Depletion of m6 A reader protein YTHDC1 induces dilated cardiomyopathy by abnormal splicing of Titin

Titin-Based Mechanisms of Myocardial Stiffness and Heart Failure: From Bench to Bedside

Titin, the largest known human protein, plays a critical role in myocardial elasticity and cardiac function. Alterations in titin isoform expression, phosphorylation, and redox modifications have emerged as key contributors to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and dilated cardiomyopathy. This study reviews recent advances in preclinical models and translational research, highlighting how modulation of titin's mechanical properties can impact heart failure outcomes. Genetic approaches targeting RNA-binding motif protein 20-mediated splicing and pharmacologic strategies enhancing titin phosphorylation through pathways like guanase 3,5-cyclic monophosphate-protein kinase G show promise in improving ventricular compliance. The potential of titin fragments as biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of cardiac dysfunction is also discussed. Despite technical challenges posed by titin's size and complex splicing, emerging therapies such as prime editing, antisense oligonucleotides, and kinase modulators offer new opportunities for personalized heart failure treatment. Future research focused on integrating isoform modulation, redox regulation, phosphorylation dynamics, and mechanotransduction mechanisms may enable targeted therapies to restore myocardial function. This work underscores titin's central role as both a therapeutic target and a biomarker in advancing heart failure management.

Methylations in dilated cardiomyopathy and heart failure

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is characterized by impaired expansion or contraction of the left or both ventricles in the absence of abnormal load conditions (such as primary valve disease) or severe coronary artery disease that can lead to ventricular remodeling. Genetic mutations, infections, inflammation, autoimmune diseases, exposure to toxins, and endocrine or neuromuscular factors have all been implicated in the causation of DCM. Cardiomyopathy, particularly DCM, often has genetic underpinnings, with established or suspected genetic origins. Up to 40% of DCM cases involve probable or confirmed genetic variations. The significance of RNA modification in the pathogenesis of hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, and atherosclerosis is well-established. Of late, RNA methylation has garnered attention for its involvement in DCM. This review examines the biological mechanisms and effects of RNA methylation in DCM and heart failure.

m6A RNA methyltransferase METTL16 induces Cr(VI) carcinogenesis and lung cancer development through glutamine biosynthesis and GLUL expression

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] exposure increases the risk of cancer occurrence. This study found that the levels of an atypical methyltransferase, METTL16 were greatly upregulated in the cells, and mouse tissues with Cr(VI) exposure, and played a critical role in cell proliferation and tumor growth induced by Cr(VI). Similarly, we found METTL16 was upregulated in various human cancer tissues. To understand mechanism of METTL16 in inducing carcinogenesis and cancer development, we identified that glutamate-ammonia ligase (GLUL) as the METTL16 functional target for regulating glutamine metabolism and tumorigenesis induced by Cr(VI) exposure. We demonstrated that METTL16 promoted GLUL expression in a m6A-dependent manner. Furthermore, METTL16 methylated the specific stem-loop structure of GLUL transcript, thereby increased the recognition and splicing of pre-GLUL RNA modified site by m6A reader YTHDC1, which ultimately accelerated the production of mature GLUL mRNA. Animal model of Cr(VI) exposure further confirmed that the expression levels of METTL16 and GLUL were both significantly induced in vivo, and there had a significant positive correlation between METTL16 and GLUL levels. Furthermore, we found that YTHDC1 was also important in inducing GLUL expression, and MYC was the upstream mediator of METTL16 to increase its transcriptional activation. Our study revealed new mechanism of metal carcinogenesis and cancer development.

RNA modifications: emerging players in the regulation of reproduction and development

The intricate world of RNA modifications, collectively termed the epitranscriptome, covers over 170 identified modifications and impacts RNA metabolism and, consequently, almost all biological processes. In this review, we focus on the regulatory roles and biological functions of a panel of dominant RNA modifications (including m 6A, m 5C, Ψ, ac 4C, m 1A, and m 7G) on three RNA types-mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA-in mammalian development, particularly in the context of reproduction as well as embryonic development. We discuss in detail how those modifications, along with their regulatory proteins, affect RNA processing, structure, localization, stability, and translation efficiency. We also highlight the associations among dysfunctions in RNA modification-related proteins, abnormal modification deposition and various diseases, emphasizing the roles of RNA modifications in critical developmental processes such as stem cell self-renewal and cell fate transition. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms by which RNA modifications influence diverse developmental processes holds promise for developing innovative strategies to manage developmental disorders. Finally, we outline several unexplored areas in the field of RNA modification that warrant further investigation.

