Ethanol activates midkine and anaplastic lymphoma kinase signaling in neuroblastoma cells and in the brain

A novel alcohol+nicotine co-use self-administration procedure reveals sex differences and differential alteration of mesocorticolimbic TLR- and cholinergic-related neuroimmune gene expression in rats

Although alcohol and nicotine are two of the most commonly co-used drugs with upwards of 90% of adults with an alcohol use disorder (AUD) in the US also smoking, we don't tend to study alcohol and nicotine use this way. The current studies sought to develop and assess a novel alcohol + nicotine co-access self-administration (SA) model in adult male and female Long-Evans rats. Further, both drugs are implicated in neuroimmune function, albeit in largely opposing ways. Chronic alcohol use increases neuroinflammation via toll-like receptors (TLRs) which in turn increases alcohol intake. By contrast, nicotine produces anti-inflammatory effects, in part, through the monomeric alpha7 receptor (ChRNa7). Following long-term co-access (6 months), rats reliably administered both drugs during daily sessions, however males generally responded for more alcohol and females for nicotine. This was reflected in plasma analysis with translationally relevant intake levels of both alcohol and nicotine, making it invaluable in studying the effects of co-use on behavior and CNS function. Moreover, male rats show sensitivity to alterations in alcohol concentration whereas females show sensitivity to alterations in nicotine concentration. Rats trained on this procedure also developed an anxiogenic phenotype. Finally, we assessed alterations in neuroimmune-related gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex - prelimbic, (mPFC-PL), nucleus accumbens core (AcbC), and ventral tegmental area (VTA). In the AcbC, where α7 expression was increased and β2 was decreased, markers of pro-inflammatory activity were decreased, despite increases in TLR gene expression suggesting that co-use with nicotine modulates inflammatory state downstream from the receptor level. By contrast, in mPFC-PL where α7 was not increased, both TLRs and downstream proinflammatory markers were increased. Taken together, these findings support that there are brain regional and sex differences with co-use of alcohol + nicotine SA and suggest that targeting nicotinic α7 may represent a novel strategy for treating alcohol + nicotine co-dependence.

Implication of the PTN/RPTPβ/ζ Signaling Pathway in Acute Ethanol Neuroinflammation in Both Sexes: A Comparative Study with LPS

Binge drinking during adolescence increases the risk of alcohol use disorder, possibly by involving alterations of neuroimmune responses. Pleiotrophin (PTN) is a cytokine that inhibits Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (RPTP) β/ζ. PTN and MY10, an RPTPβ/ζ pharmacological inhibitor, modulate ethanol behavioral and microglial responses in adult mice. Now, to study the contribution of endogenous PTN and the implication of its receptor RPTPβ/ζ in the neuroinflammatory response in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) after acute ethanol exposure in adolescence, we used MY10 (60 mg/kg) treatment and mice with transgenic PTN overexpression in the brain. Cytokine levels by X-MAP technology and gene expression of neuroinflammatory markers were determined 18 h after ethanol administration (6 g/kg) and compared with determinations performed 18 h after LPS administration (5 g/kg). Our data indicate that Ccl2, Il6, and Tnfa play important roles as mediators of PTN modulatory actions on the effects of ethanol in the adolescent PFC. The data suggest PTN and RPTPβ/ζ as targets to differentially modulate neuroinflammation in different contexts. In this regard, we identified for the first time important sex differences that affect the ability of the PTN/RPTPβ/ζ signaling pathway to modulate ethanol and LPS actions in the adolescent mouse brain.

Comparison of serum midkine levels between pregnant women with and without pre-eclampsia: A case-control study from a tertiary hospital

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate changes in maternal serum midkine levels in pre-eclampsia.

METHODS

This study included 40 pregnant women with pre-eclampsia and 66 healthy pregnant women in the control group. Demographic data, laboratory results, and midkine levels were compared between the groups.

RESULTS

The pre-eclampsia and control groups were similar in terms of demographics. The midkine level of pregnant women with pre-eclampsia was significantly higher than that of the controls (0.54 ± 0.23 and 0.31 ± 0.19 ng/mL, respectively, P < 0.001). According to the receiver operating characteristic analysis, the optimal cut-off value of midkine was determined as 0.37 ng/mL, at which it had 75% sensitivity and 74% specificity (area under the curve: 0.815, 95% confidence interval 0.73-0.89, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The serum midkine level was significantly higher in pregnant women with pre-eclampsia. Midkine seems to be associated with complicated inflammatory processes leading to pre-eclampsia. Further study protocols can be planned to investigate the role of midkine in the prediction of pre-eclampsia as a novel marker.

