1
|
Li Y, Zhao Y, Du Y, Ren X, Ding H, Wang Z. Recent advances in the development and applications of luminescent bacteria-based biosensors. LUMINESCENCE 2024; 39:e4721. [PMID: 38501275 DOI: 10.1002/bio.4721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Luminescent bacteria-based biosensors are widely used for fast and sensitive monitoring of food safety, water quality, and other environmental pollutions. Recent advancements in biomedical engineering technology have led to improved portability, integration, and intelligence of these biotoxicity assays. Moreover, genetic engineering has played a significant role in the development of recombinant luminescent bacterial biosensors, enhancing both detection accuracy and sensitivity. This review provides an overview of recent advances in the development and applications of novel luminescent bacteria-based biosensors, and future perspectives and challenges in the cutting-edge research, market translation, and practical applications of luminescent bacterial biosensing are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Li
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Yuankun Zhao
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Yiyang Du
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Xuechun Ren
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Mixed Reality and Advanced Display, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - He Ding
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Mixed Reality and Advanced Display, School of Optics and Photonics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhimin Wang
- Advanced Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pi S, Luo Y, Liu YJ. Thorough Understanding of Bioluminophore Production in Bacterial Bioluminescence. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:6604-6616. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c04311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuangqi Pi
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yanling Luo
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Ya-Jun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Center for Advanced Materials Research, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai 519087, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu YJ. Understanding the complete bioluminescence cycle from a multiscale computational perspective: A review. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C: PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2022.100537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
4
|
Bae JW, Seo HB, Belkin S, Gu MB. An optical detection module-based biosensor using fortified bacterial beads for soil toxicity assessment. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:3373-3381. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02469-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
5
|
JIN XW, LI ZY, XU PP, ZHANG XY, REN NQ, Kurilenko VV, SUN K. Advances in Microfluidic Biosensors Based on Luminescent Bacteria. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(19)61139-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
6
|
Lee J, Müller F, Visser AJWG. The Sensitized Bioluminescence Mechanism of Bacterial Luciferase. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 95:679-704. [PMID: 30485901 DOI: 10.1111/php.13063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
After more than one-half century of investigations, the mechanism of bioluminescence from the FMNH2 assisted oxygen oxidation of an aliphatic aldehyde on bacterial luciferase continues to resist elucidation. There are many types of luciferase from species of bioluminescent bacteria originating from both marine and terrestrial habitats. The luciferases all have close sequence homology, and in vitro, a highly efficient light generation is obtained from these natural metabolites as substrates. Sufficient exothermicity equivalent to the energy of a blue photon is available in the chemical oxidation of the aldehyde to the corresponding carboxylic acid, and a luciferase-bound FMNH-OOH is a key player. A high energy species, the source of the exothermicity, is unknown except that it is not a luciferin cyclic peroxide, a dioxetanone, as identified in the pathway of the firefly and the marine bioluminescence systems. Besides these natural substrates, variable bioluminescence properties are found using other reactants such as flavin analogs or aldehydes, but results also depend on the luciferase type. Some rationalization of the mechanism has resulted from spatial structure determination, NMR of intermediates and dynamic optical spectroscopy. The overall light path appears to fall into the sensitized class of chemiluminescence mechanism, distinct from the dioxetanone types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | | | - Antonie J W G Visser
- Laboratory of Biochemistry Microspectroscopy Centre, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
First biochemical and crystallographic characterization of a fast-performing ferritin from a marine invertebrate. Biochem J 2017; 474:4193-4206. [PMID: 29127253 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20170681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Ferritin, a multimeric cage-like enzyme, is integral to iron metabolism across all phyla through the sequestration and storage of iron through efficient ferroxidase activity. While ferritin sequences from ∼900 species have been identified, crystal structures from only 50 species have been reported, the majority from bacterial origin. We recently isolated a secreted ferritin from the marine invertebrate Chaetopterus sp. (parchment tube worm), which resides in muddy coastal seafloors. Here, we present the first ferritin from a marine invertebrate to be crystallized and its biochemical characterization. The initial ferroxidase reaction rate of recombinant Chaetopterus ferritin (ChF) is 8-fold faster than that of recombinant human heavy-chain ferritin (HuHF). To our knowledge, this protein exhibits the fastest catalytic performance ever described for a ferritin variant. In addition to the high-velocity ferroxidase activity, ChF is unique in that it is secreted by Chaetopterus in a bioluminescent mucus. Previous work has linked the availability of Fe2+ to this long-lived bioluminescence, suggesting a potential function for the secreted ferritin. Comparative biochemical analyses indicated that both ChF and HuHF showed similar behavior toward changes in pH, temperature, and salt concentration. Comparison of their crystal structures shows no significant differences in the catalytic sites. Notable differences were found in the residues that line both 3-fold and 4-fold pores, potentially leading to increased flexibility, reduced steric hindrance, or a more efficient pathway for Fe2+ transportation to the ferroxidase site. These suggested residues could contribute to the understanding of iron translocation through the ferritin shell to the ferroxidase site.
Collapse
|
9
|
Sharifian S, Homaei A, Hemmati R, Khajeh K. Light emission miracle in the sea and preeminent applications of bioluminescence in recent new biotechnology. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2017; 172:115-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2017.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
|
10
|
Molecular dynamics studies unravel role of conserved residues responsible for movement of ions into active site of DHBPS. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40452. [PMID: 28079168 PMCID: PMC5228156 DOI: 10.1038/srep40452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase (DHBPS) catalyzes the conversion of D-ribulose 5-phosphate (Ru5P) to L-3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate in the presence of Mg2+. Although crystal structures of DHBPS in complex with Ru5P and non-catalytic metal ions have been reported, structure with Ru5P along with Mg2+ is still elusive. Therefore, mechanistic role played by Mg2+ in the structure of DHBPS is poorly understood. In this study, molecular dynamics simulations of DHBPS-Ru5P complex along with Mg2+ have shown entry of Mg2+ from bulk solvent into active site. Presence of Mg2+ in active site has constrained conformations of Ru5P and has reduced flexibility of loop-2. Formation of hydrogen bonds among Thr-108 and residues - Gly-109, Val-110, Ser-111, and Asp-114 are found to be critical for entry of Mg2+ into active site. Subsequent in silico mutations of residues, Thr-108 and Asp-114 have substantiated the importance of these interactions. Loop-4 of one monomer is being proposed to act as a “lid” covering the active site of other monomer. Further, the conserved nature of residues taking part in the transfer of Mg2+ suggests the same mechanism being present in DHBPS of other microorganisms. Thus, this study provides insights into the functioning of DHBPS that can be used for the designing of inhibitors.