Reading the m6A-encoded epitranscriptomic information in development and diseases

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) represents the most prevalent internal and reversible modification on RNAs. Different cell types display their unique m6A profiles, which are determined by the functions of m6A writers and erasers. M6A modifications lead to different outcomes such as decay, stabilization, or transport of the RNAs. The m6A-encoded epigenetic information is interpreted by m6A readers and their interacting proteins. M6A readers are essential for different biological processes, and the defects in m6A readers have been discovered in diverse diseases. Here, we review the latest advances in the roles of m6A readers in development and diseases. These recent studies not only highlight the importance of m6A readers in regulating cell fate transitions, but also point to the potential application of drugs targeting m6A readers in diseases.

Histone acetyltransferase Kat2a regulates ferroptosis via enhancing Tfrc and Hmox1 expression in diabetic cardiomyopathy

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a prevalent myocardial microvascular complication of the myocardium with a complex pathogenesis. Investigating the pathogenesis of DCM can significantly contribute to enhancing its prevention and treatment strategies. Our study revealed an upregulation of lysine acetyltransferase 2 A (Kat2a) expression in DCM, accompanied by a decrease in N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modified Kat2a mRNA levels. Our study revealed an upregulation of lysine acetyltransferase 2 A (Kat2a) expression in DCM, accompanied by a decrease in N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modified Kat2a mRNA levels. Functionally, inhibition of Kat2a effectively ameliorated high glucose-induced cardiomyocyte injury both in vitro and in vivo by suppressing ferroptosis. Mechanistically, Demethylase alkB homolog 5 (Alkbh5) was found to reduce m6A methylation levels on Kat2a mRNA, leading to its upregulation. YTH domain family 2 (Ythdf2) played a crucial role as an m6A reader protein mediating the degradation of Kat2a mRNA. Furthermore, Kat2a promoted ferroptosis by increasing Tfrc and Hmox1 expression via enhancing the enrichment of H3K27ac and H3K9ac on their promoter regions. In conclusion, our findings unveil a novel role for the Kat2a-ferroptosis axis in DCM pathogenesis, providing valuable insights for potential clinical interventions.

RNA-binding proteins in cardiovascular biology and disease: the beat goes on

Cardiac development and function are becoming increasingly well understood from different angles, including signalling, transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms. By contrast, the importance of the post-transcriptional landscape of cardiac biology largely remains to be uncovered, building on the foundation of a few existing paradigms. The discovery during the past decade of hundreds of additional RNA-binding proteins in mammalian cells and organs, including the heart, is expected to accelerate progress and has raised intriguing possibilities for better understanding the intricacies of cardiac development, metabolism and adaptive alterations. In this Review, we discuss the progress and new concepts on RNA-binding proteins and RNA biology and appraise them in the context of common cardiovascular clinical conditions, from cell and organ-wide perspectives. We also discuss how a better understanding of cardiac RNA-binding proteins can fill crucial knowledge gaps in cardiology and might pave the way to developing better treatments to reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

N6-methyladenosine modification in ischemic stroke: Functions, regulation, and therapeutic potential

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification is the most frequently occurring internal modification in eukaryotic RNAs. By modulating various aspects of the RNA life cycle, it has been implicated in a wide range of pathological and physiological processes associated with human diseases. Ischemic stroke is a major cause of death and disability worldwide with few treatment options and a narrow therapeutic window, and accumulating evidence has indicated the involvement of m6A modifications in the development and progression of this type of stroke. In this review, which provides insights for the prevention and clinical treatment of stroke, we present an overview of the roles played by m6A modification in ischemic stroke from three main perspectives: (1) the association of m6A modification with established risk factors for stroke, including hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, obesity, and heart disease; (2) the roles of m6A modification regulators and their functional regulation in the pathophysiological injury mechanisms of stroke, namely oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and cell death processes; and (3) the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of m6A regulators in the treatment of stroke.

Endothelial downregulation of nuclear m6A reader YTHDC1 promotes pulmonary vascular remodeling in sugen hypoxia model of pulmonary hypertension

Background

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized with vascular remodeling, which is intiated by vascular endothelial dysfunction. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification mediates gene expression in many ways including mediating RNA degradation, splicing, nuclear export et al. m6A modification have been found to be associated with the development of PH. However, the role of m6A regulators in pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) dysfunction of PH is still under research.