Proteomic characteristics of PM2.5 -induced differentially expressed proteins in human renal tubular epithelial cells

Human renal epithelial (HK-2) cells were treated with PM_2.5 (50 μg/mL) from Shenzhen and Taiyuan, proteomics and bioinformatics were used to screen the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). A total of 577 DEPs were screened after HK-2 cells exposed to Shenzhen PM_2.5, of which 426 were up-regulated and 151 were down-regulated. A total of 1250 DEPs were screened in HK-2 cells after exposure to Taiyuan PM_2.5, of which 488 were up-regulated and 185 were down-regulated. The top 10 proteins with the highest number of nodes were screened using the interaction network map of DEPs. HK-2 cells exposed to Shenzhen PM_2.5 contained CYR61, CTGF, and THBS1 proteins, while HK-2 cells exposed to Taiyuan PM_2.5 contained ALB, FN1, and CYR61 proteins. Additionally, PM_2.5 components were detected, PM_2.5 samples from Shenzhen and Taiyuan induced obvious changes in DEPs expression, the difference in DEPs between the two cities was probably associated with the different PM_2.5 components.

Binge-Like Ethanol Drinking Increases Otx2, Wnt1, and Mdk Gene Expression in the Ventral Tegmental Area of Adult Mice

Alcohol use disorder is associated with pathophysiological changes in the dopaminergic system. Orthodenticle homeobox 2 (OTX2) is a transcription factor important for the development of dopaminergic neurons residing in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), a critical region of the brain involved in drug reinforcement. Previous studies have demonstrated that ethanol exposure during embryonic development reduces Otx2 mRNA levels in the central nervous system. We hypothesized that levels of OTX2 would be altered by binge-like ethanol consumption in adult animals. To test this, Otx2 mRNA and protein levels in the mouse VTA were measured by quantitative real-time PCR and western blotting, respectively, after mice drank ethanol for 4 days in a procedure that elicits binge levels of ethanol consumption (drinking in the dark). Expression of known and putative OTX2 transcriptional target genes (Sema3c, Wnt1, and Mdk) were also measured in the VTA after ethanol drinking. Otx2 mRNA and protein levels were elevated in the VTA 24 hours after the fourth drinking session and there was a corresponding increase in the expression of Mdk transcript. Interestingly, Wnt1 transcript was elevated in the VTA immediately after the fourth drinking session but returned to control levels 24 hours later. We next investigated if viral-mediated reduction of Otx2 in the mouse VTA would alter ethanol or sucrose intake. Lentiviral vectors expressing a shRNA targeting Otx2 or a control shRNA were injected into the VTA and mice were tested in the drinking in the dark protocol for ethanol and sucrose drinking. Reducing levels of OTX2 in the VTA did not alter ethanol or sucrose consumption. One limitation is that the extent of OTX2 reduction may not have been sufficient. Although OTX2 in the VTA may not play a role in binge-like drinking in adult mice, OTX2 could contribute to ethanol-induced transcriptional changes in this region.

Binge-like ethanol drinking activates anaplastic lymphoma kinase signaling and increases the expression of STAT3 target genes in the mouse hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) has a complex pathogenesis, making it a difficult disorder to treat. Identifying relevant signaling pathways in the brain may be useful for finding new pharmacological targets to treat AUD. The receptor tyrosine kinase anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) activates the transcription factor STAT3 in response to ethanol in cell lines. Here, we show ALK activation and upregulation of known STAT3 target genes (Socs3, Gfap and Tnfrsf1a) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and ventral hippocampus (HPC) of mice after 4 days of binge-like ethanol drinking. Mice treated with the STAT3 inhibitor stattic drank less ethanol than vehicle-treated mice, demonstrating the behavioral importance of STAT3. To identify novel ethanol-induced target genes downstream of the ALK and STAT3 pathway, we analyzed the NIH LINCS L1000 database for gene signature overlap between ALK inhibitor (alectinib and NVP-TAE684) and STAT3 inhibitor (niclosamide) treatments on cell lines. These genes were then compared with differentially expressed genes in the PFC of mice after binge-like drinking. We found 95 unique gene candidates, out of which 57 had STAT3 binding motifs in their promoters. We further showed by qPCR that expression of the putative STAT3 genes Nr1h2, Smarcc1, Smarca4 and Gpnmb were increased in either the PFC or HPC after binge-like drinking. Together, these results indicate activation of the ALK-STAT3 signaling pathway in the brain after binge-like ethanol consumption, identify putative novel ethanol-responsive STAT3 target genes, and suggest that STAT3 inhibition may be a potential method to reduce binge drinking in humans.

