Molecular evolution of the sex peptide network in Drosophila

Females drive postmating reproductive trait evolution across Drosophila species, but not via remating rate

While traits that contribute to premating sexual interactions are known to be wildly diverse, much less is known about the diversity of postmating (especially female) reproductive traits and the mechanisms shaping this diversity. To assess the rate, pattern, and potential drivers of postmating reproductive trait evolution, we analyzed male and female traits across up to 30 Drosophila species within a phylogenetic comparative framework. In addition to postmating reproductive morphology (e.g., sperm length, reproductive tract length and mass), we also quantified mating behaviors including female remating rate-a common proxy for the strength of postmating sexual selection. We found evidence for strong coevolution between male and female postmating traits (specifically sperm length and sperm storage organ size). However, remating rate was not associated with the rate of evolution or exaggeration of either male or female postmating reproductive morphology, once phylogenetic relatedness was accounted for. We infer that female-mediated and intersexual selection predominantly drive the evolution of our postmating morphological traits, including via divergent male and female interests in controlling paternity. In comparison, remating rate has a complex and likely secondary role in shaping this evolution, in part because this trait can be both a driver and a product of postmating selection.

The roles of gene duplications in the dynamics of evolutionary conflicts

Evolutionary conflicts occur when there is antagonistic selection between different individuals of the same or different species, life stages or between levels of biological organization. Remarkably, conflicts can occur within species or within genomes. In the dynamics of evolutionary conflicts, gene duplications can play a major role because they can bring very specific changes to the genome: changes in protein dose, the generation of novel paralogues with different functions or expression patterns or the evolution of small antisense RNAs. As we describe here, by having those effects, gene duplication might spark evolutionary conflict or fuel arms race dynamics that takes place during conflicts. Interestingly, gene duplication can also contribute to the resolution of a within-locus evolutionary conflict by partitioning the functions of the gene that is under an evolutionary trade-off. In this review, we focus on intraspecific conflicts, including sexual conflict and illustrate the various roles of gene duplications with a compilation of examples. These examples reveal the level of complexity and the differences in the patterns of gene duplications within genomes under different conflicts. These examples also reveal the gene ontologies involved in conflict and the genomic location of the elements of the conflict. The examples provide a blueprint for the direct study of these conflicts or the exploration of the presence of similar conflicts in other lineages.

Sex peptide receptor is not required for refractoriness to remating or induction of egg laying in Aedes aegypti

Across diverse insect taxa, the behavior and physiology of females dramatically changes after mating-processes largely triggered by the transfer of seminal proteins from their mates. In the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster, the seminal protein sex peptide (SP) decreases the likelihood of female flies remating and causes additional behavioral and physiological changes that promote fertility including increasing egg production. Although SP is only found in the Drosophila genus, its receptor, sex peptide receptor (SPR), is the widely conserved myoinhibitory peptide (MIP) receptor. To test the functional role of SPR in mediating postmating responses in a non-Drosophila dipteran, we generated 2 independent Spr-knockout alleles in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Although SPR is needed for postmating responses in Drosophila and the cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera, Spr mutant Ae. aegypti show completely normal postmating decreases in remating propensity and increases in egg laying. In addition, injection of synthetic SP or accessory gland homogenate from D. melanogaster into virgin female mosquitoes did not elicit these postmating responses. Our results demonstrate that Spr is not required for these canonical postmating responses in Ae. aegypti, indicating that other, as yet unknown, signaling pathways are likely responsible for these behavioral switches in this disease vector.