Methods

The expression levels of m6A regulators in PAECs were analyzed with the single-cell sequencing Data(scRNA). Next, the target differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of m6A regulators in PAECs were functionally annotated. The analysis of cellular interactions included the examination of receptor-ligand pairs regulated by m6A regulators. Pseudo-time trajectory analyses and a ceRNA network involving lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs were conducted in PAECs. Furthermore, microarray data (GSE180169) for Sugen Hypoxia PH (SuHx PH) mouse models was screened for DEGs and m6A regulators in PAECs. Moreover, the expression of YTHDC1 in the lung samples of SuHx PH models was determined using immunofluorescence. In vitro, the mRNA expression of YTHDC1 in HPAECs under hypoxia conditions was detected. The effect of YTHDC1 recombinant protein on HPAEC proliferation was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8).

Results

Dysregulation of m6A regulators was observed in mouse PAECs. The m6A reader of YTHDC1 was decreased in PAECs in scRNA data and RNAseq data of isolated PAECs of SuHx PH models. Downregulation of YTHDC1 was caused by hypoxia in PAECs in vitro and similar results was observed in PAECs of SuHx PH mouse models. Next, YTHDC1 recombinant protein was found to inhibit HPAECs proliferation. The DEGs targeted by YTHDC1 were enriched in angiogenesis, endothelial cell migration, fluid shear stress, and stem cell maintenance. Analysis indicates that interactions among endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells, mediated by specific YTHDC1 target genes (e.g., PTPRC-MRC1, ITBG2-ICAM1, COL4A1-CD44), contribute to PH development. Also, the YTHDC1 expression were consistent with Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP). What's more, the predicted transcription factors showed that NFKB1, Foxd3 may be involved in the regulation of YTHDC1. Lastly, our data suggest that YTHDC1 may be involved in regulating PAECs dysfunction through lncRNA/miRNA/mRNA network.

Conclusion

For the first time, we analyzed changes in the expression and biological functions of m6A regulators in SuHx PH mouse models. We causatively linked YTHDC1 to PAECs dysfunction, providing novel insight into and opportunities to diagnose and treat PH.

YTHDC1 Mitigates Apoptosis in Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Inhibiting NfƙBiα and Augmenting Cardiac Function Following Myocardial Infarction

The therapeutic efficacy of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in myocardial infarction (MI) is hindered by poor cell survival. This study explored the role of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) regulation, specifically YTHDC1, in improving BMSC transplantation for MI. By screening m6A-related regulators in hypoxia and serum deprivation (HSD)-induced BMSC apoptosis, YTHDC1 was found to be downregulated. Overexpression of Ythdc1 in BMSCs reduced apoptosis markers, reactive oxygen species (ROS) release, and improved cell survival under HSD conditions. Conversely, Ythdc1 knockdown enhanced apoptosis. In rat MI models, transplantation of Ythdc1-overexpressing BMSCs improved cardiac function and reduced myocardial fibrosis. Mechanistically, YTHDC1 interacts with nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) inhibitor-alpha mRNA, suggesting its involvement in BMSC survival pathways. This study identifies YTHDC1 as a potential target to enhance BMSC efficacy in MI therapy.

RNA modification in cardiovascular disease: implications for therapeutic interventions

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the world, with a high incidence and a youth-oriented tendency. RNA modification is ubiquitous and indispensable in cell, maintaining cell homeostasis and function by dynamically regulating gene expression. Accumulating evidence has revealed the role of aberrant gene expression in CVD caused by dysregulated RNA modification. In this review, we focus on nine common RNA modifications: N6-methyladenosine (m6A), N1-methyladenosine (m1A), 5-methylcytosine (m5C), N7-methylguanosine (m7G), N4-acetylcytosine (ac4C), pseudouridine (Ψ), uridylation, adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) RNA editing, and modifications of U34 on tRNA wobble. We summarize the key regulators of RNA modification and their effects on gene expression, such as RNA splicing, maturation, transport, stability, and translation. Then, based on the classification of CVD, the mechanisms by which the disease occurs and progresses through RNA modifications are discussed. Potential therapeutic strategies, such as gene therapy, are reviewed based on these mechanisms. Herein, some of the CVD (such as stroke and peripheral vascular disease) are not included due to the limited availability of literature. Finally, the prospective applications and challenges of RNA modification in CVD are discussed for the purpose of facilitating clinical translation. Moreover, we look forward to more studies exploring the mechanisms and roles of RNA modification in CVD in the future, as there are substantial uncultivated areas to be explored.

