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Dalabasmaz S, Toker ÖS, Palabiyik I, Konar N. Cocoa polyphenols and milk proteins: covalent and non-covalent interactions, chocolate process and effects on potential polyphenol bioaccesibility. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-13. [PMID: 37154036 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2207661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we discussed covalent and non-covalent reactions between cocoa polyphenols and proteins (milk and cocoa) and the possible effects of these reactions on their bioaccessibility, considering environmental and processing conditions. Better insight into these interactions is crucial for understanding the biological effects of polyphenols, developing nutritional strategies, and improving food processing and storage. Protein-polyphenol reactions affect the properties of the final product and can lead to the formation of various precursors at various stages in the manufacturing process, such as fermentation, roasting, alkalization, and conching. Due to the complex composition of the chocolate and the various technological processes, comprehensive food profiling strategies should be applied to analyze protein-polyphenol covalent reactions covering a wide range of potential reaction products. This will help to identify potential effects on the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds such as low-molecular-weight peptides and polyphenols. To achieve this, databases of potential reaction products and their binding sites can be generated, and the effects of various process conditions on related parameters can be investigated. This would then allow to a deeper insight into mechanisms behind protein-polyphenol interactions in chocolate, and develop strategies to optimize chocolate production for improved nutritional and sensory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevim Dalabasmaz
- Food Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ömer Said Toker
- Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Food Engineering Department, Yıldız Technical University, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Ibrahim Palabiyik
- Agriculture Faculty, Food Engineering Department, Tekirdag Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Nevzat Konar
- Agriculture Faculty, Dairy Technology Department, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
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2
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Qie X, Yin Z, He Z, Xue C, Wang Z, Chen Q, Zeng M, Chen J, He Z. Interaction between β-casein and phlorizin induced by thermal treatment and its effect on the antioxidant activity and bioavailability of phlorizin in vivo. FOOD BIOSCI 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbio.2023.102479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
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3
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Kung S, Vakula MN, Kim Y, England DL, Bergeson J, Bressel E, Lefevre M, Ward R. No effect of a dairy-based, high flavonoid pre-workout beverage on exercise-induced intestinal injury, permeability, and inflammation in recreational cyclists: A randomized controlled crossover trial. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0277453. [PMID: 36445874 PMCID: PMC9707743 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Submaximal endurance exercise has been shown to cause elevated gastrointestinal permeability, injury, and inflammation, which may negatively impact athletic performance and recovery. Preclinical and some clinical studies suggest that flavonoids, a class of plant secondary metabolites, may regulate intestinal permeability and reduce chronic low-grade inflammation. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of supplemental flavonoid intake on intestinal health and cycling performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial was conducted with 12 cyclists (8 males and 4 females). Subjects consumed a dairy milk-based, high or low flavonoid (490 or 5 mg) pre-workout beverage daily for 15 days. At the end of each intervention, a submaximal cycling trial (45 min, 70% VO2max) was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting (23°C), followed by a 15-minute maximal effort time trial during which total work and distance were determined. Plasma samples were collected pre- and post-exercise (0h, 1h, and 4h post-exercise). The primary outcome was intestinal injury, assessed by within-subject comparison of plasma intestinal fatty acid-binding protein. Prior to study start, this trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03427879). RESULTS A significant time effect was observed for intestinal fatty acid binding protein and circulating cytokines (IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α). No differences were observed between the low and high flavonoid treatment for intestinal permeability or injury. The flavonoid treatment tended to increase cycling work output (p = 0.051), though no differences were observed for cadence or total distance. DISCUSSION Sub-chronic supplementation with blueberry, cocoa, and green tea in a dairy-based pre-workout beverage did not alleviate exercise-induced intestinal injury during submaximal cycling, as compared to the control beverage (dairy-milk based with low flavonoid content).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Kung
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Michael N. Vakula
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Youngwook Kim
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Derek L. England
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Janet Bergeson
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Eadric Bressel
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Michael Lefevre
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
| | - Robert Ward
- Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Food Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Lopes de Oliveira F, Yanka Portes Arruda T, Caldeira Morzelle M, Paula Aparecida Pereira A, Neves Casarotti S. Fruit by-products as potential prebiotics and promising functional ingredients to produce fermented milk. Food Res Int 2022; 161:111841. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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5
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Variability in the Beneficial Effects of Phenolic Compounds: A Review. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14091925. [PMID: 35565892 PMCID: PMC9101290 DOI: 10.3390/nu14091925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
When analysing the beneficial effects of phenolic compounds, several factors that exert a clear influence should be taken into account. The content of phenolic compounds in foods is highly variable, directly affecting individual dietary intake. Once ingested, these compounds have a greater or lesser bioaccessibility, defined as the amount available for absorption in the intestine after digestion, and a certain bioavailability, defined as the proportion of the molecule that is available after digestion, absorption and metabolism. Among the external factors that modify the content of phenolic compounds in food are the variety, the cultivation technique and the climate. Regarding functional foods, it is important to take into account the role of the selected food matrix, such as dairy matrices, liquid or solid matrices. It is also essential to consider the interactions between phenolic compounds as well as the interplay that occurs between these and several other components of the diet (macro- and micronutrients) at absorption, metabolism and mechanism of action levels. Furthermore, there is a great inter-individual variability in terms of phase II metabolism of these compounds, composition of the microbiota, and metabolic state or metabotype to which the subject belongs. All these factors introduce variability in the responses observed after ingestion of foods or nutraceuticals containing phenolic compounds.