Decoupled evolution of the Sex Peptide gene family and Sex Peptide Receptor in Drosophilidae

Across internally fertilising species, males transfer ejaculate proteins that trigger wide-ranging changes in female behaviour and physiology. Much theory has been developed to explore the drivers of ejaculate protein evolution. The accelerating availability of high-quality genomes now allows us to test how these proteins are evolving at fine taxonomic scales. Here, we use genomes from 264 species to chart the evolutionary history of Sex Peptide (SP), a potent regulator of female post-mating responses in Drosophila melanogaster. We infer that SP first evolved in the Drosophilinae subfamily and has since followed markedly different evolutionary trajectories in different lineages. Outside of the Sophophora-Lordiphosa, SP exists largely as a single-copy gene with independent losses in several lineages. Within the Sophophora-Lordiphosa, the SP gene family has repeatedly and independently expanded. Up to seven copies, collectively displaying extensive sequence variation, are present in some species. Despite these changes, SP expression remains restricted to the male reproductive tract. Alongside, we document considerable interspecific variation in the presence and morphology of seminal microcarriers that, despite the critical role SP plays in microcarrier assembly in D. melanogaster, appears to be independent of changes in the presence/absence or sequence of SP. We end by providing evidence that SP's evolution is decoupled from that of its receptor, Sex Peptide Receptor, in which we detect no evidence of correlated diversifying selection. Collectively, our work describes the divergent evolutionary trajectories that a novel gene has taken following its origin and finds a surprisingly weak coevolutionary signal between a supposedly sexually antagonistic protein and its receptor.

The seminal odorant binding protein Obp56g is required for mating plug formation and male fertility in Drosophila melanogaster

In Drosophila melanogaster and other insects, the seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) and male sex pheromones that enter the female with sperm during mating are essential for fertility and induce profound post-mating effects on female physiology. The SFPs in D. melanogaster and other taxa include several members of the large gene family known as odorant binding proteins (Obps). Work in Drosophila has shown that some Obp genes are highly expressed in the antennae and can mediate behavioral responses to odorants, potentially by binding and carrying these molecules to odorant receptors. These observations have led to the hypothesis that the seminal Obps might act as molecular carriers for pheromones or other compounds important for male fertility, though functional evidence in any species is lacking. Here, we used functional genetics to test the role of the seven seminal Obps in D. melanogaster fertility and the post-mating response (PMR). We found that Obp56g is required for male fertility and the induction of the PMR, whereas the other six genes are dispensable. We found males lacking Obp56g fail to form a mating plug in the mated female's reproductive tract, leading to ejaculate loss and reduced sperm storage, likely due to its expression in the male ejaculatory bulb. We also examined the evolutionary history of these seminal Obp genes, as several studies have documented rapid evolution and turnover of SFP genes across taxa. We found extensive lability in gene copy number and evidence of positive selection acting on two genes, Obp22a and Obp51a. Comparative RNAseq data from the male reproductive tract of multiple Drosophila species revealed that Obp56g shows high male reproductive tract expression in a subset of taxa, though conserved head expression across the phylogeny. Together, these functional and expression data suggest that Obp56g may have been co-opted for a reproductive function over evolutionary time.

Decoupled evolution of the Sex Peptide gene family and Sex Peptide Receptor in Drosophilidae

Across internally fertilising species, males transfer ejaculate proteins that trigger wide-ranging changes in female behaviour and physiology. Much theory has been developed to explore the drivers of ejaculate protein evolution. The accelerating availability of high-quality genomes now allows us to test how these proteins are evolving at fine taxonomic scales. Here, we use genomes from 264 species to chart the evolutionary history of Sex Peptide (SP), a potent regulator of female post-mating responses in Drosophila melanogaster. We infer that SP first evolved in the Drosophilinae subfamily and has followed markedly different evolutionary trajectories in different lineages. Outside of the Sophophora-Lordiphosa, SP exists largely as a single-copy gene with independent losses in several lineages. Within the Sophophora-Lordiphosa, the SP gene family has repeatedly and independently expanded. Up to seven copies, collectively displaying extensive sequence variation, are present in some species. Despite these changes, SP expression remains restricted to the male reproductive tract. Alongside, we document considerable interspecific variation in the presence and morphology of seminal microcarriers that, despite the critical role SP plays in microcarrier assembly in D. melanogaster, appear to be independent of changes in the presence/absence or sequence of SP. We end by providing evidence that SP's evolution is decoupled from that of its receptor, SPR, in which we detect no evidence of correlated diversifying selection. Collectively, our work describes the divergent evolutionary trajectories that a novel gene has taken following its origin and finds a surprisingly weak coevolutionary signal between a supposedly sexually antagonistic protein and its receptor.