Collapse
|
11
|
Theoretical Analysis of the Effect Provoked by Bromine-Addition on the Thermolysis and Chemiexcitation of a Model Dioxetanone. J CHEM-NY 2017. [DOI: 10.1155/2017/1903981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemi-/bioluminescence are phenomena in which chemical energy is converted into electronically excited singlet states, which decay with light emission. Given this feature, along with high quantum yields and other beneficial characteristics, these systems have gained numerous applications in bioanalysis, in biomedicine, and in the pharmaceutical field. Singlet chemiexcitation is made possible by the formation of cyclic peroxides (as dioxetanones) as thermolysis provides a route for a ground state reaction to produce singlet excited states. However, such thermolysis can also lead to the formation of triplet states. While triplet states are not desired in the typical applications of chemi-/bioluminescence, the efficient production of such states can open the door for the use of these systems as sensitizers in photocatalysis and triplet-triplet annihilation, among other fields. Thus, the goal of this study is to assess the effect of heavy atom addition on the thermolysis and triplet chemiexcitation of a model dioxetanone. Monobromination does not affect the thermolysis reaction but can improve the efficiency of intersystem crossing, depending on the position of monobromination. Addition of bromine atoms to the triplet state reaction product has little effect on its properties, except on its electron affinity, in which monobromination can increase between 3.1 and 8.8 kcal mol−1.
Collapse
|
12
|
Lee J. Perspectives on Bioluminescence Mechanisms. Photochem Photobiol 2016; 93:389-404. [PMID: 27748947 DOI: 10.1111/php.12650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of the bioluminescence systems of the firefly, bacteria and those utilizing imidazopyrazinone luciferins such as coelenterazine are gradually being uncovered using modern biophysical methods such as dynamic (ns-ps) fluorescence spectroscopy, NMR, X-ray crystallography and computational chemistry. The chemical structures of all reactants are well defined, and the spatial structures of the luciferases are providing important insight into interactions within the active cavity. It is generally accepted that the firefly and coelenterazine systems, although proceeding by different chemistries, both generate a dioxetanone high-energy species that undergoes decarboxylation to form directly the product in its S1 state, the bioluminescence emitter. More work is still needed to establish the structure of the products completely. In spite of the bacterial system receiving the most research attention, the chemical pathway for excitation remains mysterious except that it is clearly not by a decarboxylation. Both the coelenterazine and bacterial systems have in common of being able to employ "antenna proteins," lumazine protein and the green-fluorescent protein, for tuning the color of the bioluminescence. Spatial structure information has been most valuable in informing the mechanism of the Ca2+ -regulated photoproteins and the antenna protein interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Tsarkova AS, Kaskova ZM, Yampolsky IV. A Tale Of Two Luciferins: Fungal and Earthworm New Bioluminescent Systems. Acc Chem Res 2016; 49:2372-2380. [PMID: 27696815 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Bioluminescence, the ability of a living organism to produce light through a chemical reaction, is one of Nature's most amazing phenomena widely spread among marine and terrestrial species. There are various different mechanisms underlying the emission of "cold light", but all involve a small molecule, luciferin, that provides energy for light-generation upon oxidation, and a protein, luciferase, that catalyzes the reaction. Different species often use different proteins and substrates in the process, which suggests that the ability to produce light evolved independently several times throughout evolution. Currently, it is estimated that there are more than 30 different mechanisms of bioluminescence. Even though the chemical foundation underlying the bioluminescence phenomenon is by now generally understood, only a handful of luciferins have been isolated and characterized. Today, the known bioluminescence reactions are used as indispensable analytical tools in various fields of science and technology. A pressing need for new bioluminescent analytical techniques with a wider range of practical applications stimulates the search and chemical studies of new bioluminescent systems. In the past few years two such systems were unraveled: those of the earthworms Fridericia heliota and the higher fungi. The luciferins of these two systems do not share structural similarity with the previously known ones. This Account will survey structure elucidation of the novel luciferins and identification of their mechanisms of action. Fridericia luciferin is a key component of a novel ATP-dependent bioluminescence system. Structural studies were performed on 0.005 mg of natural substance and revealed its unusual extensively modified peptidic nature. Elucidation of Fridericia oxyluciferin revealed that oxidative decarboxylation of a lysine fragment of luciferin supplies energy for light generation, while a fluorescent CompX moiety remains intact and serves as a light emitter. Along with luciferin, a number of its natural analogs were found in the extracts of worm biomass. They occurred to be highly unusual modified peptides comprising a set of amino acids, including threonine, aminobutyric acid, homoarginine, unsymmetrical N,N-dimethylarginine and extensively modified tyrosine. These natural compounds represent a unique peptide chemistry found in terrestrial animals and raise novel questions concerning their biosynthetic origin. Also in this Account we discuss identification of the luciferin of higher fungi 3-hydroxyhispidin which is biosynthesized by oxidation of the precursor hispidin, a known fungal and plant secondary metabolite. Furthermore, it was shown that 3-hydroxyhispidin leads to bioluminescence in extracts from four diverse genera of luminous fungi, thus suggesting a common biochemical mechanism for fungal bioluminescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra S. Tsarkova
- Institute
of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya
16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Zinaida M. Kaskova
- Institute
of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya
16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Ilia V. Yampolsky
- Institute
of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya
16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Rawat R, Deheyn DD. Evidence that ferritin is associated with light production in the mucus of the marine worm Chaetopterus. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36854. [PMID: 27830745 PMCID: PMC5103273 DOI: 10.1038/srep36854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The blue glow of the mucus from Chaetopterus involves a photoprotein, iron and flavins. Identity and respective role of these components remain, however, largely unresolved today, likely because of viscosity issues and inhibition of this system by oxidizers conventionally used to track bioluminescence activity. Here, we used gentle centrifugation to obtain a mucus supernatant showing no inhibition to oxidizers, allowing for further analysis. We applied conventional chromatographic techniques to isolate major proteins associated with light emission. Luminescence ability of elutriate fractions was tested with hydrogen peroxide to track photoprotein and/or protein-bound chromophore. Fractions producing light contained few major proteins, one with similarity to ferritin. Addition to the mucus of elements with inhibitory/potentiary effect on ferritin ferroxidase activity induced corresponding changes in light production, emphasizing the possible role of ferritin in the worm bioluminescence. DNA of the protein was cloned, sequenced, and expressed, confirming its identity to a Chaetopterus Ferritin (ChF). Both ferric and ferrous iron were found in the mucus, indicating the occurrence of both oxidase and reductase activity. Biochemical analysis showed ChF has strong ferroxidase activity, which could be a source of biological iron and catalytic energy for the worm bioluminescence when coupled to a reduction process with flavins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renu Rawat
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Marine Biology Research Division, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gillman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Dimitri D Deheyn