Inhibition of Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase β/ζ Reduces Alcohol Intake in Rats

BACKGROUND

Pleiotrophin (PTN) and midkine (MK) are cytokines that are up-regulated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) after alcohol administration and have been shown to reduce alcohol intake and reward. Both cytokines are endogenous inhibitors of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP) β/ζ (a.k.a. PTPRZ1). Recently, a new compound named MY10 was designed with the aim of mimicking the activity of PTN and MK. MY10 has already shown promising results regulating alcohol-related behaviors in mice.

METHODS

We have now tested the effects of MY10 on alcohol operant self-administration and Drinking In the Dark-Multiple Scheduled Access (DID-MSA) paradigms in rats. Gene expression of relevant genes in the PTN/MK signaling pathway in the PFC was analyzed by real-time PCR.

RESULTS

MY10, at the highest dose tested (100 mg/kg), reduced alcohol consumption in the alcohol operant self-administration paradigm (p = 0.040). In the DID-MSA paradigm, rats drank significantly less alcohol (p = 0.019) and showed a significant decrease in alcohol preference (p = 0.002). We observed that the longer the exposure to alcohol, the greater the suppressing effects of MY10 on alcohol consumption. It was demonstrated that the effects of MY10 were specific to alcohol since saccharin intake was not affected by MY10 (p = 0.804). MY10 prevented the alcohol-induced down-regulation of Ptprz1 (p = 0.004) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk; p = 0.013) expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support and provide further evidence regarding the efficacy of MY10 on alcohol-related behaviors and suggest the consideration of the blockade of RPTPβ/ζ as a target for reducing excessive alcohol consumption.

Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase Regulates Internalization of the Dopamine D2 Receptor

The dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) expressed in regions of the brain that control motor function, cognition, and motivation. As a result, D2R is involved in the pathophysiology of disorders such as schizophrenia and drug addiction. Understanding the signaling pathways activated by D2R is crucial to finding new therapeutic targets for these disorders. D2R stimulation by its agonist, dopamine, causes desensitization and internalization of the receptor. A previous study found that inhibitors of the receptor tyrosine kinase anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) blocked D2R desensitization in neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the brain. In the present study, using a cell-based system, we investigated whether ALK regulates D2R internalization. The ALK inhibitor alectinib completely inhibited dopamine-induced D2R internalization. Since GPCRs can transactivate receptor tyrosine kinases, we also examined if D2R stimulation activated ALK signaling. ALK phosphorylation increased by almost 2-fold after dopamine treatment and ALK coimmunoprecipitated with D2R. To identify the signaling pathways downstream of ALK that might regulate D2R internalization, we used pharmacological inhibitors of proteins activated by ALK signaling. Protein kinase Cγ was activated by dopamine in an ALK-dependent manner, and a protein kinase C inhibitor completely blocked dopamine-induced D2R internalization. Taken together, these results identify ALK as a receptor tyrosine kinase transactivated by D2R that promotes its internalization, possibly through activation of protein kinase C. ALK inhibitors could be useful in enhancing D2R signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Receptor internalization is a mechanism by which receptors are desensitized. In this study we found that agonist-induced internalization of the dopamine D2 receptor is regulated by the receptor tyrosine kinase ALK. ALK was also transactivated by and associated with dopamine D2 receptor. Dopamine activated protein kinase C in an ALK-dependent manner and a PKC inhibitor blocked dopamine D2 receptor internalization. These results indicate that ALK regulates dopamine D2 receptor trafficking, which has implications for psychiatric disorders involving dysregulated dopamine signaling.