Evolution of secondary cell number and position in the Drosophila accessory gland

In animals with internal fertilization, males transfer gametes and seminal fluid during copulation, both of which are required for successful reproduction. In Drosophila and other insects, seminal fluid is produced in the paired accessory gland (AG), the ejaculatory duct, and the ejaculatory bulb. The D. melanogaster AG has emerged as an important model system for this component of male reproductive biology. Seminal fluid proteins produced in the Drosophila AG are required for proper storage and use of sperm by the females, and are also critical for establishing and maintaining a suite of short- and long-term postcopulatory female physiological responses that promote reproductive success. The Drosophila AG is composed of two main cell types. The majority of AG cells, which are referred to as main cells, are responsible for production of many seminal fluid proteins. A minority of cells, about 4%, are referred to as secondary cells. These cells, which are restricted to the distal tip of the D. melanogaster AG, may play an especially important role in the maintenance of the long-term female post-mating response. Many studies of Drosophila AG evolution have suggested that the proteins produced in the gland evolve quickly, as does the transcriptome. Here, we investigate the evolution of secondary cell number and position in the AG in a collection of eight species spanning the entire history of the Drosophila genus. We document a heretofore underappreciated rapid evolutionary rate for both number and position of these specialized AG cells, raising several questions about the developmental, functional, and evolutionary significance of this variation.

The seminal odorant binding protein Obp56g is required for mating plug formation and male fertility in Drosophila melanogaster

In Drosophila melanogaster and other insects, the seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) and male sex pheromones that enter the female with sperm during mating are essential for fertility and induce profound post-mating effects on female physiology and behavior. The SFPs in D. melanogaster and other taxa include several members of the large gene family known as odorant binding proteins (Obps). Previous work in Drosophila has shown that some Obp genes are highly expressed in the antennae and can mediate behavioral responses to odorants, potentially by binding and carrying these molecules to odorant receptors. These observations have led to the hypothesis that the seminal Obps might act as molecular carriers for pheromones or other compounds important for male fertility in the ejaculate, though functional evidence in any species is lacking. Here, we used RNAi and CRISPR/Cas9 generated mutants to test the role of the seven seminal Obps in D. melanogaster fertility and the post-mating response (PMR). We found that Obp56g is required for male fertility and the induction of the PMR, whereas the other six genes had no effect on fertility when mutated individually. Obp56g is expressed in the male's ejaculatory bulb, an important tissue in the reproductive tract that synthesizes components of the mating plug. We found males lacking Obp56g fail to form a mating plug in the mated female's reproductive tract, leading to ejaculate loss and reduced sperm storage. We also examined the evolutionary history of these seminal Obp genes, as several studies have documented rapid evolution and turnover of SFP genes across taxa. We found extensive lability in gene copy number and evidence of positive selection acting on two genes, Obp22a and Obp51a. Comparative RNAseq data from the male reproductive tract of multiple Drosophila species revealed that Obp56g shows high male reproductive tract expression only in species of the melanogaster and obscura groups, though conserved head expression in all species tested. Together, these functional and expression data suggest that Obp56g may have been co-opted for a reproductive function over evolutionary time.

On how to identify a seminal fluid protein: A commentary on Hurtado et al

Seminal fluid proteins (Sfps) have striking effects on the behaviour and physiology of females in many insects. Some Drosophila melanogaster Sfps are not highly or exclusively expressed in the accessory glands, but derive from, or are additionally expressed in other male reproductive tissues. The full suite of Sfps includes transferred proteins from all male reproductive tissues, regardless of expression level or presence of a signal peptide.

