What makes for a good break? A diary study on recovery experiences during lunch break

The Italian Version of the New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSES): Structural Validity, Psychometric Properties, and Measurement Invariance

Background/Objectives: General Self-Efficacy (GSE) refers to an individual's belief in their overall ability to perform effectively across various situations. Research shows that GSE is a key predictor of multiple outcomes, including psychological resilience, better health, and improved overall well-being across different populations and environments. Numerous tools have been developed to measure GSE, enhancing our understanding of self-efficacy and its broader implications. This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSES) in a community sample of adults recruited through social media platforms. Methods: The NGSES was adapted into Italian following the back-translation procedure. A total of 811 participants (mean = 43.18; 68.8% females) completed the scale. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the factorial structure of the questionnaire. Adjusted item-total correlations and internal consistency were assessed using McDonald's omega. Additionally, multi-group CFA was used to test factorial invariance across gender. Results: The trimmed model exhibited a strong fit to the data: RMSEA = 0.068, CFI = 0.994, SRMR = 0.043. An omega coefficient of 0.872 confirmed the scale's strong reliability. Convergent validity was established by a moderate and significant correlation with the NGSES. Configural, metric, scalar, and latent means invariance across genders were all confirmed. Conclusions: The NGSES was found to be a valid and reliable tool, suitable for both clinical and research applications in the Italian context. It can also inform the development of educational and therapeutic interventions aimed at enhancing GSE in the general population.

The mediating role of flow state between recovery and energy levels: An experience sampling method study

This study uses a resource perspective that combines theories used commonly to explore recovery experiences as a theoretical framework and investigate the effects of recovery at the beginning of the workday on exhaustion and vigour at the end of the workday, with workflow in the morning as a mediator. An experience sampling method was used to collect data from 84 fulltime employees. Participants received three survey links each workday over a 2-week period, resulting in 837 days-level and 2517 data points. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test hypotheses, with results suggesting that greater recovery at the beginning of the workday correlated negatively with exhaustion and positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Recovery at the beginning correlated positively with flow state in the morning, and flow state correlated positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Flow state in the morning mediated the relationship between recovery level at the beginning and vigour at the end of the workday. These findings suggest the importance of recovery and the effects of flow state on employees' vigour.

Opening the doors for spillovers: a contingency view of the effects of work from home on the work-home interface

Why do employees experience work from home (WFH) differently? We draw on boundary theory to explain how WFH influences employees' work-home interface. WFH intensity increases negative spillovers (i.e., work-to-home conflict and home-to-work conflict) and positive spillovers (i.e., work-to-home enrichment and home-to-work enrichment) between the work and home domains. Negative spillovers can be mitigated through high-quality work equipment and beneficial spatial conditions at home. Domain centrality predicts who can benefit from increased WFH intensity. We test our theory with a sample of 545 employees, obtained through a two-step random sampling procedure in the city of Munich/Germany during the COVID-19 pandemic. We find that WFH intensity increases work-to-home conflict and home-to-work enrichment, affecting employees' relationship satisfaction and job satisfaction. High-quality work equipment mitigates the detrimental effects of WFH. Employees with a high family centrality can reap benefits of more WFH because they experience more home-to-work enrichment. The simultaneous desirable and detrimental effects of WFH intensity can partly explain why studies have found heterogenous WFH experiences among employees.

Lose at sunrise, but gain at sunset: Linking social cyberloafing to psychological detachment, personal life enhancement of work, and mental health

BACKGROUND

Previous research has demonstrated that the personal use of social media, i.e., social cyberloafing, is associated with employee mental health. However, the underlying mechanism through which social cyberloafing is related to mental health has received limited attention.

OBJECTIVE

Drawing on conservation of resource theory and work/nonwork enhancement literatures, we developed and tested a model that examines health effect of social cyberloafing. As such, employees' social cyberloafing is posited as positively related to psychological detachment and personal life enhancement of work, which in turn would act as mediators that explain why social cyberloafing improves mental health.

METHODS

Data from 375 Chinese employees were analyzed to test research hypotheses using the structural equation modeling and bias-corrected bootstrap method with Mplus 7.4.