MiR-326 targets MDK to regulate the progression of cardiac hypertrophy through blocking JAK/STAT and MAPK signaling pathways

Cardiac hypertrophy is a heart reaction to the increase of cardiac load, with the characteristics of increased expression of cardiac hypertrophy markers, enhanced protein synthesis, and enlarged cell area. However, molecular mechanisms in cardiac hypertrophy are still poorly substantiated. It has been reported that miRNAs can modulate human diseases, among which miR-326 has been reported as a biological regulator in human cancers, but its role in cardiac hypertrophy is rarely explored. This study focused on the exploration of the potential of miR-326 in cardiac hypertrophy. Our data revealed the downregulation of miR-326 in the TAC-induced hypertrophic mice and the Ang II-induced hypertrophic H9c2 cells. Functionally, miR-326 attenuated the effect of Ang II on cardiac hypertrophy in vitro. In addition, miR-326 negatively regulated JAK/STAT and MAPK signaling pathways. Mechanistically, miR-326 targeted and inhibited MDK to induce JAK/STAT and MAPK pathways. Rescue assays certified that miR-326 attenuated cardiac hypertrophy through targeting MDK and inhibiting JAK/STAT and MAPK signaling pathways. In brief, our study unveiled that miR-326 targets MDK to regulate the progression of cardiac hypertrophy through blocking JAK/STAT and MAPK signaling pathways, indicating that targeting miR-326 as a potential approach for cardiac hypertrophy treatment.

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases as Therapeutic Targets for Alcohol Use Disorder

The receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are a large family of proteins that transduce extracellular signals to the inside of the cell to ultimately affect important cellular functions such as cell proliferation, survival, apoptosis, differentiation, and migration. They are expressed in the nervous system and can regulate behavior through modulation of neuronal and glial function. As a result, RTKs are implicated in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders such as depression and addiction. Evidence has emerged that 5 RTKs (tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB), RET proto-oncogene (RET), anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)) modulate alcohol drinking and other behaviors related to alcohol addiction. RTKs are considered highly "druggable" targets and small-molecule inhibitors of RTKs have been developed for the treatment of various conditions, particularly cancer. These kinases are therefore attractive targets for the development of new pharmacotherapies to treat alcohol use disorder (AUD). This review will examine the preclinical evidence describing TrkB, RET, ALK, FGFR, and EGFR modulation of alcohol drinking and other behaviors relevant to alcohol abuse.

Inhibition of RPTPβ/ζ blocks ethanol-induced conditioned place preference in pleiotrophin knockout mice

Pleiotrophin (PTN) and Midkine (MK) are neurotrophic factors that are upregulated in the prefrontal cortex after alcohol administration and have been shown to reduce ethanol drinking and reward. PTN and MK are endogenous inhibitors of Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (RPTP) β/ζ. Interestingly, pharmacological inhibition of RPTPβ/ζ reduces ethanol consumption and blocks ethanol-induced conditioned place preference (CPP) in wild type mice. Since PTN-knockout (Ptn^-/-) mice are more sensitive to the conditioning effects of alcohol, we aimed to test the effects of MY10, a small-molecule inhibitor of RPTPβ/ζ, on ethanol-induced CPP in Ptn^-/- mice. The data presented here demonstrate for the first time that a regular dose of MY10, known to block ethanol consumption and reward in wild type mice, also blocks the rewarding effects of ethanol in the more vulnerable individuals lacking PTN, the endogenous inhibitor of RPTPβ/ζ. In addition, since MY10 readily penetrates the blood brain barrier (BBB), we tested its effects in a series of behavioural tests in Ptn^+/+ and Ptn^-/- mice. The data indicate that MY10 does not cause gross behavioural effects in wild type mice. However, MY10 tended to induce anxiolytic effects in Ptn^-/- mice in the elevated plus maze paradigm. Overall, the data indicate that MY10 rescues Ptn^-/- mice from their increased susceptibility to the conditioning effects of ethanol and may induce anxiolytic effects in individuals with reduced or absent PTN functions. Further studies are needed to confirm the potential of pharmacological inhibition of RPTPβ/ζ as a new therapeutic strategy in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders.