CRISPR/Cas9 Mediated Disruption of Seminal Fluid Protein Sfp62 Induces Male Sterility in Bombyx mori

Simple Summary

In gamogenetic animals, seminal fluid proteins are essential for male fertility. In this study, we investigated the function of the seminal fluid protein Sfp62 by using the CRISPR/Cas9 system in lepidopteran model insect Bombyx mori. Sfp62 mutation led to male sterility and can be inherited stably. The mutation did not affect growth and developmental nor female fertility. These data indicate that Sfp62 is an ideal target for sterile insect technology (SIT), in which genetically modified insects are released on a large scale to mate with wild-type insects in order to reduce or even eradicate the target pests. The determining factors for the effective implementation of SIT include the strong competitiveness of the modified individuals and multi-generational effects resulting from the mutation. Sfp62 meets these criteria and is therefore a promising target for biological pest control.

Abstract

Seminal fluid proteins provide factors necessary for development, storage, and activation of sperm. Altered expression of seminal fluid proteins can lead to defect in male infertility. We investigated the function of seminal fluid protein Sfp62 in the model lepidopteran insect Bombyx mori using CRISPR/Cas9 mediated mutagenesis. The knockout of BmSfp62 gene led to male sterility but has no effect on female fertility. The mutation did not affect growth and development of the silkworm of both sexes. Motility of sperm in male mutants was decreased and the mRNA expression levels of other genes encoding seminal fluid proteins were altered in BmSfp62 mutants compared to the wild-type controls. The male sterility caused by mutation of BmSfp62 was stably inherited. As the proteins encoded by Sfp62 genes are conserved among lepidopteran species, Sfp62 is a potential target for the biological management of lepidopteran pests.

The evolution of sex peptide: sexual conflict, cooperation, and coevolution

A central paradigm in evolutionary biology is that the fundamental divergence in the fitness interests of the sexes (‘sexual conflict’) can lead to both the evolution of sex‐specific traits that reduce fitness for individuals of the opposite sex, and sexually antagonistic coevolution between the sexes. However, clear examples of traits that evolved in this way – where a single trait in one sex demonstrably depresses the fitness of members of the opposite sex, resulting in antagonistic coevolution – are rare. The Drosophila seminal protein ‘sex peptide’ (SP) is perhaps the most widely cited example of a trait that appears to harm females while benefitting males. Transferred in the ejaculate by males during mating, SP triggers profound and wide‐ranging changes in female behaviour and physiology. Early studies reported that the transfer of SP enhances male fitness while depressing female fitness, providing the foundations for the widespread view that SP has evolved to manipulate females for male benefit. Here, we argue that this view is (i) a simplification of a wider body of contradictory empirical research, (ii) narrow with respect to theory describing the origin and maintenance of sexually selected traits, and (iii) hard to reconcile with what we know of the evolutionary history of SP's effects on females. We begin by charting the history of thought regarding SP, both at proximate (its production, function, and mechanism of action) and ultimate (its fitness consequences and evolutionary history) levels, reviewing how studies of SP were central to the development of the field of sexual conflict. We describe a prevailing paradigm for SP's evolution: that SP originated and continues to evolve to manipulate females for male benefit. In contrast to this view, we argue on three grounds that the weight of evidence does not support the view that receipt of SP decreases female fitness: (i) results from studies of SP's impact on female fitness are mixed and more often neutral or positive, with fitness costs emerging only under nutritional extremes; (ii) whether costs from SP are appreciable in wild‐living populations remains untested; and (iii) recently described confounds in genetic manipulations of SP raise the possibility that measures of the costs and benefits of SP have been distorted. Beyond SP's fitness effects, comparative and genetic data are also difficult to square with the idea that females suffer fitness costs from SP. Instead, these data – from functional and evolutionary genetics and the neural circuitry of female responses to SP – suggest an evolutionary history involving the evolution of a dedicated SP‐sensing apparatus in the female reproductive tract that is likely to have evolved because it benefits females, rather than harms them. We end by exploring theory and evidence that SP benefits females by functioning as a signal of male quality or of sperm receipt and storage (or both). The expanded view of the evolution of SP that we outline recognises the context‐dependent and fluctuating roles played by both cooperative and antagonistic selection in the origin and maintenance of reproductive traits.