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Tomar M, Bhardwaj R, Verma R, Singh SP, Dahuja A, Krishnan V, Kansal R, Yadav VK, Praveen S, Sachdev A. Interactome of millet-based food matrices: A review. Food Chem 2022; 385:132636. [PMID: 35339804 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Millets are recently being recognized as emerging food ingredients with multifaceted applications. Whole grain flours made from millets, exhibit diverse chemical compositions, starch digestibility and physicochemical properties. A food matrix can be viewed as a section of food microstructure, commonly coinciding with a physical spatial domain that interacts or imparts specific functionalities to a particular food constituent. The complex millet-based food matrices can help individuals to attain nutritional benefits due to the intricate and unique digestive properties of these foods. This review helps to fundamentally understand the binary and ternary interactions of millet-based foods. Nutritional bioavailability and bioaccessibility are also discussed based on additive, synergistic, masking, the antagonistic or neutralizing effect of different food matrix components on each other and the surrounding medium. The molecular basis of these interactions and their effect on important functional attributes like starch retrogradation, gelling, pasting, water, and oil holding capacity is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maharishi Tomar
- Division of Seed Technology, ICAR - Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India; Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Rakesh Bhardwaj
- Germplasm Evaluation Division, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi 110012, India.
| | - Reetu Verma
- Division of Crop Improvement, ICAR -Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India
| | - Sumer Pal Singh
- Division of Genetics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 284003, India
| | - Anil Dahuja
- Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Veda Krishnan
- Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Rekha Kansal
- ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, Pusa, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Vijay Kumar Yadav
- Division of Seed Technology, ICAR - Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi 284003, India
| | - Shelly Praveen
- Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India.
| | - Archana Sachdev
- Division of Biochemistry, ICAR - Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India.
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Tabone M, García-Merino JA, Bressa C, Rocha Guzman NE, Herrera Rocha K, Chu Van E, Castelli FA, Fenaille F, Larrosa M. Chronic Consumption of Cocoa Rich in Procyanidins Has a Marginal Impact on Gut Microbiota and on Serum and Fecal Metabolomes in Male Endurance Athletes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:1878-1889. [PMID: 35112856 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c07547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cocoa is used in the sports world as a supplement, although there is no consensus on its use. We investigated the effect of cocoa intake on intestinal ischemia (intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP)), serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels, gastrointestinal symptoms, and gut microbiota in endurance athletes during their training period on an unrestricted diet. We also performed a metabolomics analysis of serum and feces after a bout of exercise before and after supplementation. Cocoa consumption had no effect on I-FABP, LPS, or gastrointestinal symptoms. Cocoa intake significantly increased the abundance of Blautia and Lachnospira genera and decreased the abundance of the Agathobacter genus, which was accompanied by elevated levels of polyphenol fecal metabolites 4-hydroxy-5-(phenyl)-valeric acid and O-methyl-epicatechin-O-glucuronide. Our untargeted approach revealed that cocoa had no significant effects on serum and fecal metabolites and that its consumption had little impact on the metabolome after a bout of physical exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariangela Tabone
- MAS Microbiota Group, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid 28670, Spain
| | - Jose Angel García-Merino
- MAS Microbiota Group, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid 28670, Spain
| | - Carlo Bressa
- MAS Microbiota Group, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid 28670, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid 28223, Spain
| | - Nuria Elizabeth Rocha Guzman
- Grupo de Investigación en Alimentos Funcionales y Nutracéuticos, Unidad de Posgrado, Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Durango, Durango 34080, México
| | - Karen Herrera Rocha
- Grupo de Investigación en Alimentos Funcionales y Nutracéuticos, Unidad de Posgrado, Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico, TecNM/Instituto Tecnológico de Durango, Durango 34080, México
| | - Emeline Chu Van
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Florence A Castelli
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - François Fenaille
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), MetaboHUB, F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Mar Larrosa
- MAS Microbiota Group, Faculty of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid 28670, Spain
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, School of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), Madrid 28040, Spain
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8
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Azari H, Morovati A, Gargari BP, Sarbakhsh P. Beneficial effects of blueberry supplementation on the components of metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Food Funct 2022; 13:4875-4900. [DOI: 10.1039/d1fo03715c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a combination of interconnected disorders that puts a heavy burden on societies. This study investigated the impact of blueberry (BB) supplementation on components of MetS. A...
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9
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Influence of creamer addition on chlorogenic acid bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of instant coffee during in vitro digestion. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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10
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Yuan X, Wang Z, Zhang L, Sui R, Khan S. Exploring the inhibitory effects of liquiritigenin against tau fibrillation and related neurotoxicity as a model of preventive care in Alzheimer's disease. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 183:1184-1190. [PMID: 33965487 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Aggregation of tau protein into the form of insoluble amyloid fibrils is linked with Alzheimer's disease. The identification of potential small molecules that can inhibit tau protein from undergoing aggregation has received a great deal of interest, recently. In the present study, the possible inhibitory effects of liquiritigenin as a member of chiral flavanone family on tau amyloid fibrils formation and their resulting neurotoxicity were assessed by different biophysical and cellular assays. The inhibitory effect of the liquiritigenin against tau amyloid formation was investigated using thioflavin T (ThT) and 1-Anilino-8-naphthalene sulfonate (ANS) fluorescence spectroscopy, Congo red (CR) binding assays, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Neurotoxicity assays were also performed against neuron-like cells (SH-SY5Y) using 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction, reactive oxygen species (ROS), catalase (CAT) and caspase-3 activity measurements. We found that liquiritigenin served as an efficient inhibitor of tau amyloid fibrils formation through prevention of structural transition in tau structure, exposure of hydrophobic patches and their associated neurotoxicity mediated by decrease in the production of ROS and caspase-3 activity and elevation of CAT activity. These data may finally find applications in the development of promising inhibitors against amyloid fibril formation and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueling Yuan
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121099, China
| | - Zhuo Wang
- School of Nursing, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121099, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- School of Nursing, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121099, China
| | - Rubo Sui
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121099, China.
| | - Suliman Khan
- Department of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.