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Marine Biology Research Division, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gillman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Holt AL, Sweeney AM. Open water camouflage via 'leaky' light guides in the midwater squid Galiteuthis. J R Soc Interface 2016; 13:rsif.2016.0230. [PMID: 27278362 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Galiteuthis, a midwater squid, has photophores on the ventral surfaces of its eyes. These photophores emit bioluminescence to counter-illuminate the shadows cast by the eyes in downwelling sunlight, thereby hiding the eyes from upward-looking predators. The photophores consist of laminated fibre-like cells with semi-coaxial protein-dense layers around axial cytoplasm. These cells have been suggested to function as light guides: bioluminescence is an isotropic process used to hide in an anisotropic light environment, so any emission must be reshaped to be effective. We found a wide variation in cross-sectional geometries of photophore cells; some were more efficient at light guiding than others. We used a set of optical models to place these photophores in the context of the radiance where Galiteuthis lives and discovered a possible adaptive reason for this variation. In Galiteuthis's horizontal and vertical range, ocean radiance is also quite variable. For complete camouflage, photophores must reproduce this variation in radiance using an isotropic source. Our models show that variation in the geometry of the photophore light guides reproduces the predicted variation in ocean radiance experienced by this species. By selectively activating geometrically distinct populations of photophore cells, the animal may reproduce the angular distribution of light at all positions in its habitat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Holt
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, David Rittenhouse Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Alison M Sweeney
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, David Rittenhouse Laboratories, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jiang T, Wang W, Wu X, Wu W, Bai H, Ma Z, Shen Y, Yang K, Li M. Discovery of New Substrates forLuxABBacterial Bioluminescence. Chem Biol Drug Des 2016; 88:197-208. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Jiang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Weishan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources; Institute of Microbiology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Xingkang Wu
- Department of Natural Products; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Wenxiao Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Haixiu Bai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Zhao Ma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Yuemao Shen
- Department of Natural Products; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| | - Keqian Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources; Institute of Microbiology; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing 100190 China
| | - Minyong Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry; Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (MOE); School of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Shandong University; Jinan Shandong 250012 China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Pes O, Midlik A, Schlaghamersky J, Zitnan M, Taborsky P. A study on bioluminescence and photoluminescence in the earthworm Eisenia lucens. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2016; 15:175-80. [DOI: 10.1039/c5pp00412h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Eisenia lucens is a bioluminescent earthworm found in the organic soil layer of decomposing wood. Many lines of evidence indicate that riboflavin stored in coelomycetes plays an important role in this glowing reaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O. Pes
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Medicine
- Masaryk University
- Brno
- Czech Rep
| | - A. Midlik
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Medicine
- Masaryk University
- Brno
- Czech Rep
| | - J. Schlaghamersky
- Department of Botany and Zoology
- Faculty of Science
- Masaryk University
- Brno
- Czech Republic
| | - M. Zitnan
- Material Research Centre
- Faculty of Chemistry
- Brno Technical University of Technology
- Brno
- Czech Republic
| | - P. Taborsky
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Masaryk University
- Brno
- Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kim JE, Kalimuthu S, Ahn BC. In vivo cell tracking with bioluminescence imaging. Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2014; 49:3-10. [PMID: 25774232 DOI: 10.1007/s13139-014-0309-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular imaging is a fast growing biomedical research that allows the visual representation, characterization and quantification of biological processes at the cellular and subcellular levels within intact living organisms. In vivo tracking of cells is an indispensable technology for development and optimization of cell therapy for replacement or renewal of damaged or diseased tissue using transplanted cells, often autologous cells. With outstanding advantages of bioluminescence imaging, the imaging approach is most commonly applied for in vivo monitoring of transplanted stem cells or immune cells in order to assess viability of administered cells with therapeutic efficacy in preclinical small animal models. In this review, a general overview of bioluminescence is provided and recent updates of in vivo cell tracking using the bioluminescence signal are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jung Eun Kim
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine and Hospital, 50, Samduk 2-ga, Jung Gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea 700-721
| | - Senthilkumar Kalimuthu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine and Hospital, 50, Samduk 2-ga, Jung Gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea 700-721
| | - Byeong-Cheol Ahn
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine and Hospital, 50, Samduk 2-ga, Jung Gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea 700-721
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Branchini BR, Behney CE, Southworth TL, Rawat R, Deheyn DD. Chemical Analysis of the Luminous Slime Secreted by the Marine WormChaetopterus(Annelida, Polychaeta). Photochem Photobiol 2013; 90:247-51. [DOI: 10.1111/php.12169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Renu Rawat
- Marine Biology Research Division; Scripps Institution of Oceanography; University of California San Diego; La Jolla CA
| | - Dimitri D. Deheyn
- Marine Biology Research Division; Scripps Institution of Oceanography; University of California San Diego; La Jolla CA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Pallotta ML. Evidence for the presence of a FAD pyrophosphatase and a FMN phosphohydrolase in yeast mitochondria: a possible role in flavin homeostasis. Yeast 2011; 28:693-705. [PMID: 21915900 DOI: 10.1002/yea.1897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the crucial roles of flavin cofactors in metabolism, we know little about the enzymes responsible for the turnover of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and their subcellular localization. The mechanism by which mitochondria obtain their own flavin cofactors is an interesting point of investigation, because FMN and FAD are mainly located in mitochondria, where they act as redox cofactors of a number of dehydrogenases and oxidases that play a crucial function in both bioenergetics and cellular regulation. In this context, the capability of yeast mitochondria to metabolize externally added and endogenous FAD and FMN was investigated and use was made of purified and bioenergetically active mitochondria prepared starting from the Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell. To determine whether flavin metabolism can occur, the amounts of flavins in aliquots of neutralized perchloric extracts of both spheroplasts and mitochondria were measured by HPLC, and the competence of S. cerevisiae mitochondria to metabolize FAD and FMN was investigated both spectroscopically and via HPLC. FAD deadenylation and FMN dephosphorylation were studied with respect to dependence on substrate concentration, pH profile and inhibitor sensitivity. The existence of two novel mitochondrial FAD pyrophosphatase (diphosphatase) (EC 3.6.1.18) and FMN phosphohydrolase (EC 3.1.3.2) activities, which catalyse the reactions FAD + H₂O → FMN + AMP and FMN + H₂O → riboflavin + Pi respectively, is here shown by fractionation studies. Considering cytosolic riboflavin, FMN and FAD concentrations, as calculated by measuring both spheroplast and mitochondrial contents via HPLC, probably mitochondria play a major role in regulating the flavin pool in yeast and in relation to flavin homeostasis.