Changes in m6A in Steatotic Liver Disease

Fatty liver disease is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Fatty liver includes non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), now replaced by a consensus group as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). While excess nutrition and obesity are major contributors to fatty liver, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown and therapeutic interventions are limited. Reversible chemical modifications in RNA are newly recognized critical regulators controlling post-transcriptional gene expression. Among these modifications, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant and regulates transcript abundance in fatty liver disease. Modulation of m6A by readers, writers, and erasers (RWE) impacts mRNA processing, translation, nuclear export, localization, and degradation. While many studies focus on m6A RWE expression in human liver pathologies, limitations of technology and bioinformatic methods to detect m6A present challenges in understanding the epitranscriptomic mechanisms driving fatty liver disease progression. In this review, we summarize the RWE of m6A and current methods of detecting m6A in specific genes associated with fatty liver disease.

Critical roles of m6A methylation in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have been established as a major cause of mortality globally. However, the exact pathogenesis remains obscure. N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) methylation is the most common epigenetic modification on mRNAs regulated by methyltransferase complexes (writers), demethylase transferases (erasers) and binding proteins (readers). It is now understood that m⁶A is a major player in physiological and pathological cardiac processes. m⁶A methylation are potentially involved in many mechanisms, for instance, regulation of calcium homeostasis, endothelial function, different forms of cell death, autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum stress, macrophage response and inflammation. In this review, we will summarize the molecular functions of m⁶A enzymes. We mainly focus on m⁶A-associated mechanisms and functions in CVDs, especially in heart failure and ischemia heart disease. We will also discuss the potential application and clinical transformation of m⁶A modification.

The Effect of N6-Methyladenosine Regulators and m6A Reader YTHDC1-Mediated N6-Methyladenosine Modification Is Involved in Oxidative Stress in Human Aortic Dissection

Aortic dissection (AD) develops pathological changes in the separation of the true and false aortic lumen, with high lethality. m6A methylation and oxidative stress have also been shown to be involved in the onset of AD. Through bioinformatics methods, three differentially expressed m6A regulators (YTHDC1, YTHDC2, and RBM15) were excavated from the GSE52093 dataset in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, and functional enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) regulated by m6A regulators was performed. Then, the genes with oxidative stress-related functions among these genes were found. The protein interaction network of the oxidative stress-related genes and the competing endogenous RNA- (ceRNA-) miRNA-mRNA network were constructed. Among them, DHCR24, P4HB, and PDGFRA, which have m6A differences in AD samples, were selected as key genes. We also performed immune infiltration analysis, as well as cell-gene correlation analysis, on samples from the dataset. The results showed that YTHDC1 was positively correlated with macrophage M1 and negatively correlated with macrophage M2. Finally, we extracted AD and healthy aorta RNA and protein from human tissues that were taken from AD patients and patients who received heart transplants, performed quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) on YTHDC2 and RBM15, and performed qRT-PCR and western blot (WB) detection on YTHDC1 to verify their differences in AD. The mRNA and protein levels of YTHDC1 were consistent with the results of bioinformatics analysis and were downregulated in AD. Immunofluorescence (IF) was used to colocalize YTHDC1 and endothelial cell marker CD31. After knocking down YTHDC1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels had a tendency to increase and the expression of peroxide dismutase SOD2 was decreased. This study provides assistance in discovering the role of m6A regulator YTHDC1 in AD. In particular, m6A modification participates in oxidative stress and jointly affects AD.