RESULTS

The results found that social cyberloafing is positively related to psychological detachment, but not with personal life enhancement of work. Social cyberloafing was positively related to employees' mental health through both psychological detachment and through psychological detachment and personal life enhancement of work serially.

CONCLUSION

Psychological detachment alone and alongside personal life enhancement of work form part of the mechanisms explaining how and why engaging in social cyberloafing is positively associated with employees' mental health. These mechanisms offer insights to organizations into how the mental health of employees can be improved in the digital workplace.

A Functionalistic Stress Recovery Intervention Improves Perceived Recovery Opportunities and Relaxational Behaviors: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial

The recovery perspective on stress management is new and few recovery intervention studies have been conducted. The aim of the study was to evaluate behavioral effects of a functionalistic stress recovery intervention, in which individuals perceiving high levels of stress were encouraged to pay attention to possibilities to perform potential recovery behaviors in everyday life and to choose behaviors that were predicted to lead to resource restoration. Seventy-three individuals were randomly allocated to either a 10-week intervention or a waiting-list control group. Three types of recovery behavior factors during leisure time were studied: perceived recovery opportunities (i.e., control), relaxational behaviors (i.e., relaxation), and positively challenging behaviors (i.e., mastery). In comparison with the control group, the intervention group significantly improved, showing high between-group effect sizes, regarding perceived recovery opportunities (p < 0.001; d = 0.75) and relaxational behaviors (p < 0.001; d = 0.80). Both groups normalized their levels of positively challenging behaviors between pre- and postassessment, and no statistically significant group difference was demonstrated. Analyses of reliable and clinically significant changes demonstrated results in favor of the intervention group regarding perceived recovery opportunities and relaxational behaviors but not positively challenging behaviors. The tested intervention warrants further research, for example, if a modified version of the intervention including components aiming at increasing postwork positively challenging behaviors would be beneficial for the improvement of the behavior and for health.

The Furr-Recovery Method: Interacting with Furry Co-Workers during Work Time Is a Micro-Break That Recovers Workers' Regulatory Resources and Contributes to Their Performance

Drawing on the conservation of resources theory and the recovery step model our research expands on a cognitive (regulatory resources) mechanism that links human-animal interactions and employee performance. This study aimed to explore whether daily human-animal interactions during worktime would be conceived as a daily-recovery process that restores the individual's daily regulatory resources and, as a result, improves daily adaptive and task performance. To test this, a daily diary study during 10 working days, with 105 teleworkers was performed (N = 105 × 10 = 1050). Multilevel results demonstrated that daily interactions between human and their pets served to recover their daily regulatory resources that, in turn, improved daily task-and-adaptive performance. This research not only expands our theoretical understanding of regulatory resources as a cognitive mechanism that links human-animal interactions to employee effectiveness but also offers practical implications by highlighting the recovery role of interacting with pets during the working day, as a way to restore resources needed to be more effective at work.

"Give me a break!" A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of micro-breaks for increasing well-being and performance

Recovery activities during short breaks taken between work tasks are solutions for preventing the impairing effects of accumulated strain. No wonder then that a growing body of scientific literature from various perspectives emerged on this topic. The present meta-analysis is aimed at estimating the efficacy of micro-breaks in enhancing well-being (vigor and fatigue) and performance, as well as in which conditions and for whom are the micro-breaks most effective. We searched the existent literature on this topic and aggregated the existing data from experimental and quasi-experimental studies. The systematic search revealed 19 records, which resulted in 22 independent study samples (N = 2335). Random-effects meta-analyses shown statistically significant but small effects of micro-breaks in boosting vigor (d = .36, p < .001; k = 9, n = 913), reducing fatigue (d = .35, p < .001; k = 9, n = 803), and a non-significant effect on increasing overall performance (d = .16, p = .116; k = 15, n = 1132). Sub-groups analyses on performance types revealed significant effects only for tasks with less cognitive demands. A meta-regression showed that the longer the break, the greater the boost was on performance. Overall, the data support the role of micro-breaks for well-being, while for performance, recovering from highly depleting tasks may need more than 10-minute breaks. Therefore, future studies should focus on this issue.