Collapse
|
21
|
Close DM, Hahn RE, Patterson SS, Baek SJ, Ripp SA, Sayler GS. Comparison of human optimized bacterial luciferase, firefly luciferase, and green fluorescent protein for continuous imaging of cell culture and animal models. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2011; 16:047003. [PMID: 21529093 PMCID: PMC3094131 DOI: 10.1117/1.3564910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Revised: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Bioluminescent and fluorescent reporter systems have enabled the rapid and continued growth of the optical imaging field over the last two decades. Of particular interest has been noninvasive signal detection from mammalian tissues under both cell culture and whole animal settings. Here we report on the advantages and limitations of imaging using a recently introduced bacterial luciferase (lux) reporter system engineered for increased bioluminescent expression in the mammalian cellular environment. Comparison with the bioluminescent firefly luciferase (Luc) system and green fluorescent protein system under cell culture conditions demonstrated a reduced average radiance, but maintained a more constant level of bioluminescent output without the need for substrate addition or exogenous excitation to elicit the production of signal. Comparison with the Luc system following subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection into nude mice hosts demonstrated the ability to obtain similar detection patterns with in vitro experiments at cell population sizes above 2.5 × 10(4) cells but at the cost of increasing overall image integration time.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Diagnostic Imaging/methods
- Genes, Reporter
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/analysis
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/genetics
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism
- HEK293 Cells
- Humans
- Luciferases, Bacterial/analysis
- Luciferases, Bacterial/genetics
- Luciferases, Bacterial/metabolism
- Luciferases, Firefly/analysis
- Luciferases, Firefly/genetics
- Luciferases, Firefly/metabolism
- Luminescent Measurements/methods
- Luminescent Proteins/analysis
- Luminescent Proteins/genetics
- Luminescent Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Signal Processing, Computer-Assisted
- Whole Body Imaging
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan M Close
- University of Tennessee, Center for Environmental Biotechnology, 1414 Circle Drive, 676 Dabney Hall, Knoxville, Tennesssee 37996, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Karatani H, Yoshizawa S, Hirayama S. Oxygen Triggering Reversible Modulation of Vibrio fischeri Strain Y1 Bioluminescence In Vivo¶. Photochem Photobiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb09866.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
23
|
Bright mutants of Vibrio fischeri ES114 reveal conditions and regulators that control bioluminescence and expression of the lux operon. J Bacteriol 2010; 192:5103-14. [PMID: 20693328 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00524-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vibrio fischeri ES114, an isolate from the Euprymna scolopes light organ, produces little bioluminescence in culture but is ∼1,000-fold brighter when colonizing the host. Cell-density-dependent regulation alone cannot explain this phenomenon, because cells within colonies on solid medium are much dimmer than symbiotic cells despite their similar cell densities. To better understand this low luminescence in culture, we screened ∼20,000 mini-Tn5 mutants of ES114 for increased luminescence and identified 28 independent "luminescence-up" mutants with insertions in 14 loci. Mutations affecting the Pst phosphate uptake system led to the discovery that luminescence is upregulated under low-phosphate conditions by PhoB, and we also found that ainS, which encodes an autoinducer synthase, mediates repression of luminescence during growth on plates. Other novel luminescence-up mutants had insertions in acnB, topA, tfoY, phoQ, guaB, and two specific tRNA genes. Two loci, hns and lonA, were previously described as repressors of bioluminescence in transgenic Escherichia coli carrying the light-generating lux genes, and mutations in arcA and arcB were consistent with our report that Arc represses lux. Our results reveal a complex regulatory web governing luminescence and show how certain environmental conditions are integrated into regulation of the pheromone-dependent lux system.
Collapse
|
24
|
Bose JL, Rosenberg CS, Stabb EV. Effects of luxCDABEG induction in Vibrio fischeri: enhancement of symbiotic colonization and conditional attenuation of growth in culture. Arch Microbiol 2008; 190:169-83. [PMID: 18521572 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-008-0387-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Revised: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 05/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Production of bioluminescence theoretically represents a cost, energetic or otherwise, that could slow Vibrio fischeri growth; however, bioluminescence is also thought to enable full symbiotic colonization of the Euprymna scolopes light organ by V. fischeri. Previous tests of these models have proven inconclusive, partly because they compared nonisogenic strains, or undefined and/or pleiotropic mutants. To test the influence of the bioluminescence-producing lux operon on growth and symbiotic competence, we generated dark luxCDABEG mutants in strains MJ1 and ES114 without disrupting the luxR-luxI regulatory circuit. The MJ1 luxCDABEG mutant out-competed its visibly luminescent parent approximately 26% per generation in a carbon-limited chemostat. Similarly, induction of luminescence in the otherwise dim ES114 strain slowed growth relative to DeltaluxCDABEG mutants. Some culture conditions yielded no detectable effect of luminescence on growth, indicating that luminescence is not always growth limiting; however, luminescence was never found to confer an advantage in culture. In contrast to this conditional disadvantage of lux expression, ES114 achieved approximately fourfold higher populations than its luxCDABEG mutant in the light organ of E. scolopes. These results demonstrate that induction of luxCDABEG can slow V. fischeri growth under certain culture conditions and is a positive symbiotic colonization factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Bose
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, 828 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Mansoorabadi SO, Thibodeaux CJ, Liu HW. The diverse roles of flavin coenzymes--nature's most versatile thespians. J Org Chem 2007; 72:6329-42. [PMID: 17580897 PMCID: PMC2519020 DOI: 10.1021/jo0703092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Flavin coenzymes play a variety of roles in biological systems. This Perspective highlights the chemical versatility of flavins by reviewing research on five flavoenzymes that have been studied in our laboratory. Each of the enzymes discussed in this review [the acyl-CoA dehydrogenases (ACDs), CDP-6-deoxy-l-threo-d-glycero-4-hexulose-3-dehydrase reductase (E3), CDP-4-aceto-3,6-dideoxygalactose synthase (YerE), UDP-galactopyranose mutase (UGM), and type II isopentenyl diphosphate:dimethylallyl diphosphate isomerase (IDI-2)] utilizes flavin in a distinct role. In particular, the catalytic mechanisms of two of these enzymes, UGM and IDI-2, may involve novel flavin chemistry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven O. Mansoorabadi
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Christopher J. Thibodeaux
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Hung-wen Liu
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Huang S, Tu SC. Effects of lodide on the Fluorescence and Activity of the Hydroperoxyflavin Intermediate of Vibrio harveyi Luciferase¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2005.tb00203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
27
|