PKM2 deficiency exacerbates gram-negative sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy via disrupting cardiac calcium homeostasis

Sepsis is a life-threatening syndrome with multi-organ dysfunction in critical care medicine. With the occurrence of sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy (SIC), characterized by reduced ventricular contractility, the mortality of sepsis is boosted to 70-90%. Pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) functions in a variety of biological processes and diseases other than glycolysis, and has been documented as a cardioprotective factor in several heart diseases. It is currently unknown whether PKM2 influences the development of SIC. Here, we found that PKM2 was upregulated in cardiomyocytes treated with LPS both in vitro and in vivo. Pkm2 inhibition exacerbated the LPS-induced cardiac damage to neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs). Furthermore, cardiomyocytes lacking PKM2 aggravated LPS-induced cardiomyopathy, including myocardial damage and impaired contractility, whereas PKM2 overexpression and activation mitigated SIC. Mechanism investigation revealed that PKM2 interacted with sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2a (SERCA2a), a key regulator of the excitation-contraction coupling, to maintain calcium homeostasis, and PKM2 deficiency exacerbated LPS-induced cardiac systolic dysfunction by impairing SERCA2a expression. In conclusion, these findings highlight that PKM2 plays an essential role in gram-negative sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy, which provides an attractive target for the prevention and treatment of septic cardiomyopathy.

RNA modifications in cardiovascular health and disease

RNA is not always a faithful copy of DNA. Advances in tools enabling the interrogation of the exact RNA sequence have permitted revision of how genetic information is transferred. We now know that RNA is a dynamic molecule, amenable to chemical modifications of its four canonical nucleotides by dedicated RNA-binding enzymes. The ever-expanding catalogue of identified RNA modifications in mammals has led to a burst of studies in the past 5 years that have explored the biological relevance of the RNA modifications, also known as epitranscriptome. These studies concluded that chemical modification of RNA nucleotides alters several properties of RNA molecules including sequence, secondary structure, RNA-protein interaction, localization and processing. Importantly, a plethora of cellular functions during development, homeostasis and disease are controlled by RNA modification enzymes. Understanding the regulatory interface between a single-nucleotide modification and cellular function will pave the way towards the development of novel diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic tools for the management of diseases, including cardiovascular disease. In this Review, we use two well-studied and abundant RNA modifications - adenosine-to-inosine RNA editing and N⁶-methyladenosine RNA methylation - as examples on which to base the discussion about the current knowledge on installation or removal of RNA modifications, their effect on biological processes related to cardiovascular health and disease, and the potential for development and application of epitranscriptome-based prognostic, diagnostic and therapeutic tools for cardiovascular disease.

Knockdown of IGF2BP3 inhibits the tumorigenesis of gallbladder cancer and modifies tumor microenvironment

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) ranks seventh among the gastrointestinal cancers. Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) could regulate the progression of GBC. For the purpose of exploring the targets for GBC treatment, RNA sequencing was used to identify the differential expressed mRNAs between GBC and adjacent tissues. Next, CCK8 assay was used to assess the cell viability, and cell proliferation was investigated by colony formation assay. Flow cytometry was performed to evaluate the cell apoptosis. Protein and mRNA expression were analyzed by western blot and RT-qPCR, respectively. Transwell was performed to evaluate the cell metastasis. GBC-derived exosomes were isolated with ultracentrifugation. To evaluate the function of exosomes in GBC, in vivo model of GBC was constructed. The data revealed IGF2BP3 was identified to be upregulated in GBC, and IGF2BP3 silencing was able to decrease GBC cell proliferation by promoting the apoptosis. The migration and invasion of GBC cells were reduced by IGF2BP3 knockdown. Silencing of IGF2BP3 obviously suppressed the level of p-STAT3 in GBC cells. Meanwhile, GBC cell-derived exosomes notably promoted macrophage M2 polarization via carrying IGF2BP3, and then the polarized macrophages promoted the malignant behavior of GBC cells. Furthermore, exosomes markedly promoted the tumor growth of GBC via promoting macrophage M2 polarization. In summary, knockdown of IGF2BP3 suppressed the malignant behavior of GBC cells. Additionally, knockdown of IGF2BP3 modified tumor microenvironment during the progression of GBC. Thus, these findings might provide a new theoretical basis for exploring a strategies against GBC.

Identification and verification of IGFBP3 and YTHDC1 as biomarkers associated with immune infiltration and mitophagy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Background: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the main cause of sudden cardiac death among young adults, yet its pathogenesis remains vague. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation modification was involved in various cardiovascular diseases such as coronary heart disease and heart failure, although its influence on HCM remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the potential role of m6A in the diagnosis and pathogenesis of HCM.