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11
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Saraswat P, Yadav P, Verma RK, Gaur R, Sharma K. Effect of Prosopis cineraria (L) druce pods and camel milk for nutritional enrichment in traditionally fermented minor millet's drink. Int J Gastron Food Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2020.100251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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12
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Ozkan G, Kostka T, Esatbeyoglu T, Capanoglu E. Effects of Lipid-Based Encapsulation on the Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Phenolic Compounds. Molecules 2020; 25:E5545. [PMID: 33256012 PMCID: PMC7731217 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenolic compounds (quercetin, rutin, cyanidin, tangeretin, hesperetin, curcumin, resveratrol, etc.) are known to have health-promoting effects and they are accepted as one of the main proposed nutraceutical group. However, their application is limited owing to the problems related with their stability and water solubility as well as their low bioaccessibility and bioavailability. These limitations can be overcome by encapsulating phenolic compounds by physical, physicochemical and chemical encapsulation techniques. This review focuses on the effects of encapsulation, especially lipid-based techniques (emulsion/nanoemulsion, solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes/nanoliposomes, etc.), on the digestibility characteristics of phenolic compounds in terms of bioaccessibility and bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulay Ozkan
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey; (G.O.); (E.C.)
| | - Tina Kostka
- Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Am Kleinen Felde 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Tuba Esatbeyoglu
- Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Am Kleinen Felde 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Esra Capanoglu
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey; (G.O.); (E.C.)
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13
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Kamiloglu S, Tomas M, Ozdal T, Capanoglu E. Effect of food matrix on the content and bioavailability of flavonoids. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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14
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Zhang Q, Cheng Z, Wang Y, Fu L. Dietary protein-phenolic interactions: characterization, biochemical-physiological consequences, and potential food applications. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 61:3589-3615. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1803199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qiaozhi Zhang
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Zhouzhou Cheng
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yanbo Wang
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Linglin Fu
- Food Safety Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province, School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
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15
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Pinarli B, Simge Karliga E, Ozkan G, Capanoglu E. Interaction of phenolics with food matrix: In vitro and in vivo approaches. MEDITERRANEAN JOURNAL OF NUTRITION AND METABOLISM 2020. [DOI: 10.3233/mnm-190362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beril Pinarli
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - E. Simge Karliga
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gulay Ozkan
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Esra Capanoglu
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
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16
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Thakur N, Raigond P, Singh Y, Mishra T, Singh B, Lal MK, Dutt S. Recent updates on bioaccessibility of phytonutrients. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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17
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Kılıç Bayraktar M, Harbourne NB, Fagan CC. Impact of heat treatment and acid gelation on polyphenol enriched milk samples. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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18
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Mayorga-Gross AL, Esquivel P. Impact of Cocoa Products Intake on Plasma and Urine Metabolites: A Review of Targeted and Non-Targeted Studies in Humans. Nutrients 2019; 11:E1163. [PMID: 31137636 PMCID: PMC6566337 DOI: 10.3390/nu11051163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cocoa is continuously drawing attention due to growing scientific evidence suggesting its effects on health. Flavanols and methylxanthines are some of the most important bioactive compounds present in cocoa. Other important bioactives, such as phenolic acids and lactones, are derived from microbial metabolism. The identification of the metabolites produced after cocoa intake is a first step to understand the overall effect on human health. In general, after cocoa intake, methylxanthines show high absorption and elimination efficiencies. Catechins are transformed mainly into sulfate and glucuronide conjugates. Metabolism of procyanidins is highly influenced by the polymerization degree, which hinders their absorption. The polymerization degree over three units leads to biotransformation by the colonic microbiota, resulting in valerolactones and phenolic acids, with higher excretion times. Long term intervention studies, as well as untargeted metabolomic approaches, are scarce. Contradictory results have been reported concerning matrix effects and health impact, and there are still scientific gaps that have to be addresed to understand the influence of cocoa intake on health. This review addresses different cocoa clinical studies, summarizes the different methodologies employed as well as the metabolites that have been identified in plasma and urine after cocoa intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lucía Mayorga-Gross
- Centro Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Patricia Esquivel
- Escuela de Tecnología de Alimentos, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
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Oracz J, Nebesny E, Zyzelewicz D, Budryn G, Luzak B. Bioavailability and metabolism of selected cocoa bioactive compounds: A comprehensive review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:1947-1985. [PMID: 31124371 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1619160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cocoa beans and their co-products are a rich source of beneficial compounds for health promotion, including polyphenols and methylxanthines. Knowledge of bioavailability and in vivo bioactivity of these phytochemicals is crucial to understand their role and function in human health. Therefore, many studies concerning bioavailability and bioactivity of cocoa bioactive compound have been done in both in vivo animal models and in humans. This critical review comprehensively summarizes the existing knowledge about the bioavailability and the major metabolic pathways of selected cocoa bioactive compounds (i.e. monomeric flavan-3-ols, procyanidins, anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids, N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino acids, stilbenes, and methylxanthines). The compiled results indicated that many of these compounds undergo extensive metabolism prior to absorption. Different factors have been suggested to influence the bioavailability of polyphenols and methylxanthines among them the role of gut microbiota, structure of these compounds, food matrix and occurrence of other substances were the most often considered. Aforementioned factors decided about the site where these bioactive compounds are digested and absorbed from the alimentary tract, as well as the pathway by which they are metabolized. These factors also determine of the type of transport through the intestine barrier (passive, involving specific enzymes or mediated by specific transporters) and their metabolic path and profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Oracz
- Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
| | - Ewa Nebesny
- Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
| | - Dorota Zyzelewicz
- Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
| | - Grazyna Budryn
- Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
| | - Boguslawa Luzak
- Department of Haemostasis and Haemostatic Disorders, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Wei Z, Huang Q. Assembly of Protein-Polysaccharide Complexes for Delivery of Bioactive Ingredients: A Perspective Paper. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:1344-1352. [PMID: 30640454 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b06063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Protein-polysaccharide complexes can be created in various ways (physical mixing, enzymatic cross-linking, chemical cross-linking, and Maillard reaction), and diverse protein-polysaccharide complexes are generally grouped into non-covalent and covalent complexes. Delivery systems constructed through assembly of protein-polysaccharide complexes (DSAPC) consist of emulsion-based delivery systems, capsule-based delivery systems, molecular complexes, nanogels, core-shell particles, composite nanoparticles, and micelles. DSAPC are effective delivery vehicles in enhancing the overall efficacy of bioactive ingredients, and DSAPC may possess multiple advantages over other delivery vehicles in bioactive ingredient delivery. However, designing and applying DSAPC are still faced with some challenges, such as low loading of bioactive ingredients. Efforts are required to reconsider and improve efficiency of DSAPC in many aspects, such as controlled release and targeted delivery. On the basis of more comprehensive and deeper understandings, DSAPC can be designed more rationally for delivery of bioactive ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Wei
- Department of Food Science , Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , 65 Dudley Road , New Brunswick , New Jersey 08901 , United States
| | - Qingrong Huang
- Department of Food Science , Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , 65 Dudley Road , New Brunswick , New Jersey 08901 , United States
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21
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Wang Y, Feltham BA, Suh M, Jones PJ. Cocoa flavanols and blood pressure reduction: Is there enough evidence to support a health claim in the United States? Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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22
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Paz-Yépez C, Peinado I, Heredia A, Andrés A. Lipids digestibility and polyphenols release under in vitro digestion of dark, milk and white chocolate. J Funct Foods 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2018.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Ikeda M, Iijima H, Shinoda I, Iwamoto H, Takeda Y. Effects of bovine lactoferrin on l-DOPA absorption and metabolism in mice. Food Funct 2018; 9:2865-2871. [PMID: 29707715 DOI: 10.1039/c7fo01518f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive natural products, habitually ingested with milk or its derivative nutrients, have been studied for their bioavailability. In this study, we investigated the effects of the co-administration of bovine milk-derived lactoferrin (bLF) and bioactive products, with a focus on catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), an enzyme in the catechol metabolism. bLF showed inhibitory activity on COMT in vitro, and acidic pretreatment of bLF enhanced its inhibitory activity. Moreover, partially digested products of bLF by pepsin retained inhibitory activity. Based on these results, bLF was co-administered with levodopa (l-DOPA), which is a catechol compound and a precursor of dopamine, and the effect of bLF on l-DOPA absorption and metabolism was investigated in a mouse model. The co-administration of l-DOPA and bLF alone showed no effect on the concentration of l-DOPA in plasma. However, with the additional administration of carbidopa, the concentration of l-DOPA was significantly enhanced. Furthermore, the ratio of l-DOPA/3-O-methyldopa significantly increased. On the other hand, casein, which is a major milk protein, was not effective. In addition, COMT activity in the intestines was lowered with bLF administration. We concluded that the co-administration of bLF and carbidopa enhances the concentration of l-DOPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Ikeda
- Wellness & Nutrition Science Institute, R&D Division, Morinaga Milk Industry Co., Ltd., Zama, Kanagawa 252-8583, Japan.
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Perez-Gregorio MR, Simal-Gandara J. A Critical Review of the Characterization of Polyphenol-Protein Interactions and of Their Potential Use for Improving Food Quality. Curr Pharm Des 2018; 23:2742-2753. [PMID: 28155599 DOI: 10.2174/1381612823666170202112530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interest in protein-phenol interactions in biological systems has grown substantially in recent decades. METHODS The interest has focused largely on food systems in response to reports on the prominent roles of phenolic compounds in nutrition and health. RESULTS Phenolic compounds can have both favourable and adverse nutritional effects. Polyphenols are widely known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antiaging properties; however, they have also been ascribed anti-nutritional effects resulting from interactions with some proteins and enzymes. Interactions between proteins and polyphenols can additionally influence food quality by altering some physical-chemical and sensory properties of foods. These effects may be useful to develop new products in food science and technology provided the nature of physical-chemical interactions between proteins and phenols is accurately elucidated. In this paper, we review the different possible modes of interaction between selected food proteins and phenolic compounds. CONCLUSION Existing knowledge on the mechanisms behind polyphenol-protein reactions, the structures of the resulting products and their potential uses is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosa Perez-Gregorio
- Departamento de Quimica e Bioquimica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua Campo Alegre 687, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jesus Simal-Gandara
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Food Science and Technology Faculty, University of Vigo - Ourense Campus, E-32004 Ourense, Spain
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Lucas-González R, Viuda-Martos M, Pérez-Alvarez JA, Fernández-López J. In vitro digestion models suitable for foods: Opportunities for new fields of application and challenges. Food Res Int 2018; 107:423-436. [PMID: 29580504 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In vitro digestion assays simulate the physiological conditions of digestion in vivo and are useful tools for studying and understanding changes, interactions, as well as the bioaccessibility of nutrients, drugs and non-nutritive compounds. The technique is widely used in fields such as nutrition, pharmacology and food chemistry. Over the last 40 years, more than 2500 research articles have been published using in vitro digestion assays (85% of which have been published in the last two decades) to elucidate multiple aspects such as protein digestibility, nutrient interactions or the viability of encapsulated microorganisms. The most recent trend in the use of this technique involves the determination of the antioxidant activity of bioactive compounds after digestion. However, the inability to reproduce certain in vivo digestion events, as well as the multiple models of in vitro digestion, point to a need to optimize and validate the method with in vivo assays to determine its limitations and uses. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the current state of the art of in vitro digestion models through an analysis of how they have evolved in terms of the development of digestion models (parameters, protocols, guidance) and taking into consideration the boom in new fields of application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Lucas-González
- IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Orihuela, Alicante, Spain
| | - Manuel Viuda-Martos
- IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Orihuela, Alicante, Spain
| | - José Angel Pérez-Alvarez
- IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Orihuela, Alicante, Spain
| | - Juana Fernández-López
- IPOA Research Group, Agro-Food Technology Department, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Orihuela, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Orihuela, Alicante, Spain.