Deheyn DD, Latz MI. Bioluminescence characteristics of a tropical terrestrial fungus (Basidiomycetes). LUMINESCENCE 2007; 22:462-7. [PMID: 17610297 DOI: 10.1002/bio.985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Freshly collected samples of luminous mycelium of a terrestrial fungus from Panama were investigated for their bioluminescence characteristics. Taxonomic identification of fungal species could not be determined because of the lack of fruiting bodies. Fluorescence excited by 380 nm illumination had an emission spectrum with a main peak at 480 nm and additional chlorophyll peaks related to the wood substrate. Bioluminescence appeared as a continuous glow that did not show any diel variation. The light production was sensitive to temperature and decreased with temperatures higher or lower than ambient. Bioluminescence intensity was sensitive to hydration, increasing by a factor of 400 immediately after exposure to water and increasing by a factor of 1 million after several hours. This increase may have occurred through dilution of superoxide dismutase, which is a suppressive factor of bioluminescence in fungus tissue. The mycelium typically transports nutritive substances back to the fruiting body. The function of luminescent mycelium may be to increase the intensity of light from the fungus and more effectively attract nocturnal insects and other animals that serve as disseminating vectors for fungal spores.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitri D Deheyn
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Walker EL, Bose JL, Stabb EV. Photolyase confers resistance to UV light but does not contribute to the symbiotic benefit of bioluminescence in Vibrio fischeri ES114. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006; 72:6600-6. [PMID: 17021211 PMCID: PMC1610325 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01272-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent reports suggest that the selective advantage of bioluminescence for bacteria is mediated by light-dependent stimulation of photolyase to repair DNA lesions. Despite evidence for this model, photolyase mutants have not been characterized in a naturally bioluminescent bacterium, nor has this hypothesis been tested in bioluminescent bacteria under natural conditions. We have now characterized the photolyase encoded by phr in the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri ES114. Consistent with Phr possessing photolyase activity, phr conferred light-dependent resistance to UV light. However, upon comparing ES114 to a phr mutant and a dark Delta luxCDABEG mutant, we found that bioluminescence did not detectably affect photolyase-mediated resistance to UV light. Addition of the light-stimulating autoinducer N-3-oxo-hexanoyl homoserine lactone appeared to increase UV resistance, but this was independent of photolyase or bioluminescence. Moreover, although bioluminescence confers an advantage for V. fischeri during colonization of its natural host, Euprymna scolopes, the phr mutant colonized this host to the same level as the wild type. Taken together, our results indicate that at least in V. fischeri strain ES114, the benefits of bioluminescence during symbiotic colonization are not mediated by photolyase, and although some UV resistance mechanism may be coregulated with bioluminescence, we found no evidence that light production benefits cells by stimulating photolyase in this strain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Walker
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, 828 Biological Sciences, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kantz A, Chin F, Nallamothu N, Nguyen T, Gassner GT. Mechanism of flavin transfer and oxygen activation by the two-component flavoenzyme styrene monooxygenase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2005; 442:102-16. [PMID: 16140257 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2005.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2005] [Revised: 07/21/2005] [Accepted: 07/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Styrene monooxygenase (SMO) from Pseudomonas putida S12 is a two-component flavoenzyme composed of the NADH-specific flavin reductase, SMOB, and FAD-specific styrene epoxidase, SMOA. Here, we report the cloning, and expression of native and histidine-tagged versions of SMOA and SMOB and studies of the flavin transfer and styrene oxygenation reactions. In the reductive half-reaction, SMOB catalyzes the two-electron reduction of FAD with a turnover number of 3200 s(-1). Single turnover studies of the reaction of reduced SMOA with substrates indicate the formation of a stable oxygen intermediate with the absorbance characteristics of a flavin hydroperoxide. Based on the results of numerical simulations of the steady-state mechanism of SMO, we find that the observed coupling of NADH and styrene oxidation can be best explained by a model, which includes both the direct transfer and passive diffusion of reduced FAD from SMOB to SMOA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Auric Kantz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132-4163, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Chen G, White PA. The mutagenic hazards of aquatic sediments: a review. Mutat Res 2005; 567:151-225. [PMID: 15572285 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2004.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2004] [Revised: 08/26/2004] [Accepted: 08/26/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sediments are the sink for particle-sorbed contaminants in aquatic systems and can serve as a reservoir of toxic contaminants that continually threaten the health and viability of aquatic biota. This work is a comprehensive review of published studies that investigated the genotoxicity of sediments in rivers, lakes and marine habitats. The Salmonella mutagenicity test is the most frequently used assay and accounts for 41.1% of the available data. The Salmonella data revealed mutagenic potency values for sediment extracts (in revertants per gram dry weight) that spans over seven orders of magnitude from not detectable to highly potent (10(5) rev/g). Analyses of the Salmonella data (n=510) showed significant differences between rural, urban/industrial, and heavily contaminated (e.g., dump) sites assessed using TA98 and TA100 with S9 activation. Additional analyses showed a significant positive correlation between Salmonella mutagenic potency (TA98 and TA100 with S9) and PAH contamination (r2=0.19-0.68). The second and third most commonly used assays for the analysis of sediments and sediment extracts are the SOS Chromotest (9.2%) and the Mutatox assays (7.8%), respectively. These assays are frequently used for rapid initial screening of collected samples. A variety of other in vitro endpoints employing cultured fish and mammalian cells have been used to investigate sediment genotoxic activity. Endpoints investigated include sister chromatid exchange frequency, micronucleus frequency, chromosome aberration frequency, gene mutation at tk and hprt loci, unscheduled DNA synthesis, DNA adduct frequency, and DNA strand break frequency. More complex in vivo assays have documented a wide range of effects including neoplasms and preneoplastic lesions in fish and invertebrate exposed ex situ. Although costly and time consuming, these assays have provided definitive evidence linking sediment contamination and a variety of genotoxic and carcinogenic effects observed in situ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guosheng Chen
- Mutagenesis Section, Safe Environments Program, Health Canada, Tunney's Pasture 0803A, Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1A 0L2
| | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Huang S, Tu SC. Effects of Iodide on the Fluorescence and Activity of the Hydroperoxyflavin Intermediate of Vibrio harveyi Luciferase¶. Photochem Photobiol 2005. [DOI: 10.1562/2004-10-15-ra-344.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
32
|
Karatani H, Yoshizawa S, Hirayama S. Oxygen Triggering Reversible Modulation of Vibrio fischeri Strain Y1 Bioluminescence In Vivo¶. Photochem Photobiol 2004. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2004)79<120:otrmov>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
33
|