Single-nucleus transcriptomes reveal evolutionary and functional properties of cell types in the Drosophila accessory gland

Many traits responsible for male reproduction evolve quickly, including gene expression phenotypes in germline and somatic male reproductive tissues. Rapid male evolution in polyandrous species is thought to be driven by competition among males for fertilizations and conflicts between male and female fitness interests that manifest in postcopulatory phenotypes. In Drosophila, seminal fluid proteins secreted by three major cell types of the male accessory gland and ejaculatory duct are required for female sperm storage and use, and influence female postcopulatory traits. Recent work has shown that these cell types have overlapping but distinct effects on female postcopulatory biology, yet relatively little is known about their evolutionary properties. Here, we use single-nucleus RNA-Seq of the accessory gland and ejaculatory duct from Drosophila melanogaster and two closely related species to comprehensively describe the cell diversity of these tissues and their transcriptome evolution for the first time. We find that seminal fluid transcripts are strongly partitioned across the major cell types, and expression of many other genes additionally defines each cell type. We also report previously undocumented diversity in main cells. Transcriptome divergence was found to be heterogeneous across cell types and lineages, revealing a complex evolutionary process. Furthermore, protein adaptation varied across cell types, with potential consequences for our understanding of selection on male postcopulatory traits.

Scared of the dark? Phototaxis as behavioural immunity in a host-parasite system

Behavioural immunity describes suites of behaviours hosts use to minimize the risks of infection by parasites/pathogens. Research has focused primarily on the evasion and physical removal of infectious stages, as well as behavioural fever. However, other behaviours affect infection risk while carrying ecologically significant trade-offs. Phototaxis, in particular, has host fitness implications (e.g. altering feeding and thermoregulation) that also impact infection outcomes. In this study, we hypothesized that a fly host, Drosophila nigrospiracula, employs phototaxis as a form of behavioural immunity to reduce the risk of infection. First, we determined that the risk of infection is lower for flies exposed in the light relative to the dark using micro-arena experiments. Because Drosophila vary in ectoparasite resistance based on mating status we examined parasite-mediated phototaxis in mated and unmated females. We found that female flies spent more time in the light side of phototaxis chambers when mites were present than in the absence of mites. Mating marginally decreased female photophobia independently of mite exposure. Female flies moved to lighter, i.e. less infectious, environments when threatened with mites, suggesting phototaxis is a mechanism of behavioural immunity. We discuss how parasite-mediated phototaxis potentially trades-off with host nutrition and thermoregulation.

A putative de novo evolved gene required for spermatid chromatin condensation in Drosophila melanogaster

Comparative genomics has enabled the identification of genes that potentially evolved de novo from non-coding sequences. Many such genes are expressed in male reproductive tissues, but their functions remain poorly understood. To address this, we conducted a functional genetic screen of over 40 putative de novo genes with testis-enriched expression in Drosophila melanogaster and identified one gene, atlas, required for male fertility. Detailed genetic and cytological analyses showed that atlas is required for proper chromatin condensation during the final stages of spermatogenesis. Atlas protein is expressed in spermatid nuclei and facilitates the transition from histone- to protamine-based chromatin packaging. Complementary evolutionary analyses revealed the complex evolutionary history of atlas. The protein-coding portion of the gene likely arose at the base of the Drosophila genus on the X chromosome but was unlikely to be essential, as it was then lost in several independent lineages. Within the last ~15 million years, however, the gene moved to an autosome, where it fused with a conserved non-coding RNA and evolved a non-redundant role in male fertility. Altogether, this study provides insight into the integration of novel genes into biological processes, the links between genomic innovation and functional evolution, and the genetic control of a fundamental developmental process, gametogenesis.