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26
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Yildirim-Elikoglu S, Erdem YK. Interactions between milk proteins and polyphenols: Binding mechanisms, related changes, and the future trends in the dairy industry. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2017.1377225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Seda Yildirim-Elikoglu
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Yasar Kemal Erdem
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
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27
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Cao Y, Xiong YL. Interaction of Whey Proteins with Phenolic Derivatives Under Neutral and Acidic pH Conditions. J Food Sci 2017; 82:409-419. [DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yanyun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology and School of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan Univ; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
| | - Youling L. Xiong
- Dept. of Animal and Food Sciences; Univ. of Kentucky; Lexington KY 40546 U.S.A
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28
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Draijer R, van Dorsten FA, Zebregs YE, Hollebrands B, Peters S, Duchateau GS, Grün CH. Impact of Proteins on the Uptake, Distribution, and Excretion of Phenolics in the Human Body. Nutrients 2016; 8:nu8120814. [PMID: 27983686 PMCID: PMC5188469 DOI: 10.3390/nu8120814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyphenols, a complex group of secondary plant metabolites, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, have been studied in depth for their health-related benefits. The activity of polyphenols may, however, be hampered when consumed together with protein-rich food products, due to the interaction between polyphenols and proteins. To that end we have tested the bioavailability of representatives of a range of polyphenol classes when consumed for five days in different beverage matrices. In a placebo-controlled, randomized, cross-over study, 35 healthy males received either six placebo gelatine capsules consumed with 200 mL of water, six capsules with 800 mg polyphenols derived from red wine and grape extracts, or the same dose of polyphenols incorporated into 200 mL of either pasteurized dairy drink, soy drink (both containing 3.4% proteins) or fruit-flavoured protein-free drink . At the end of the intervention urine and blood was collected and analysed for a broad range of phenolic compounds using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Liquid Chromatography–Multiple Reaction Monitoring–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MRM-MS), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy techniques. The plasma and urine concentrations of the polyphenols identified increased with all formats, including the protein-rich beverages. Compared to capsule ingestion, consumption of polyphenol-rich beverages containing either dairy, soy or no proteins had minor to no effect on the bioavailability and excretion of phenolic compounds in plasma (118% ± 9%) and urine (98% ± 2%). We conclude that intake of polyphenols incorporated in protein-rich drinks does not have a major impact on the bioavailability of a range of different polyphenols and phenolic metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Draijer
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, Vlaardingen 3133 AT, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Yvonne E Zebregs
- Eurofins Global Central Laboratory, Breda 4817 PA, The Netherlands.
| | - Boudewijn Hollebrands
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, Vlaardingen 3133 AT, The Netherlands.
| | - Sonja Peters
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, Vlaardingen 3133 AT, The Netherlands.
| | - Guus S Duchateau
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, Vlaardingen 3133 AT, The Netherlands.
| | - Christian H Grün
- Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Olivier van Noortlaan 120, Vlaardingen 3133 AT, The Netherlands.
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29
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The total polyphenol content of various commercial cocoa beverages, with and without the addition of cow's milk. Proc Nutr Soc 2016. [DOI: 10.1017/s0029665115004553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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30
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Davison K, Howe PRC. Potential implications of dose and diet for the effects of cocoa flavanols on cardiometabolic function. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:9942-9947. [PMID: 26111215 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The metabolic syndrome is a pathological state whereby cardiovascular and metabolic dysfunction coexist and typically progress in a mutual feed-forward manner to further dysfunction and ultimately disease. The health and function of the vascular endothelium is integral in this phenomenon and thus represents a logical target for intervention. Consumption of foods high in cocoa flavanols has demonstrated a capacity to markedly improve endothelial function and key markers of the metabolic syndrome including blood pressure and insulin sensitivity. The typically high energy content of foods containing sufficient doses of cocoa flavanols has caused some reservations around its therapeutic use, but this is dependent upon the particulars of the food matrix used. Further to this, the food matrix appears to influence the dose response curve of cocoa flavanols, particularly on blood pressure, with dark chocolate appearing to be 8 times more effective in systolic blood pressure reduction than a cocoa powder drink for the equivalent dose of flavanol. Cocoa flavanol consumption conclusively demonstrates a positive impact on cardiometabolic function; however, more research is needed to understand how best to consume it to maximize the benefit while avoiding excessive fat and sugar consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kade Davison
- School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia , Frome Road, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia 5000
| | - Peter R C Howe
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, University of Newcastle , Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia 2308
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31
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Cifuentes-Gomez T, Rodriguez-Mateos A, Gonzalez-Salvador I, Alañon ME, Spencer JPE. Factors Affecting the Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion of Cocoa Flavanols in Humans. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7615-7623. [PMID: 25711140 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b00443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Cocoa is rich in a subclass of flavonoids known as flavanols, the cardiovascular health benefits of which have been extensively reported. The appearance of flavanol metabolites in the systemic circulation after flavanol-rich food consumption is likely to mediate the physiological effects on the vascular system, and these levels are influenced by numerous factors, including food matrix, processing, intake, age, gender, or genetic polymorphisms, among others. This review will focus on our current understanding of factors affecting the absorption, metabolism, and excretion of cocoa flavanols in humans. Second, it will identify gaps in these contributing factors that need to be addressed to conclusively translate our collective knowledge into the context of public health, dietary guidelines, and evidence-based dietary recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Cifuentes-Gomez
- Molecular Nutrition Group, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading , Reading RG2 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Rodriguez-Mateos
- Division of Cardiology, Pulmonology and Vascular Medicine, Medical Faculty, University of Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Isidro Gonzalez-Salvador
- Molecular Nutrition Group, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading , Reading RG2 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - María Elena Alañon
- Molecular Nutrition Group, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading , Reading RG2 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy P E Spencer
- Molecular Nutrition Group, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading , Reading RG2 6AP, United Kingdom
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32
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He Z, Yuan B, Zeng M, Chen J. Effect of thermal processing and digestive protease on the antioxidant capacity of fruit juice-milk beverage model systems under simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Int J Food Sci Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.12895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
| | - Bo Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
| | - Maomao Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition; Jiangnan University; Wuxi Jiangsu 214122 China
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33
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He Z, Yuan B, Zeng M, Tao G, Chen J. Effect of simulated processing on the antioxidant capacity and in vitro protein digestion of fruit juice-milk beverage model systems. Food Chem 2014; 175:457-64. [PMID: 25577106 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The effects of simulated processing (pH adjustment and thermal treatment) on the antioxidant capacity and in vitro protein digestion of fruit juice-milk beverage (FJMB) models consisting of whey protein (WP), and chlorogenic acid (CHA) or catechin (CAT) were investigated. Results indicated that CAT was more susceptible to processing than CHA, and showed a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in ABTS and FRAP after sterilization (121°C/10 min) and pH adjustment to 6.8. WP addition had different effects (none, masking, synergetic effect) on the antioxidant activity of FJMB. Pasteurization (63°C/30 min) and pH adjustment (pH 3.7 or pH 6.8) had either non-significant or slight effects on FJMB's antioxidant capacity, while sterilization significantly (p<0.05) increased or decreased its ABTS and FRAP depending on the different models. In vitro digestion of WP in FJMB was obviously (p < 0.05) inhibited by phenolics to varying degrees, and little influenced (p>0.05) by pasteurization, whereas sterilization initially accelerated WP digestion but did not change its overall digestibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China.