Brack A, Strube J, Stolz P, Decker H. Effects of ultrahigh dilutions of 3,5-dichlorophenol on the luminescence of the bacterium Vibrio fischeri. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1621:253-60. [PMID: 12787922 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4165(03)00076-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
There is a great need for research in the field of homeopathy for laboratory test systems to investigate the actions of ultrahighly diluted biological effectors. With this in mind, we used the luminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri, which is used throughout the world in testing water quality. Luminescence inhibition is utilized as a test parameter for the toxicity of a sample. We used ultrahigh dilutions (UHD) of 3,5-dichlorophenol as effector and adapted the standard test procedure for water toxicity in a way that let us evaluate very minute effects. Three groups of samples were prepared and then blinded: 45 dilutions of 3,5-dichlorophenol in steps of 10, starting with 4.2 x 10(-2) M, with vigorous shaking between dilution steps; 45 identical dilutions of 3,5-dichlorophenol without vigorous shaking; and 49 control samples of the diluent. The results of, and the discussion based on, a thorough statistical analysis led to the conclusion that an effect based on UHD, which results in an inhibition of luminescence of less than 1.5%, can be confirmed for some of the potency samples. There were both effective and ineffective samples in the three sample groups. The size of the effect was very small (ca. 1.5%), though statistically significant. The number of effective samples was significantly higher among the vigorously shaken samples than among the controls and the unshaken samples (14, 6 and 7 effective samples, respectively).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antje Brack
- Forschungsinstitut Kwalis gGmbH, Fuldaer Str. 21, Dipperz 36160, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Affiliation(s)
- J Woodland Hastings
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Wei CJ, Lei B, Tu SC. Characterization of the binding of Photobacterium phosphoreum P-flavin by Vibrio harveyi Luciferase. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001; 396:199-206. [PMID: 11747297 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The isolated Photobacterium phosphoreum luciferase is associated with a bound flavin designated P-flavin and tentatively identified as 6-(3"-myristic acid)-FMN. Since FMN and myristic acid are products of the normal luciferase reaction, we explored the possibility that P-flavin can also be bound by luciferase from other luminous bacteria and serve as an active site probe. P-flavin has never been detected in Vibrio harveyi cells. We found that the V. harveyi luciferase binds P. phosphoreum P-flavin, at a ratio of 1 P-flavin per luciferase alphabeta dimer, and with concomitant absorption spectral perturbation of P-flavin, fluorescence quenching of P-flavin and luciferase, and activity inhibition of luciferase. Isolated P-flavin can be fully reduced photochemically. V. harveyi luciferase bound the oxidized P-flavin with a K(d) (or K(i) competitively against decanal) of 0.1-0.16 microM, which is three orders of magnitude lower than the K(d) for FMN binding but similar to that of reduced FMN binding. The reduced P-flavin exhibited a K(i) (competitively against the reduced FMN substrate) of 0.16 microM, also similar to the K(d) for reduced FMN. Hence, the covalent attachment of myristic acid to FMN greatly and preferentially enhanced the binding of oxidized P-flavin. The dissociation of P-flavin was slow in comparison with the binding of reduced FMN and decanal substrates. Modification of the alphaCys106 near the active site by N-ethylmaleimide can be retarded by P-flavin. These findings indicate that P-flavin is potentially a superb active site probe for luciferase. We hypothesize that P-flavin is a by-product of luciferase generated by a side reaction which is trivial with the V. harveyi luciferase but significant in the P. phosphoreum luciferase-catalyzed reaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C J Wei
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5001, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Abstract
Although mechanisms of metabolite channeling have been extensively studied, the nature of reduced flavin transfer from donor to acceptor enzymes remains essentially unexplored. In this review, identities and properties of reduced flavin-producing enzymes (namely flavin reductases) and reduced flavin-requiring processes and enzymes are summarized. By using flavin reductase-luciferase enzyme couples from luminous bacteria, two types of reduced flavin channeling were observed involving the differential transfers of the reduced flavin cofactor and the reduced flavin product of reductase to luciferase. The exact mode of transfer is controlled by the specific makeup of the constituent enzymes within the reductase-luciferase couple. The plausible physiological significance of the monomer-dimer equilibrium of the NADPH-specific flavin reductase from Vibrio harveyi is also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S C Tu
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, TX 77204-5513, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Bourgois JJ, Sluse FE, Baguet F, Mallefet J. Kinetics of light emission and oxygen consumption by bioluminescent bacteria. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2001; 33:353-63. [PMID: 11710810 DOI: 10.1023/a:1010615508916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen plays a key role in bacterial bioluminescence. The simultaneous and continuous kinetics of oxygen consumption and light emission during a complete exhaustion of the exogenous oxygen present in a closed system has been investigated. The kinetics are performed with Vibrio fischeri, V. harveyi, and Photobacterium phosphoreum incubated on respiratory substrates chosen for their different reducing power. The general patterns of the luminescence time courses are different among species but not among substrates. During steady-state conditions, substrates, which are less reduced than glycerol, have, paradoxally, a better luminescence efficiency. Oxygen consumption by luciferase has been evaluated to be approximately 17% of the total respiration. Luciferase is a regulatory enzyme presenting a positive cooperative effect with oxygen and its affinity for this final electron acceptor is about 4-5 times higher than the one of cytochrome oxidase. The apparent Michaelis constant for luciferase has been evaluated to be in the range of 20 to 65 nM O2. When O2 concentrations are as low as 10 nM, luminescence can still be detected; this means that above this concentration, strict anaerobiosis does not exist. By n-butyl malonate titration, it was clearly shown that electrons enter the luciferase pathway only when the cytochrome pathway is saturated. It is suggested that, in bioluminescent bacteria, luciferase acts as a free-energy dissipating valve when anabolic processes (biomass production) are impaired.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J J Bourgois
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Animale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Bohuslavek J, Payne JW, Liu Y, Bolton H, Xun L. Cloning, sequencing, and characterization of a gene cluster involved in EDTA degradation from the bacterium BNC1. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:688-95. [PMID: 11157232 PMCID: PMC92636 DOI: 10.1128/aem.67.2.688-695.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2000] [Accepted: 11/17/2000] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