Nonadaptive molecular evolution of seminal fluid proteins in Drosophila

Seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) are a group of reproductive proteins that are among the most evolutionarily divergent known. As SFPs can impact male and female fitness, these proteins have been proposed to evolve under postcopulatory sexual selection (PCSS). However, the fast change of the SFPs can also result from nonadaptive evolution, and the extent to which selective constraints prevent SFPs rapid evolution remains unknown. Using intra‐ and interspecific sequence information, along with genomics and functional data, we examine the molecular evolution of approximately 300 SFPs in Drosophila. We found that 50–57% of the SFP genes, depending on the population examined, are evolving under relaxed selection. Only 7–12% showed evidence of positive selection, with no evidence supporting other forms of PCSS, and 35–37% of the SFP genes were selectively constrained. Further, despite associations of positive selection with gene location on the X chromosome and protease activity, the analysis of additional genomic and functional features revealed their lack of influence on SFPs evolving under positive selection. Our results highlight a lack of sufficient evidence to claim that most SFPs are driven to evolve rapidly by PCSS while identifying genomic and functional attributes that influence different modes of SFPs evolution.

Bacterial-mediated RNAi and functional analysis of Natalisin in a moth

The neuropeptide natalisin (NTL) has been determined to play essential roles in reproduction in two Diptera and one Coleoptera species. Whether NTL has similar or even different functions in Lepidoptera remains to be determined. Here, we cloned the NTL transcript in the common cutworm moth Spodoptera litura. This transcript encodes a 438-amino acid protein. Twelve putative Sl-NTL neuropeptides were defined by cleavage sites. These NTL peptides share a DDPFWxxRamide C-terminal motif. The expressions of Sl-NTL is low during the egg and larval stages, which increased to a higher level during the pupal stage, and then reached the maximum during the adult stage. Moreover, the expression pattern during the pupal stage is similar between sexes while during the adult stage, it is dimorphic. To explore the function of Sl-NTL and assess its potential as a target for pest control, we knocked down the expression of Sl-NTL in both sexes by using bacteria-mediated RNAi. This technique significantly down regulated (reduced up to 83%) the expression of Sl-NTL in both sexes. Knocking down Sl-NTL expression did not significantly affect its development, survival and morphology but significantly reduced adults' reproductive behavior (including female calling, male courtship, mating and remating patterns and rates) and reproductive output (offspring gain reduced more than 70%).

Drosophila Sex Peptide controls the assembly of lipid microcarriers in seminal fluid

Seminal fluid plays an essential role in promoting male reproductive success and modulating female physiology and behavior. In the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, Sex Peptide (SP) is the best-characterized protein mediator of these effects. It is secreted from the paired male accessory glands (AGs), which, like the mammalian prostate and seminal vesicles, generate most of the seminal fluid contents. After mating, SP binds to spermatozoa and is retained in the female sperm storage organs. It is gradually released by proteolytic cleavage and induces several long-term postmating responses, including increased ovulation, elevated feeding, and reduced receptivity to remating, primarily signaling through the SP receptor (SPR). Here, we demonstrate a previously unsuspected SPR-independent function for SP. We show that, in the AG lumen, SP and secreted proteins with membrane-binding anchors are carried on abundant, large neutral lipid-containing microcarriers, also found in other SP-expressing Drosophila species. These microcarriers are transferred to females during mating where they rapidly disassemble. Remarkably, SP is a key microcarrier assembly and disassembly factor. Its absence leads to major changes in the seminal proteome transferred to females upon mating. Males expressing nonfunctional SP mutant proteins that affect SP's binding to and release from sperm in females also do not produce normal microcarriers, suggesting that this male-specific defect contributes to the resulting widespread abnormalities in ejaculate function. Our data therefore reveal a role for SP in formation of seminal macromolecular assemblies, which may explain the presence of SP in Drosophila species that lack the signaling functions seen in Dmelanogaster.