| | - Bo Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Maomao Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Guanjun Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China; Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Nutrition, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
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Moser S, Chegeni M, Jones OG, Liceaga A, Ferruzzi MG. The effect of milk proteins on the bioaccessibility of green tea flavan-3-ols. Food Res Int 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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35
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Martínez-López S, Sarriá B, Sierra-Cinos JL, Goya L, Mateos R, Bravo L. Realistic intake of a flavanol-rich soluble cocoa product increases HDL-cholesterol without inducing anthropometric changes in healthy and moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects. Food Funct 2014; 5:364-74. [PMID: 24394704 DOI: 10.1039/c3fo60352k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
To assess whether antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and other cardio-protective effects attributed to cocoa are achieved when regularly consuming moderate amounts of a flavanol-rich soluble cocoa product, a non-randomized, controlled, crossover, free-living study was carried out in healthy (n = 24; 25.9 ± 5.6 years) and moderately hypercholesterolemic (200-240 mg dL(-1); n = 20; 30.0 ± 10.3 years) volunteers. Participants consumed two servings per day (7.5 g per serving) of a soluble cocoa product (providing 45.3 mg flavanols per day) in milk, which was compared with consuming only milk during a 4 week period. The effects on systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate were determined, as well as on serum lipid and lipoprotein profiles, interleukins (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), vascular (VCAM-1) and intercellular cell adhesion molecules (ICAM-1), serum malondialdehyde (MDA), carbonyl groups (CG), ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and free radical scavenging capacity (ABTS). During the study, the volunteers' diets and physical activity were also evaluated, as well as any changes in weight, skin folds, circumferences and related anthropometric parameters. Cocoa and certain polyphenol-rich fruits and vegetables and their derivatives were restricted. After consuming the cocoa product positive effects were observed such as an increase in serum HDL-C (p < 0.001) and dietary fiber intake (p = 0.050), whereas IL-10 decreased (p = 0.022). Other cardiovascular-related biomarkers and anthropometric parameters were unaffected. We have therefore concluded that regular consumption of this cocoa product in a Spanish-Mediterranean diet may protect against cardiovascular disease in healthy and hypercholesterolemic subjects without producing any weight gain or other anthropometric changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Martínez-López
- Department of Metabolism and Nutrition, Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), José Antonio Nováis 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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Bordenave N, Hamaker BR, Ferruzzi MG. Nature and consequences of non-covalent interactions between flavonoids and macronutrients in foods. Food Funct 2014; 5:18-34. [PMID: 24326533 DOI: 10.1039/c3fo60263j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Many of the potential health benefits of flavonoids have been associated with their specific chemical and biological properties including their ability to interact and bind non-covalently to macronutrients in foods. While flavonoid-protein interactions and binding have been the subject of intensive study, significantly less is understood about non-covalent interactions with carbohydrates and lipids. These interactions with macronutrients are likely to impact both the flavonoid properties in foods, such as their radical scavenging activity, and the food or beverage matrix itself, including their taste, texture and other sensorial properties. Overall, non-covalent binding of flavonoids with macronutrients is primarily driven by van der Waals interactions. From the flavonoid perspective, these interactions are modulated by characteristics such as degree of polymerization, molecular flexibility, number of external hydroxyl groups, or number of terminal galloyl groups. From the macronutrient standpoint, electrostatic and ionic interactions are generally predominant with carbohydrates, while hydrophobic interactions are generally predominant with lipids and mainly limited to interactions with flavonols. All of these interactions are involved in flavonoid-protein interactions. While primarily associated with undesirable characteristics in foods and beverages, such as astringency, negative impact on macronutrient digestibility and hazing, more recent efforts have attempted to leverage these interactions to develop controlled delivery systems or strategies to enhance flavonoids bioavailability. This paper aims at reviewing the fundamental bases for non-covalent interactions, their occurrence in food and beverage systems and their impact on the physico-chemical, organoleptic and some nutritional properties of food.
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37
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Sengul H, Surek E, Nilufer-Erdil D. Investigating the effects of food matrix and food components on bioaccessibility of pomegranate (Punica granatum) phenolics and anthocyanins using an in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion model. Food Res Int 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.05.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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38
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Abstract
While many epidemiological studies have associated the consumption of polyphenols within fruits and vegetables with a decreased risk of developing several chronic diseases, intervention studies have generally not confirmed these beneficial effects. The reasons for this discrepancy are not fully understood but include potential differences in dosing, interaction with the food matrix, and differences in polyphenol bioavailability. In addition to endogenous factors such as microbiota and digestive enzymes, the food matrix can also considerably affect bioaccessibility, uptake, and further metabolism of polyphenols. While dietary fiber (such as hemicellulose), divalent minerals, and viscous and protein-rich meals are likely to cause detrimental effects on polyphenol bioaccessibility, digestible carbohydrates, dietary lipids (especially for hydrophobic polyphenols, e.g., curcumin), and additional antioxidants may enhance polyphenol availability. Following epithelial uptake, polyphenols such as flavonoids may reduce phase II metabolism and excretion, enhancing polyphenol bioavailability. Furthermore, polyphenols may act synergistically due to their influence on efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. In order to understand polyphenol bioactivity, increased knowledge of the factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability, including dietary factors, is paramount.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Bohn
- Centre de Recherche Public - Gabriel Lippmann, Environment and Agro-biotechnologies Department, Belvaux, Luxembourg
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39
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Scientific Opinion on the modification of the authorisation of a health claim related to cocoa flavanols and maintenance of normal endothelium‐dependent vasodilation pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 following a request in accordance with Article 19 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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40
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Cocoa polyphenols and inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease. Nutrients 2014; 6:844-80. [PMID: 24566441 PMCID: PMC3942736 DOI: 10.3390/nu6020844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Revised: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have demonstrated the beneficial effect of plant-derived food intake in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The potential bioactivity of cocoa and its polyphenolic components in modulating cardiovascular health is now being studied worldwide and continues to grow at a rapid pace. In fact, the high polyphenol content of cocoa is of particular interest from the nutritional and pharmacological viewpoints. Cocoa polyphenols are shown to possess a range of cardiovascular-protective properties, and can play a meaningful role through modulating different inflammatory markers involved in atherosclerosis. Accumulated evidence on related anti-inflammatory effects of cocoa polyphenols is summarized in the present review.