An experimental test of resource recovery from physical and relaxation work break activities

Actual resource replenishment, a defining part of the stress-recovery process, has hardly been studied. We address this gap in the literature within the context of work breaks to determine which resources are replenished relative to a pre-stressor baseline. Guided by conservation of resources theory and the effort-recovery model, we explored how two different break activities promoted recovery by looking at their effects on recovery experiences (relaxation, psychological detachment), psychological resources (self-regulatory capacity, energy), and an indicator of insufficient recovery (fatigue). In a sample of 160 college students, we experimentally induced a state of resource depletion via mentally demanding tasks and randomly assigned people to a physical (stationary bike) or relaxation (progressive muscle relaxation) recovery break activity. The relaxation activity resulted in higher psychological detachment and relaxation experiences, the physical activity resulted in higher energy levels, and there were no differences between the break activities for self-regulatory capacity or fatigue. Overall, post-break resource levels improved following recovery break activities. Energy levels returned to baseline (replenishment); self-regulatory capacity and fatigue improved beyond baseline (accumulation). These resource replenishment and accumulation findings further the development of recovery theory and help employees select a work break activity that better meets their resource-related needs.

Behavioral Interventions to Improve Home-Based Office-Workers’ Health

Many organizations have traditionally supported their employees’ physical and mental health through a variety of office-based programs and interventions. The shift from in-office work to working from home, which has been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, requires organizations to update their toolbox to continue supporting a healthy and happy workforce. In this paper, we review research on successful, evidence-based interventions in four key areas of physical and mental health: physical activity and sedentary behavior, nutrition, loneliness, and stress. We show how organizations could adapt these interventions to a home-based office environment and conclude by highlighting areas of future research, as well as by discussing the role of health professionals and policymakers in designing effective interventions for the future of work.

Individual Determinants of Rest-Break Behavior in Occupational Settings

Aims: Work breaks improve well-being, productivity, and health. The aim of this study was to investigate the individual determinants of rest-break behavior during work using the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Methods: The association between attitude, control, and subjective norm and rest-break intention (i.e., taking rest breaks regularly), and rest-break behavior (average number of rest breaks/workhour) was analyzed with stepwise linear regression in a cross-sectional design. The study participants included 109 clerical employees, and 215 nurses. Results: Attitude and control were positively associated with rest-break intention. Intention and control were positively associated with rest-break behavior. The effect of intention was moderated by occupation, with intention being more weakly associated with rest-break behavior in nurses who had less behavioral control. Conclusions: Job control is the major predictor of rest-break behavior, with attitudes playing a minor role, and social norm playing no role. To increase rest-break behavior, a greater extent of job control is necessary.

Drammatic breaks: Break recovery experiences as mediators between job demands and affect in the afternoon and evening

The present study focused on within-workday recovery, which has received less scholarly attention than has recovery outside work. We examined six break recovery experiences (detachment, relaxation, autonomy, mastery, meaning and affiliation) as possible mediators between daily emotional job demands, positive and negative affect both in the afternoon and in the evening. We conducted a one-work week diary study (N = 107) among Finnish schoolteachers with three daily measurements per workday. Most participants (88%) were women, and the average age was 50 years. The data were analysed with multilevel path modelling. Regarding daily afternoon affect, both low break detachment and low break meaning mediated the relationship between high daily emotional demands and low afternoon positive affect and high afternoon negative affect. Regarding daily evening affect, only low break meaning mediated the relationship between high daily emotional demands and low evening positive affect. In addition, afternoon positive and negative affect did mediate the relationships between break detachment and meaning and positive and negative evening affect. Our findings offer new insights into the interplay of daily job demands, break recovery experiences and affective well-being. Despite detachment, meaning, which has received limited research attention as a recovery experience, seems to play an important role in within-workday recovery. Our study also suggests that successful break recovery can benefit employees' affective well-being in the evening.