EDTA is a chelating agent, widely used in many industries. Because of its ability to mobilize heavy metals and radionuclides, it can be an environmental pollutant. The EDTA monooxygenases that initiate EDTA degradation have been purified and characterized in bacterial strains BNC1 and DSM 9103. However, the genes encoding the enzymes have not been reported. The EDTA monooxygenase gene was cloned by probing a genomic library of strain BNC1 with a probe generated from the N-terminal amino acid sequence of the monooxygenase. Sequencing of the cloned DNA fragment revealed a gene cluster containing eight genes. Two of the genes, emoA and emoB, were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the gene products, EmoA and EmoB, were purified and characterized. Both experimental data and sequence analysis showed that EmoA is a reduced flavin mononucleotide-utilizing monooxygenase and that EmoB is an NADH:flavin mononucleotide oxidoreductase. The two-enzyme system oxidized EDTA to ethylenediaminediacetate (EDDA) and nitrilotriacetate (NTA) to iminodiacetate (IDA) with the production of glyoxylate. The emoA and emoB genes were cotranscribed when BNC1 cells were grown on EDTA. Other genes in the cluster encoded a hypothetical transport system, a putative regulatory protein, and IDA oxidase that oxidizes IDA and EDDA. We concluded that this gene cluster is responsible for the initial steps of EDTA and NTA degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Bohuslavek
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Dmitriev LF. Bacterial luminescence: luminescence mechanism with cyclic peroxide participation and dependence on reactive oxygen species (a hypothesis). Biochimie 2000; 82:237-44. [PMID: 10863007 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-9084(00)00211-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Chemically initiated exchange (CIEE) luminescence reactions were reviewed and a new mechanism of luminescence with peracid as an intermediate is proposed; bacterial luminescence is generally considered to be a case of dioxetane luminescence, or, to be more precise, CIEE-luminescence which includes the generation of a cyclic peroxide. In the hypothesis the monooxygenase reaction (aldehyde -->fatty acid) should not be coupled with emitter generation as is usually believed, but only with the generation of peracid. As to the generation of the emitter, excited flavin, it is likely to occur later, during the interaction of flavin with cyclic peroxide. Its consequence is the breaking of two chemical bonds (O-O and C-C) in the cyclic peroxide and simultaneous generation of 4alpha-hydroxyflavin in exited state. In general, the generation of light includes three stages: 1) the monooxygenase reaction and the concurrent production of peracid; 2) the conversion of peracid to cyclic peroxide; and 3) the interaction of cyclic peroxide with flavin (through the CIEE mechanism).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L F Dmitriev
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Xun L, Sandvik ER. Characterization of 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (HpaB) of Escherichia coli as a reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide-utilizing monooxygenase. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000; 66:481-6. [PMID: 10653707 PMCID: PMC91852 DOI: 10.1128/aem.66.2.481-486.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
4-Hydroxyphenylacetate 3-hydroxylase (HpaB and HpaC) of Escherichia coli W has been reported as a two-component flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent monooxygenase that attacks a broad spectrum of phenolic compounds. However, the function of each component in catalysis is unclear. The large component (HpaB) was demonstrated here to be a reduced FAD (FADH(2))-utilizing monooxygenase. When an E. coli flavin reductase (Fre) having no apparent homology with HpaC was used to generate FADH(2) in vitro, HpaB was able to use FADH(2) and O(2) for the oxidation of 4-hydroxyphenylacetate. HpaB also used chemically produced FADH(2) for 4-hydroxyphenylacetate oxidation, further demonstrating that HpaB is an FADH(2)-utilizing monooxygenase. FADH(2) generated by Fre was rapidly oxidized by O(2) to form H(2)O(2) in the absence of HpaB. When HpaB was included in the reaction mixture without 4-hydroxyphenylacetate, HpaB bound FADH(2) and transitorily protected it from rapid autoxidation by O(2). When 4-hydroxyphenylacetate was also present, HpaB effectively competed with O(2) for FADH(2) utilization, leading to 4-hydroxyphenylacetate oxidation. With sufficient amounts of HpaB in the reaction mixture, FADH(2) produced by Fre was mainly used by HpaB for the oxidation of 4-hydroxyphenylacetate. At low HpaB concentrations, most FADH(2) was autoxidized by O(2), causing uncoupling. However, the coupling of the two enzymes' activities was increased by lowering FAD concentrations in the reaction mixture. A database search revealed that HpaB had sequence similarities to several proteins and gene products involved in biosynthesis and biodegradation in both bacteria and archaea. This is the first report of an FADH(2)-utilizing monooxygenase that uses FADH(2) as a substrate rather than as a cofactor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Xun
- School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4234, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Abstract
Enzymes bind NAD(+) in extended conformations and yet NAD(+) exists in aqueous solution as a compact, folded molecule. Thus, NAD(+) conformation is environment dependent. In an attempt to investigate the effects of environmental changes on the conformation of NAD(+), a series of molecular dynamics simulations in different solvents was performed. The solvents investigated (water, DMSO, methanol and chloroform) represented changes in relative permittivity and hydrophobic character. The simulations predicted folded conformations of NAD(+) to be more stable in water, DMSO and methanol. In contrast, extended conformations of NAD(+) were observed to be more stable in chloroform. Furthermore, the extended conformations observed in chloroform were similar to conformations of NAD(+) bound to enzymes. In particular, a large separation between the aromatic rings and a strong interaction between the pyrophosphate and nicotinamide groups were observed. The implications of these observations for the recognition of NAD(+) by enzymes is discussed. It is argued that a hydrophobic environment is important for stabilizing unfolded conformations of NAD(+).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P E Smith
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-3702, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Tanner JJ, Tu SC, Barbour LJ, Barnes CL, Krause KL. Unusual folded conformation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide bound to flavin reductase P. Protein Sci 1999; 8:1725-32. [PMID: 10493573 PMCID: PMC2144397 DOI: 10.1110/ps.8.9.1725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The 2.1 A resolution crystal structure of flavin reductase P with the inhibitor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) bound in the active site has been determined. NAD adopts a novel, folded conformation in which the nicotinamide and adenine rings stack in parallel with an inter-ring distance of 3.6 A. The pyrophosphate binds next to the flavin cofactor isoalloxazine, while the stacked nicotinamide/adenine moiety faces away from the flavin. The observed NAD conformation is quite different from the extended conformations observed in other enzyme/NAD(P) structures; however, it resembles the conformation proposed for NAD in solution. The flavin reductase P/NAD structure provides new information about the conformational diversity of NAD, which is important for understanding catalysis. This structure offers the first crystallographic evidence of a folded NAD with ring stacking, and it is the first enzyme structure containing an FMN cofactor interacting with NAD(P). Analysis of the structure suggests a possible dynamic mechanism underlying NADPH substrate specificity and product release that involves unfolding and folding of NADP(H).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J J Tanner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Columbia 65211, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Abstract