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Haratifar S, Meckling KA, Corredig M. Antiproliferative activity of tea catechins associated with casein micelles, using HT29 colon cancer cells. J Dairy Sci 2013; 97:672-8. [PMID: 24359816 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-7263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that green tea polyphenols display anticancer activities in many organ sites by using different experimental models in rodents and in cultured cell lines in vitro. The present study tested the ability of casein micelles to deliver biologically active concentrations of polyphenols to HT-29 colon cancer cells. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major catechin found in green tea, was used as the model molecule, as it has been shown to have antiproliferative activity on colon cancer cells. In the present work, we hypothesized that due to the binding of caseins with EGCG, casein micelles may be an ideal platform for the delivery of this bioactive molecule and that the binding would not affect the bioaccessibility of EGCG. The cytotoxicity and proliferation behavior of HT-29 colon cancer cells when exposed to free EGCG was compared with that of nanoencapsulated EGCG in casein micelles of skim milk. Epigallocatechin gallate-casein complexes were able to decrease the proliferation of HT-29 cancer cells, demonstrating that bioavailability may not be reduced by the nanoencapsulation. As casein micelles may act as protective carriers for EGCG in foods, it was concluded that nanoencapsulation of tea catechins in casein micelles may not diminish their antiproliferative activity on colon cancer cells compared with free tea catechins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Haratifar
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1.
| | - K A Meckling
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
| | - M Corredig
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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Abourashed EA. Bioavailability of Plant-Derived Antioxidants. Antioxidants (Basel) 2013; 2:309-25. [PMID: 26784467 PMCID: PMC4665521 DOI: 10.3390/antiox2040309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products with antioxidant properties have been extensively utilized in the pharmaceutical and food industry and have also been very popular as health-promoting herbal products. This review provides a summary of the literature published around the first decade of the 21st century regarding the oral bioavailability of carotenoids, polyphenols and sulfur compounds as the three major classes of plant-derived antioxidants. The reviewed original research includes more than 40 compounds belonging to the above mentioned classes of natural antioxidants. In addition, related reviews published during the same period have been cited. A brief introduction to general bioavailability-related definitions, procedures and considerations is also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab A Abourashed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Chicago State University, Chicago, IL 60628, USA.
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Rein MJ, Renouf M, Cruz-Hernandez C, Actis-Goretta L, Thakkar SK, da Silva Pinto M. Bioavailability of bioactive food compounds: a challenging journey to bioefficacy. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 75:588-602. [PMID: 22897361 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04425.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 439] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioavailability is a key step in ensuring bioefficacy of bioactive food compounds or oral drugs. Bioavailability is a complex process involving several different stages: liberation, absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination phases (LADME). Bioactive food compounds, whether derived from various plant or animal sources, need to be bioavailable in order to exert any beneficial effects. Through a better understanding of the digestive fate of bioactive food compounds we can impact the promotion of health and improvement of performance. Many varying factors affect bioavailability, such as bioaccessibility, food matrix effect, transporters, molecular structures and metabolizing enzymes. Bioefficacy may be improved through enhanced bioavailability. Therefore, several technologies have been developed to improve the bioavailability of xenobiotics, including structural modifications, nanotechnology and colloidal systems. Due to the complex nature of food bioactive compounds and also to the different mechanisms of absorption of hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactive compounds, unravelling the bioavailability of food constituents is challenging. Among the food sources discussed during this review, coffee, tea, citrus fruit and fish oil were included as sources of food bioactive compounds (e.g. (poly)phenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)) since they are examples of important ingredients for the food industry. Although there are many studies reporting on bioavailability and bioefficacy of these bioactive food components, understanding their interactions, metabolism and mechanism of action still requires extensive work. This review focuses on some of the major factors affecting the bioavailability of the aforementioned bioactive food compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarit J Rein
- Nutrient Bioavailability Group, Nestle Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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45
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Hollands WJ, Hart DJ, Dainty JR, Hasselwander O, Tiihonen K, Wood R, Kroon PA. Bioavailability of epicatechin and effects on nitric oxide metabolites of an apple flavanol-rich extract supplemented beverage compared to a whole apple puree: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Mol Nutr Food Res 2013; 57:1209-17. [PMID: 23610075 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201200663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
SCOPE Flavanol-rich foods are known to exert beneficial effects on cardiovascular health. The biological effects depend on bioavailability of flavanols which may be influenced by food matrix and dose ingested. We compared the bioavailability and dose-response of epicatechin from whole apple and an epicatechin-rich extract, and the effects on plasma and urinary nitric oxide (NO) metabolites. METHODS AND RESULTS In a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial, subjects consumed drinks containing 70 and 140 mg epicatechin from an apple extract and an apple puree containing 70 mg epicatechin. Blood and urine samples were collected for 24 h post ingestion. Maximum plasma concentration, AUC(0-24 h) , absorption and urinary excretion were all significantly higher after ingestion of both epicatechin drinks compared with apple puree (p < 0.05). Time to maximum plasma concentration was significantly later for the puree compared with the drinks (p < 0.01). Epicatechin bioavailability was >2-fold higher after ingestion of the 140 mg epicatechin drink compared to the 70 mg epicatechin drink (p < 0.05). Excretion of NO metabolites was higher for all test products compared with placebo, which was significant for the high dose drink (p = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS Oral bioavailability of apple epicatechin increases at higher doses, is reduced by whole apple matrix and has the potential to increase NO bioavailability.
