarray results add estrogen-dependent genes, including some expressed in glia, suggesting possible hormone-dependent neuronal/glial coordination.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Mong
- The Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA
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He Z, Bateman A. Progranulin (granulin-epithelin precursor, PC-cell-derived growth factor, acrogranin) mediates tissue repair and tumorigenesis. J Mol Med (Berl) 2003; 81:600-12. [PMID: 12928786 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-003-0474-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2003] [Accepted: 07/10/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Progranulin (Pgrn) is a pluripotent secreted growth factor that mediates cell cycle progression and cell motility. It activates the extracellular regulated kinases and phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase signal cascades, among others, and increases expression of cyclins D and B. Structurally, it belongs to none of the well-established growth factor families. It regulates developmental events as diverse as the onset of cavitation in the preimplantation embryo and male-specific brain differentiation. During wound repair it promotes granulation and neovascularization. It regulates inflammation through a tripartite loop with secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) which protects pgrn from proteolysis, and elastase, which digests it to smaller peptides. Intact pgrn is anti-inflammatory through the inhibition of some of the actions of tumor necrosis factor, while the proteolytic peptides may stimulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 8. Pgrn is highly expressed in aggressive cancer cell lines and clinical specimens including breast, ovarian, and renal cancers as well as gliomas. In experimental systems it confers an aggressive phenotype on poorly tumorigenic epithelial cancer cells. The malignancy of highly tumorigenic progranulin-expressing cell lines depends on the expression level of the pgrn gene since attenuating pgrn mRNA levels in pgrn-responsive cells greatly inhibits tumor progression. Given its actions in wound repair and tumorigenesis pgrn may prove a useful clinical target, both for prognosis and for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiheng He
- Vascular Cell Biology and Complications, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Mong JA, Pfaff DW. Hormonal and genetic influences underlying arousal as it drives sex and aggression in animal and human brains. Neurobiol Aging 2003; 24 Suppl 1:S83-8; discussion S91-2. [PMID: 12829115 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(03)00053-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen treatment induces transcription and increases excitability and reproductive behavior. Estrogens provide the structural basis for increased synaptic activity and greater behavior-facilitating output. Administration of progesterone amplifies the effect of estrogens on mating behavior. The role of GnRH is to synchronize reproductive behavior with the ovulatory surge of LH. A causal connection can be charted from one individual gene to human social behavior, but only via six causal links. Glia, meninges and neurons may participate, under the influence of sex hormones, in the direction of sex behavior. Neural and genetic mechanisms for motivation may lead to biological understanding of functions that apply to the most primitive aspects of human mental functioning. With respect to aggression, besides testosterone and its metabolites, serotonergic projections to the forebrain play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Mong
- The Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, Box 275, New York, NY 10021, USA
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9
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Cayre M, Malaterre J, Scotto-Lomassese S, Strambi C, Strambi A. The common properties of neurogenesis in the adult brain: from invertebrates to vertebrates. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2002; 132:1-15. [PMID: 11997205 DOI: 10.1016/s1096-4959(01)00525-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Until recently, it was believed that adult brains were unable to generate any new neurons. However, it is now commonly known that stem cells remain in the adult central nervous system and that adult vertebrates as well as adult invertebrates are currently adding new neurons in some specialized structures of their central nervous system. In vertebrates, the subventricular zone and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus are the sites of neuronal precursor proliferation. In some insects, persistent neurogenesis occurs in the mushroom bodies, which are brain structures involved in learning and memory and considered as functional analogues of the hippocampus. In both vertebrates and invertebrates, secondary neurogenesis (including neuroblast proliferation and neuron differentiation) appears to be regulated by hormones, transmitters, growth factors and environmental cues. The functional implications of adult neurogenesis have not yet been clearly demonstrated and comparative study of the various model systems could contribute to better understand this phenomenon. Here, we review and discuss the common characteristics of adult neurogenesis in the various animal models studied so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Cayre
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie, Marseille, France.