Connecting Metainflammation and Neuroinflammation Through the PTN-MK-RPTPβ/ζ Axis: Relevance in Therapeutic Development

Inflammation is a common factor of pathologies such as obesity, type 2 diabetes or neurodegenerative diseases. Chronic inflammation is considered part of the pathogenic mechanisms of different disorders associated with aging. Interestingly, peripheral inflammation and the associated metabolic alterations not only facilitate insulin resistance and diabetes but also neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, the identification of novel pathways, common to the development of these diseases, which modulate the immune response and signaling is key. It will provide highly relevant information to advance our knowledge of the multifactorial process of aging, and to establish new biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets to counteract the underlying chronic inflammatory processes. One novel pathway that regulates peripheral and central immune responses is triggered by the cytokines pleiotrophin (PTN) and midkine (MK), which bind its receptor, Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (RPTP) β/ζ, and inactivate its phosphatase activity. In this review, we compile a growing body of knowledge suggesting that PTN and MK modulate the immune response and/or inflammation in different pathologies characterized by peripheral inflammation associated with insulin resistance, such as aging, and in central disorders characterized by overt neuroinflammation, such as neurodegenerative diseases and endotoxemia. Evidence strongly suggests that regulation of the PTN and MK signaling pathways may provide new therapeutic opportunities particularly in those neurological disorders characterized by increased PTN and/or MK cerebral levels and neuroinflammation. Importantly, we discuss existing therapeutics, and others being developed, that modulate these signaling pathways, and their potential use in pathologies characterized by overt neuroinflammation.

Pharmacological inhibition of Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase β/ζ (PTPRZ1) modulates behavioral responses to ethanol

Pleiotrophin (PTN) and Midkine (MK) are neurotrophic factors that are upregulated in the prefrontal cortex after alcohol administration and have been shown to reduce ethanol drinking and reward. PTN and MK are the endogenous inhibitors of Receptor Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase (RPTP) β/ζ (a.k.a. PTPRZ1, RPTPβ, PTPζ), suggesting a potential role for this phosphatase in the regulation of alcohol effects. To determine if RPTPβ/ζ regulates ethanol consumption, we treated mice with recently developed small-molecule inhibitors of RPTPβ/ζ (MY10, MY33-3) before testing them for binge-like drinking using the drinking in the dark protocol. Mice treated with RPTPβ/ζ inhibitors, particularly with MY10, drank less ethanol than controls. MY10 treatment blocked ethanol conditioned place preference, showed limited effects on ethanol-induced ataxia, and potentiated the sedative effects of ethanol. We also tested whether RPTPβ/ζ is involved in ethanol signaling pathways. We found that ethanol treatment of neuroblastoma cells increased phosphorylation of anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) and TrkA, known substrates of RPTPβ/ζ. Treatment of neuroblastoma cells with MY10 or MY33-3 also increased levels of phosphorylated ALK and TrkA. However, concomitant treatment of neuroblastoma cells with ethanol and MY10 or MY33-3 prevented the increase in pTrkA and pALK. These results demonstrate for the first time that ethanol engages TrkA signaling and that RPTPβ/ζ modulates signaling pathways activated by alcohol and behavioral responses to this drug. The data support the hypothesis that RPTPβ/ζ might be a novel target of pharmacotherapy for reducing excessive alcohol consumption.

Development of inhibitors of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase β/ζ (PTPRZ1) as candidates for CNS disorders

A new series of blood-brain barrier permeable molecules designed to mimic the activity of Pleiotrophin in the CNS has been designed and synthesized. These compounds exert their action by interacting with the intracellular domain PD1 of the Protein Tyrosine-Phosphatase Receptor Z1 (PTPRZ1), and inhibiting its tyrosine phosphatase activity. The most potent compounds 10a and 12b (IC₅₀ = 0,1 μM) significantly increase the phosphorylation of key tyrosine residues of PTPRZ1 substrates involved in neuronal survival and differentiation, and display protective effects against amphetamine-induced toxicity. Docking and molecular dynamics experiments have been used to analyze the binding mode and to explain the observed selectivity against PTP1B. An In vivo experiment has demonstrated that 10a can cross the BBB, thus promoting the possibility of moving forward these candidates for the development of drugs for the treatment of CNS disorders, such as drug addiction and neurodegenerative diseases.

Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase Is a Regulator of Alcohol Consumption and Excitatory Synaptic Plasticity in the Nucleus Accumbens Shell

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase recently implicated in biochemical, physiological, and behavioral responses to ethanol. Thus, manipulation of ALK signaling may represent a novel approach to treating alcohol use disorder (AUD). Ethanol induces adaptations in glutamatergic synapses onto nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh) medium spiny neurons (MSNs), and putative targets for treating AUD may be validated for further development by assessing how their manipulation modulates accumbal glutamatergic synaptic transmission and plasticity. Here, we report that Alk knockout (Alk^KO) mice consumed greater doses of ethanol, relative to wild-type (Alk^WT) mice, in an operant self-administration model. Using ex vivo electrophysiology to examine excitatory synaptic transmission and plasticity at NAcSh MSNs that express dopamine D1 receptors (D1MSNs), we found that the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory post-synaptic currents (EPSCs) in NAcSh D1MSNs was elevated in Alk^KO mice and in the presence of an ALK inhibitor, TAE684. Furthermore, when ALK was absent or inhibited, glutamatergic synaptic plasticity – long-term depression of evoked EPSCs – in D1MSNs was attenuated. Thus, loss of ALK activity in mice is associated with elevated ethanol consumption and enhanced excitatory transmission in NAcSh D1MSNs. These findings add to the mounting evidence of a relationship between excitatory synaptic transmission onto NAcSh D1MSNs and ethanol consumption, point toward ALK as one important molecular mediator of this interaction, and further validate ALK as a target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of AUD.

Mystic Acetaldehyde: The Never-Ending Story on Alcoholism

After decades of uncertainties and drawbacks, the study on the role and significance of acetaldehyde in the effects of ethanol seemed to have found its main paths. Accordingly, the effects of acetaldehyde, after its systemic or central administration and as obtained following ethanol metabolism, looked as they were extensively characterized. However, almost 5 years after this research appeared at its highest momentum, the investigations on this topic have been revitalized on at least three main directions: (1) the role and the behavioral significance of acetaldehyde in different phases of ethanol self-administration and in voluntary ethanol consumption; (2) the distinction, in the central effects of ethanol, between those arising from its non-metabolized fraction and those attributable to ethanol-derived acetaldehyde; and (3) the role of the acetaldehyde-dopamine condensation product, salsolinol. The present review article aims at presenting and discussing prospectively the most recent data accumulated following these three research pathways on this never-ending story in order to offer the most up-to-date synoptic critical view on such still unresolved and exciting topic.

Midkine in the mouse ventral tegmental area limits ethanol intake and Ccl2 gene expression

Midkine (MDK) is a cytokine and neurotrophic factor that is more highly expressed in the brains of alcoholics and in mice predisposed to drink large amounts of ethanol, suggesting that MDK may regulate ethanol consumption. Here we measured ethanol consumption in male and female Mdk knockout (-/-) mice using the two-bottle choice and the drinking in the dark (DID) tests. We found that Mdk -/- mice consumed significantly more ethanol than wild-type controls in both tests. To determine if MDK acts in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to regulate ethanol consumption, we delivered lentivirus expressing a Mdk shRNA into the VTA of male C57BL/6J mice to locally knockdown Mdk and performed the DID test. Mice expressing a Mdk shRNA in the VTA consumed more ethanol than mice expressing a control non-targeting shRNA, demonstrating that the VTA is one site in the brain through which MDK acts to regulate ethanol consumption. Since MDK also controls the expression of inflammatory cytokines in other organs, we examined gene expression of interleukin-1 beta (Il1b), tumor necrosis factor alpha (Tnfα) and the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (Ccl2) in the VTA of Mdk -/- mice and in mice expressing Mdk shRNA in the VTA. Expression of Ccl2 was elevated in the VTA of Mdk -/- mice and in mice expressing Mdk shRNA in the VTA. These results demonstrate that MDK functions in the VTA to limit ethanol consumption and levels of CCL2, a chemokine known to increase ethanol consumption.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase regulates binge-like drinking and dopamine receptor sensitivity in the ventral tegmental area