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Abstract
Chocolate has been consumed as confection, aphrodisiac, and folk medicine for many years before science proved its potential health benefiting effects. Main compounds of cocoa and chocolate which contribute to human health are polyphenols that act as antioxidants and have potential anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antihepatotoxic, antibacterial, antiviral, antiallergenic, and anticarcinogenic properties. This paper gives a short overview of scientific literature regarding cocoa polyphenols and influence of cocoa and chocolate on human health. Although research on health benefits of dark chocolate and cocoa is quite extensive nowadays and shows potentially beneficial effects of dark chocolate and cocoa, there are still lots of unknowns and some controversies. This is obviously an area that needs more research in order to determine factual influence of chocolate on health.
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Human bioavailability of flavanols and phenolic acids from cocoa-nut creams enriched with free or microencapsulated cocoa polyphenols. Br J Nutr 2012; 109:1832-43. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114512003881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Human bioavailability of cocoa flavanols and phenolic acids from a cocoa-nut cream (CC) and from CC enriched with a 1·5 % (w/w) cocoa polyphenol extract in free form (FPC) or encapsulated with a gastric-resistant high-amylose maize starch (EPC), was studied. In a randomised cross-over protocol, with 1-week wash-out in between, twelve healthy volunteers had three portions/d of each cream, providing approximately 190 μmol/d of total flavanols and 12 μmol/d of total phenolic acids with CC and 385 and 28 μmol/d with both FPC and EPC, respectively. Blood, urine and faecal samples were analysed by HPLC/MS/MS. Serum (epi)catechin was absent at baseline and after CC consumption, while 22·1 (sem 2·62) and 1·59 (sem 0·22) nmol (P <0·05) were found after FPC and EPC, respectively. The EPC increased faecal excretion of total flavanols compared to FPC (151·0 (sem 54·6) v. 28·0 (sem 14·0) nmol; P <0·05). Within 6 h after consumption, serum phenolic acid content was 50-fold higher than (epi)catechin; no difference between CC and FPC was observed, but a significant reduction after EPC (1954 (sem 236·3) and 1459 (sem 137·6) v. 726·8 (sem 73·4) nmol, P <0·05) was recorded. Short-term phenolic acid urinary excretions were significantly higher after FPC than CC and EPC, the values being 11·4 (sem 5·1) v. 3·1 (sem 1·7) and 0·9 (sem 0·5) μmol, respectively. Faecal phenolic acids were approximately 60-fold reduced after FPC (8·1 (sem 0·13) nmol) and EPC (14·7 (sem 2·7) nmol) consumption compared to CC (641·4 (sem 99·1) nmol) consumption. The data demonstrated that: (i) (epi)catechin was absorbed from CC; (ii) cocoa polyphenols' consumption increased circulating phenolic acids; and (iii) encapsulated ingredient increased flavanol delivering into the gut. Further studies should evaluate whether encapsulated cocoa polyphenols may be a functional prebiotic ingredient.
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Etcheverry P, Grusak MA, Fleige LE. Application of in vitro bioaccessibility and bioavailability methods for calcium, carotenoids, folate, iron, magnesium, polyphenols, zinc, and vitamins B(6), B(12), D, and E. Front Physiol 2012; 3:317. [PMID: 22934067 PMCID: PMC3429087 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
A review of in vitro bioaccessibility and bioavailability methods for polyphenols and selected nutrients is presented. The review focuses on in vitro solubility, dialyzability, the dynamic gastrointestinal model (TIM)™, and Caco-2 cell models, the latter primarily for uptake and transport, and a discussion of how these methods have been applied to generate data for a range of nutrients, carotenoids, and polyphenols. Recommendations are given regarding which methods are most justified for answering bioaccessibility or bioavailability related questions for specific nutrients. The need for more validation studies in which in vivo results are compared to in vitro results is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Etcheverry
- Department of Pediatrics, USDA-ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston TX, USA
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Human O-sulfated metabolites of (−)-epicatechin and methyl-(−)-epicatechin are poor substrates for commercial aryl-sulfatases: Implications for studies concerned with quantifying epicatechin bioavailability. Pharmacol Res 2012; 65:592-602. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Abstract
The beneficial effects of cocoa on vascular function are mediated by the absorption of monomeric flavanols into the circulation from the small intestine. As such, an understanding of the impact of the food matrix on the delivery of flavanols to the circulation is critical in assessing the potential vascular impact of a food. In the present study, we investigated the impact of carbohydrate type on flavanol absorption and metabolism from chocolate. A randomised, double-blind, three-arm cross-over study was conducted, where fifteen volunteers were randomly assigned to either a high-flavanol (266 mg) chocolate containing maltitol, a high-flavanol (251 mg) chocolate with sucrose or a low-flavanol (48 mg) chocolate with sucrose. Test chocolates were matched for micro- and macronutrients, including the alkaloids theobromine and caffeine, and were similar in taste and appearance. Total flavanol absorption was lower after consumption of the maltitol-containing test chocolate compared with following consumption of its sucrose-containing equivalent (P = 0·002). Although the O-methylation pattern observed for absorbed flavanols was unaffected by sugar type, individual levels of unmethylated ( - )-epicatechin metabolites, 3'-O-methyl-epicatechin and 4'-O-methyl-epicatechin metabolites were lower for the maltitol-containing test chocolate compared with the sucrose-containing equivalent. Despite a reduction in the total plasma pool of flavanols, the maximum time (T max) was unaffected. The present data indicate that full assessment of intervention treatments is vital in future intervention trials with flavanols and that carbohydrate content is an important determinant for the optimal delivery of flavanols to the circulation.
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