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10
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Horváth S, Kis Z, Boldogköi Z, Nógrádi A, Toldi J. Oestrogen-dependent tracing in the rat CNS after pseudorabies virus infection. Eur J Neurosci 2002; 15:937-43. [PMID: 11906536 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.01923.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
This study examines the hypothesis that neuronal infectivity and the spreading of the pseudorabies virus (PRV) through the synapses in the central nervous system (CNS) are influenced by the oestrogen levels. The arcuate nucleus (ARC) and the subfornical organ (SFO) were chosen as models for analysis; the neurons in both structures possess oestrogen receptors and are mutually connected. A genetically engineered pseudorabies virus (Ba-DupLac) was used as a transneuronal tract tracer. This virus is taken up preferably by axon terminals, and transported very specifically through the synapses in a retrograde manner. Ba-DupLac was injected into the ARC of rats, followed by monitoring of the PRV-immunoreactivity (PRV-IR) in the SFO 72 h following inoculation. We found no PRV immunolabelling in the SFO of ovariectomized (OVX) rats, or in those OVX animals that received oestrogen shortly (4 h) before PRV infection (OVX + E 4 h). In contrast, in those OVX animals that received oestrogen 12 h before PRV infection (OVX + E 12 h), and also in intact control animals, PRV-IR was demonstrated in the SFO in all cases. Surprisingly, a reverse labelling was observed in the OVX rats; PRV-IR appeared in the pyriform cortex, whereas PRV-IR could not be detected in the control and OVX + E 12 h animals. As far as we are aware, this is the first study to demonstrate that transneuronal PRV labelling depends on the effects of oestrogen on certain CNS structures and connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szatmár Horváth
- Department of Comparative Physiology, University of Szeged, H-6701 Szeged, POB 533, Hungary
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11
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Kis Z, Budai D, Imre G, Farkas T, Horváth S, Toldi J. The modulatory effect of estrogen on the neuronal activity in the barrel cortex of the rat. An electrophysiological study. Neuroreport 2001; 12:2509-12. [PMID: 11496139 DOI: 10.1097/00001756-200108080-00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In acute experiments, the effects of iontophoretically applied 17 beta-estradiol hemisuccinate on the activity of the primary somatosensory cortical neurons were studied in ovariectomized rats by extracellular single-unit recording. 17 beta-Estradiol increased both the spontaneous and the vibrissa deflection-evoked responses, with an average latency of 24 min. It is suggested that this relatively long latency of the 17 beta-estradiol effect is based not so much on membrane mechanisms as on genomic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Kis
- Department of Comparative Physiology, University of Szeged, H-6701 Szeged, POB 533, Hungary
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12
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Rosenbrock H, Hagemeyer CE, Ditter M, Knoth R, Volk B. Identification, induction and localization of cytochrome P450s of the 3A-subfamily in mouse brain. Neurotox Res 2001; 3:339-49. [PMID: 14715464 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Several cytochrome P450 subfamilies are inducible by specific exogenous compounds like the antiepileptic drug phenytoin. Some of these P450 enzymes are involved in the metabolism of gonadal hormones also contributing to neuronal differentiation. CYP3A enzymes have the capacity to catalyze the hydroxylation of testosterone and a wide variety of therapeutic agents, but little is known about the expression and potential function of this subfamily in mouse brain. Here, we report the identification of mouse CYP3A isoforms, their induction and localization in mouse brain. Western blot analysis with anti-CYP3A1 antibodies revealed the phenytoin-inducible expression of CYP3A in brain microsomes, and also a constitutive expression of members of this subfamily in brain mitochondria. Using RT-PCR with a consensus primer pair for known mouse liver CYP3A-isoforms we could demonstrate the expression of CYP3A11 and 3A13 mRNA in mouse brain. Finally, using double immunofluorescence labeling we analyzed the histoanatomical distribution of CYP3A throughout the brain with confocal laser scanning microscopy. We found strong immunoreactivity in neurons of hippocampus and hypothalamic areas which are sensitive to steroid hormones. CYP3A immunoreactivity was apparent also in neurons of the cerebellum, the thalamus and the olfactory bulb. Non-neuronal expression of CYP3A could be found in some astrocyte populations and in vascular as well as ventricular border lines. The presence of CYP3A predominantly in neurons but also in cells contributing to the blood-brain and blood-liquor barrier suggests important roles of this subfamily in mediation of steroid hormone action in mouse brain as well as in preventing the brain from potentially cytotoxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rosenbrock