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase associated with alcohol dependence in humans and behavioral responses to ethanol in mice. To characterize the ability of ALK to control ethanol consumption, we treated mice with the ALK inhibitors TAE684 or alectinib before testing them for binge-like drinking using the drinking in the dark protocol. Mice treated with ALK inhibitors drank less ethanol than controls. In addition, TAE684 treatment abolished ethanol conditioned place preference, indicating that ALK regulates the rewarding properties of ethanol. Because the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is a key brain region involved in the rewarding effects of ethanol, we determined if Alk expression in the VTA is important for binge-like ethanol consumption. Mice expressing a short hairpin ribonucleic acid targeting Alk in the VTA drank less ethanol compared with controls. ALK is expressed on dopamine (DA) neurons in the VTA, suggesting that ALK might regulate their firing properties. Extracellular recordings of putative DA neurons in VTA slices demonstrated that ALK inhibition did not affect the ability of ethanol to stimulate, or DA to inhibit, the firing of DA neurons. However, inhibiting ALK attenuated the time-dependent reversal of inhibition produced by moderate concentrations of DA, suggesting that ALK affects DA D2 autoreceptor (D2R) desensitization. Altered desensitization of the D2R changes the firing of DA neurons and is predicted to affect DA levels and alcohol drinking. These data support the possibility that ALK might be a novel target of pharmacotherapy for reducing excessive alcohol consumption.

From top to bottom: midkine and pleiotrophin as emerging players in immune regulation

Cytokines are pivotal in the generation and resolution of the inflammatory response. The midkine/pleiotrophin (MK/PTN) family of cytokines, composed of just two members, was discovered as heparin-binding neurite outgrowth-promoting factors. Since their discovery, expression of this cytokine family has been reported in a wide array of inflammatory diseases and cancer. In this minireview, we will discuss the emerging appreciation of the functions of the MK/PTN family in the immune system, which include promoting lymphocyte survival, sculpting myeloid cell phenotype, driving immune cell chemotaxis, and maintaining hematopoiesis.

Using In Vitro Electrophysiology to Screen Medications: Accumbal Plasticity as an Engram of Alcohol Dependence

The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a central component of the mesocorticolimbic reward system. Increasing evidence strongly implicates long-term synaptic neuroadaptations in glutamatergic excitatory activity of the NAc shell and/or core medium spiny neurons in response to chronic drug and alcohol exposure. Such neuroadaptations likely play a critical role in the development and expression of drug-seeking behaviors. We have observed unique cell-type-specific bidirectional changes in NAc synaptic plasticity (metaplasticity) following acute and chronic intermittent ethanol exposure. Other investigators have also previously observed similar metaplasticity in the NAc following exposure to psychostimulants, opiates, and amazingly, even following an anhedonia-inducing experience. Considering that the proteome of the postsynaptic density likely contains hundreds of biochemicals, proteins and other components and regulators, we believe that there is a large number of potential molecular sites through which accumbal metaplasticity may be involved in chronic alcohol abuse. Many of our companion laboratories are now engaged in identifying and screening medications targeting candidate genes and its products previously linked to maladaptive alcohol phenotypes. We hypothesize that if manipulation of such target genes and their products change NAc plasticity, then that observation constitutes an important validation step for the development of novel therapeutics to treat alcohol dependence.

Dependence-induced ethanol drinking and GABA neurotransmission are altered in Alk deficient mice

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is expressed in the brain and implicated in alcohol abuse in humans and behavioral responses to ethanol in mice. Previous studies have shown an association of human ALK with acute responses to alcohol and alcohol dependence. In addition, Alk knockout (Alk -/-) mice consume more ethanol in a binge-drinking test and show increased sensitivity to ethanol sedation. However, the function of ALK in excessive drinking following the establishment of ethanol dependence has not been examined. In this study, we tested Alk -/- mice for dependence-induced drinking using the chronic intermittent ethanol-two bottle choice drinking (CIE-2BC) protocol. We found that Alk -/- mice initially consume more ethanol prior to CIE exposure, but do not escalate ethanol consumption after exposure, suggesting that ALK may promote the escalation of drinking after ethanol dependence. To determine the mechanism(s) responsible for this behavioral phenotype we used an electrophysiological approach to examine GABA neurotransmission in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), a brain region that regulates alcohol consumption and shows increased GABA signaling after chronic ethanol exposure. GABA transmission in ethanol-naïve Alk -/- mice was enhanced at baseline and potentiated in response to acute ethanol application when compared to wild-type (Alk +/+) mice. Moreover, basal GABA transmission was not elevated by CIE exposure in Alk -/- mice as it was in Alk +/+ mice. These data suggest that ALK plays a role in dependence-induced drinking and the regulation of presynaptic GABA release in the CeA.