Methods: GSE36961 including 106 HCM and 39 controls was used in the study. The HCM-related m6A regulators were selected using support vector machine recursive feature elimination and random forest algorithm. A significant gene signature was then established using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator and then verified by GSE130036. Subgroup classification of HCM was performed based on the expression of m6A biomarkers. Gene set variation analysis was employed to explore the functional difference between distinct subgroups. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was used to determine the m6A-related hub module. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis was conducted to assess the immune and mitophagy features between subgroups. Besides, transfection of recombinant plasmids with targeted genes into H9c2 cells was performed to further verify the function of the significant biomarkers.

Results: Significant difference existed in m6A landscape between HCM and control patients, among which IGFBP3 and YTHDC1 were identified as the independent biomarkers of HCM. Highly infiltrated immune cells (MDSC, macrophages, etc.), more enriched immune-related pathways (TNFα signaling via NFκB and IL6-JAK-STAT3 signaling) and cardiac remodeling-associated pathways (epithelial mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, etc.) were identified in the subgroup with higher IGFBP3. Consistently, overexpression of IGFBP3 in H9c2 cells led to upregulation of extracellular-matrix-related genes (COL1A2, COL3A1 and MMP9) and inflammation-related genes (TNFα and IL6). Besides, higher YTHDC1 expression seemed to be consistent with less-activated mitophagy (PINK1-PRKN mediated mitophagy) and energy metabolism. Further experiments demonstrated that overexpression of YTHDC1 resulted in up-regulation of PINK and PRKN in cardiomyocytes, which are essential genes mediating mitophagy.

Conclusion: Two m6A readers (IGFBP3 and YTHDC1) well distinguished HCM and may facilitate clinical diagnosis. IGFBP3 may play a role in the immune-microenvironments and remodeling of cardiac tissues, while YTHDC1 may influence mitophagy and energy metabolism in HCM.

Emerging roles of the RNA modifications N6-methyladenosine and adenosine-to-inosine in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases lead the mortality and morbidity disease metrics worldwide. A multitude of chemical base modifications in ribonucleic acids (RNAs) have been linked with key events of cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders. Named either RNA epigenetics or epitranscriptomics, the post-transcriptional RNA modifications, their regulatory pathways, components, and downstream effects substantially contribute to the ways our genetic code is interpreted. Here we review the accumulated discoveries to date regarding the roles of the two most common epitranscriptomic modifications, N6-methyl-adenosine (m6A) and adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) editing, in cardiovascular disease.

m6A RNA methylation: A dynamic regulator of cardiac muscle and extracellular matrix

Post-transcriptional modifications encompass a large group of RNA alterations that control gene expression. Methylation of the N⁶-Adenosine (m⁶A) of mRNA is a prevalent modification which alters the life cycle of transcripts. The roles that m⁶A play in regulating cardiac homeostasis and injury response are an active area of investigation, but it is clear that this chemical modification is a critical controller of fibroblast to myofibroblast transition, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and division, and the structure and function of the extracellular matrix. Here we discuss the latest findings of m⁶A in cardiac muscle and matrix.

Roles and mechanisms of the m6A reader YTHDC1 in biological processes and diseases

N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is a key area in Epigenetics and has been increasingly focused these years. In the m⁶A process, readers recognize the m⁶A modification on mRNAs or noncoding RNAs and mediate different downstream events. Emerging studies have shown that YTHDC1, an important m⁶A reader, plays a key role in many biological functions and disease progression, especially cancers. Here we summarized the current mechanisms of YTHDC1 in biological functions and diseases and offered guidance for future researches to provide potential strategy for clinical diagnose and therapy.

Insight into the structure, physiological function, and role in cancer of m6A readers—YTH domain-containing proteins

YT521-B homology (YTH) domain-containing proteins (YTHDF1-3, YTHDC1-2) are the most crucial part of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) readers and play a regulatory role in almost all stages of methylated RNA metabolism and the progression of various cancers. Since m6A is identified as an essential post-transcriptional type, YTH domain-containing proteins have played a key role in the m6A sites of RNA. Hence, it is of great significance to study the interaction between YTH family proteins and m6A-modified RNA metabolism and tumor. In this review, their basic structure and physical functions in RNA transcription, splicing, exporting, stability, and degradation as well as protein translation are introduced. Then we discussed the expression regulation of YTH domain-containing proteins in cancers. Furthermore, we introduced the role of the YTH family in cancer biology and systematically demonstrated their functions in various aspects of tumorigenesis and development. To provide a more institute understanding of the role of YTH family proteins in cancers, we summarized their functions and specific mechanisms in various cancer types and presented their involvement in cancer-related signaling pathways.