- Neurocenter, Department of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Germany
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Danzer SC, McMullen NT, Rance NE. Testosterone modulates the dendritic architecture of arcuate neuroendocrine neurons in adult male rats. Brain Res 2001; 890:78-85. [PMID: 11164770 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)03083-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that gonadectomy of adult male rats induces dendritic growth of neuroendocrine neurons in the arcuate nucleus. We have hypothesized that these changes are secondary to the loss of testosterone negative feedback. In the present study, we examined the effects of testosterone replacement on the dendritic morphology of arcuate neuroendocrine neurons in castrated rats. Rats were orchidectomized and implanted with silastic capsules designed to produce physiological levels of plasma testosterone (n=9) or empty silastic capsules (n=9) for 2 months. Retrograde labeling with systemically injected Fluoro-Gold, followed by intracellular injection of labeled neurons in a fixed slice preparation, were used to visualize arcuate neuroendocrine neurons. Quantitative analysis of dendritic morphology was performed using three-dimensional computer reconstruction. Serum levels of LH (luteinizing hormone) and testosterone were measured by radioimmunoassay. Treatment of castrated rats with physiological levels of testosterone significantly reduced dendritic length, volume and terminal branch number relative to the castrated rats receiving empty silastic capsules. Dendritic spine density was also greater in the testosterone-treated animals, although the total numbers of spines per dendrite was not significantly different between the two groups. In addition, testosterone replacement was effective in reducing serum LH to levels found in intact rats. These studies demonstrate that testosterone replacement suppresses the dendritic outgrowth of arcuate neuroendocrine neurons that occurs in response to castration. The parallel changes in dendritic arbor and serum LH after castration and hormone replacement suggests that the suppressive effects of testosterone are related to steroid negative feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Danzer
- Department of Pathology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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Lee JW, Erskine MS. Pseudorabies virus tracing of neural pathways between the uterine cervix and CNS: Effects of survival time, estrogen treatment, rhizotomy, and pelvic nerve transection. J Comp Neurol 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(20000320)418:4<484::aid-cne9>3.0.co;2-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Abstract
This article briefly discusses the difficulties in determining the brain-behavior relationship and reviews the literature on some potential mechanisms underlying gender differences in behavioral responses. Mechanisms that are discussed include genetic effects, organizational effects of gonadal hormones, genomic actions of steroids, nongenomic effects of steroids, and environmental influences. The review is an introduction to the articles presented in this special volume on gender differences in brain and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Kelly
- Department of Psychology, School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia 29208, USA
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Ostrowski NL. Oxytocin receptor mRNA expression in rat brain: implications for behavioral integration and reproductive success. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998; 23:989-1004. [PMID: 9924748 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00070-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The nonapeptide, oxytocin (OT), has been implicated in a wide range of physiological, behavioral and pharmacological effects related to learning and memory, parturition and lactation, maternal and sexual behavior, and the formation of social attachments. Specific G-protein linked membrane bound OT receptors mediate OTs effects. The unavailability of highly selective pharmacological ligands that discriminate the OT receptor from the highly homologous vasopressin receptors (V1a, V1b and V2 subtypes) has made it difficult to confirm specific effects of oxytocin, particularly in brain regions where OT and multiple AVP receptor subtypes may be coexpressed. Here, data on the oxytocin receptor (OTR) messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) localization in brain are presented in the context of a model that proposes a reproductive state-dependent role for steroid-hormone restructuring of neural circuits, and a role for oxytocin in the integration of neural transmission in pathways subserving: (1) steroid-sensitive reproductive behaviors; (2) learning; and (3) reinforcement. It is hypothesized that social attachments emerge as a consequence of a conditioned association between OT-related activity in these pathways and the eliciting stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- N L Ostrowski
- Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Headquarters, Indianapolis, IN 46285, USA.
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