Bioluminescence has evolved independently many times; thus the responsible genes are unrelated in bacteria, unicellular algae, coelenterates, beetles, fishes, and others. Chemically, all involve exergonic reactions of molecular oxygen with different substrates (luciferins) and enzymes (luciferases), resulting in photons of visible light (approximately 50 kcal). In addition to the structure of luciferan, several factors determine the color of the emissions, such as the amino acid sequence of the luciferase (as in beetles, for example) or the presence of accessory proteins, notably GFP, discovered in coelenterates and now used as a reporter of gene expression and a cellular marker. The mechanisms used to control the intensity and kinetics of luminescence, often emitted as flashes, also vary. Bioluminescence is credited with the discovery of how some bacteria, luminous or not, sense their density and regulate specific genes by chemical communication, as in the fascinating example of symbiosis between luminous bacteria and squid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Wilson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Simpson ML, Sayler GS, Applegate BM, Ripp S, Nivens DE, Paulus MJ, Jellison GE. Bioluminescent-bioreporter integrated circuits form novel whole-cell biosensors. Trends Biotechnol 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7799(98)01199-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
45
|
Payne JW, Bolton H, Campbell JA, Xun L. Purification and characterization of EDTA monooxygenase from the EDTA-degrading bacterium BNC1. J Bacteriol 1998; 180:3823-7. [PMID: 9683478 PMCID: PMC107365 DOI: 10.1128/jb.180.15.3823-3827.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/1997] [Accepted: 05/26/1998] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The synthetic chelating agent EDTA can mobilize radionuclides and heavy metals in the environment. Biodegradation of EDTA should reduce this mobilization. Although several bacteria have been reported to mineralize EDTA, little is known about the biochemistry of EDTA degradation. Understanding the biochemistry will facilitate the removal of EDTA from the environment. EDTA-degrading activities were detected in cell extracts of bacterium BNC1 when flavin mononucleotide (FMN), NADH, and O2 were present. The degradative enzyme system was separated into two different enzymes, EDTA monooxygenase and an FMN reductase. EDTA monooxygenase oxidized EDTA to glyoxylate and ethylenediaminetriacetate (ED3A), with the coconsumption of FMNH2 and O2. The FMN reductase provided EDTA monooxygenase with FMNH2 by reducing FMN with NADH. The FMN reductase was successfully substituted in the assay mixture by other FMN reductases. EDTA monooxygenase was purified to greater than 95% homogeneity and had a single polypeptide with a molecular weight of 45,000. The enzyme oxidized both EDTA complexed with various metal ions and uncomplexed EDTA. The optimal conditions for activity were pH 7.8 and 35 degreesC. Kms were 34.1 microM for uncomplexed EDTA and 8.5 microM for MgEDTA2-; this difference in Km indicates that the enzyme has greater affinity for MgEDTA2-. The enzyme also catalyzed the release of glyoxylate from nitrilotriacetate and diethylenetriaminepentaacetate. EDTA monooxygenase belongs to a small group of FMNH2-utilizing monooxygenases that attack carbon-nitrogen, carbon-sulfur, and carbon-carbon double bonds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J W Payne
- Department of Microbiology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-4233, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Sirokman G, Hastings JW. Effectiveness of the Accessory Yellow Fluorescent Protein in the Bacterial Luciferase Reaction Correlates with the Lifetime of the Peroxyhemiacetal Intermediate: The Stereochemistry of the Reaction. Photochem Photobiol 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1997.tb08643.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
47
|
Xu Y, Mortimer MW, Fisher TS, Kahn ML, Brockman FJ, Xun L. Cloning, sequencing, and analysis of a gene cluster from Chelatobacter heintzii ATCC 29600 encoding nitrilotriacetate monooxygenase and NADH:flavin mononucleotide oxidoreductase. J Bacteriol 1997; 179:1112-6. [PMID: 9023192 PMCID: PMC178806 DOI: 10.1128/jb.179.4.1112-1116.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitrilotriacetate (NTA) is an important chelating agent in detergents and has also been used extensively in processing radionuclides. In Chelatobacter heintzii ATCC 29600, biodegradation of NTA is initiated by NTA monooxygenase that oxidizes NTA to iminodiacetate and glyoxylate. The NTA monooxygenase activity requires two component proteins, component A and component B, but the function of each component is unclear. We have cloned and sequenced a gene cluster encoding components A and B (nmoA and nmoB) and two additional open reading frames, nmoR and nmoT, downstream of nmoA. Based on sequence similarities, nmoR and nmoT probably encode a regulatory protein and a transposase, respectively. The NmoA sequence was similar to a monooxygenase that uses reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMNH2) as reductant; NmoB was similar to an NADH:flavin mononucleotide (FMN) oxidoreductase. On the basis of this information, we tested the function of each component. Purified component B was shown to be an NADH:FMN oxidoreductase, and its activity could be separated from that of component A. When the Photobacterium fischeri NADH:FMN oxidoreductase was substituted for component B in the complete reaction, NTA was oxidized, showing that the substrate specificity of the reaction resides in component A. Component A is therefore an NTA monooxygenase that uses FMNH2 and O2 to oxidize NTA, and component B is an NADH:FMN oxidoreductase that provides FMNH2 for NTA oxidation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y Xu
- Department of Microbiology, Washington State University Tri-Cities, Richland 99352, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Lei B, Tu SC. Gene overexpression, purification, and identification of a desulfurization enzyme from Rhodococcus sp. strain IGTS8 as a sulfide/sulfoxide monooxygenase. J Bacteriol 1996; 178:5699-705. [PMID: 8824615 PMCID: PMC178409 DOI: 10.1128/jb.178.19.5699-5705.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The oxidation of dibenzothiophene to dibenzothiophene sulfone has been linked to the enzyme encoded by the sox/dszC gene from Rhodococcus sp. strain IGTS8 (S. A. Denome, C. Oldfield, L. J. Nash, and K. D. Young, J. Bacteriol. 176:6707-6717, 1994; C. S. Piddington, B. R. Kovacevich, and J. Rambosek, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:468-475, 1995). However, this enzyme has not been characterized, and the type of its catalytic activity remains unclassified. In this work, the sox/dszC gene was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, a procedure for the purification of the expressed enzyme was developed, and the properties of and the reactions catalyzed by the purified enzyme were characterized. This enzyme binds one flavin mononucleotide (Kd, 7 micrometers) or reduced flavin mononucleotide (FMNH2) (Kd < 10(-8) M) per 90,200-Da homodimer, and FMNH2 is an essential cosubstrate for its activity. Patterns of product formation were examined under different FMNH2 availabilities, and results indicate that this enzyme catalyzes a stepwise conversion of dibenzothiophene to the corresponding sulfoxide and subsequently to the sulfone. On the basis of isotope labeling patterns with H2(18)O and 18O2, dibenzothiophene sulfoxide and sulfone obtained their oxygen atom(s) from molecular oxygen rather than water in their formation from dibenzothiophene. The enzyme also utilizes benzyl sulfide and benzyl sulfoxide as substrates. Hence, it is identified as a sulfide/sulfoxide monooxygenase. This monooxygenase is similar to the microsomal flavin-containing monooxygenase but is unique among microbial flavomonooxygenases in its ability to catalyze two consecutive monooxygenation reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Lei
- Department of Biochemical and Biophysical Sciences, University of Houston, Texas 77204-5934, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Die biolumineszenz von tieren, pflanzen und bakterien grundlagen und anwendung. Naturwissenschaften 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01152212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|