A Diary Study on When and With Whom Recovery Experiences Modulate Daily Stress and Worry During a COVID-19 Lockdown

In April 2020, almost six out of 10 people around the world were in lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Being locked down usually has a deleterious effect on the confined individual's mental health. In this exceptionally challenging context, finding ways to minimize negative mood about the pandemic is essential. Pandemic-related negative states (“negative mood”) and recovery experiences were investigated in a sample of 264 individuals who completed daily surveys four times per day over 7 consecutive days. MSEMs analyses revealed that negative mood persisted from moment-to-moment through the day, thus showing a response lag effect. Further analyses revealed that when someone experienced pandemic-related psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, control, pleasure, or relatedness at specific periods of the day, mood had improved at the next measured time period, suggesting a protective effect. However, the pattern displayed by singles with dependents suggests that some recovery experiences at specific periods during the day seem to have a backfiring effect and worsen subsequent mood. These findings bring new insight into the role of recovery experiences during lockdowns and suggest that many could benefit from such experiences throughout the day when self-isolating. However, for individuals with multiple risk factors such as being single with dependents, some recovery experiences, at specific periods during the day, might not bring the desired outcome and future research is needed to examine if guilt or domestic burden may explain this finding. Results contribute to our understanding of how to take care of one's mental health during the current pandemic, and concrete recommendations adapted to individual contexts are provided.

Recovery in occupational health psychology and human resource management research: An Interview with Prof. Sabine Sonnentag and Prof. Ute Stephan

While academic research on recovery was rather segregated between occupational health psychology and management research at the beginning of the 20s century and streams of research developed independently, recent developments hint at a closing divide and better integration of recovery research across disciplines. This for example becomes evident in publications of researchers across the traditional outlets within both fields, as well as increasing close collaborations of researchers firmly rooted in one of the fields. In preparation of this special issue, the editors were interested in whether this development represents a convergence or even a true merging of research in these different disciplines. We therefore interviewed Prof. Sabine Sonnentag as expert from occupational health psychology research and Prof. Ute Stephan with expertise in management research. Both are excellent and world-famous researchers in their disciplines. We discussed the current state, the advances during the last years, and the future directions of recovery research in their respective fields. We also talked about their perspectives on integrative topics and about specific issues in both domains that might stimulate a new recovery management research agenda.

Recovery from accumulated strain: the role of daily mood and opportunity costs during a vacation

OBJECTIVE

Recovery from strains accumulated over longer periods of time is essential for health and well-being. Most people take vacations to ensure that they achieve a state of recovery that will allow them to prevent a state of enduring exhaustion. Extending a recent motivational model of recovery, we examined recovery processes during a vacation.

DESIGN

In the current daily diary study, 147 university students reported their daily recovery, mood, opportunity costs, and subjective time perception over 21 consecutive days (2342 observations) during the summer break.

RESULTS

Multilevel analyses showed that students reported higher recovery on days when they were in a better mood and perceived lower opportunity costs than usual. These results held after controlling for the passage of time and well-established covariates of recovery (i.e., psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control).

CONCLUSION

Supporting the motivational model of recovery, positive mood, the absence of opportunity costs and, to a lesser degree, the perception of time passing quickly contribute to daily recovery during a vacation. Thus, recovery is not simply the result of elapsed time but also depends on the kinds of experiences people have on a given vacation day.

What makes a good work break? Off-job and on-job recovery as predictors of employee health

Recovery from work today seems to be crucial for health care employees' health, so it is important to uncover ways how to facilitate and improve adequate recovery from work. Focusing on the recovery concept of detachment from work, this study investigated associations between detachment after work and during work breaks and individual health among health care employees from a general hospital in the Netherlands. An online cross-sectional survey study was conducted comprising a sample of 368 health care employees of different departments. Controlling for demographics in hierarchical regression analyses, results showed that when health care employees experienced more cognitive detachment after work, they reported less concentration problems. Second, when employees experienced more emotional detachment after work, they reported less feelings of emotional exhaustion, less depressive feelings, and less sleep problems. Finally, in case employees experienced more physical detachment after work, they reported less concentration problems, less feelings of emotional exhaustion, less sleep problems and less physical health problems. No significant associations were found for detachment during work breaks. In conclusion, findings add to current recovery research showing that detachment after work is an important predictor for health care employees' health.

Comparing Relaxation Versus Mastery Microbreak Activity: A Within-Task Recovery Perspective

Recovery from work is generally thought to occur outside of the workplace. However, employees may also have the opportunity to recover within the work day via microbreaks during demanding work tasks. Two major strategies for mitigating fatigue include psychological detachment (i.e., mentally disengaging) and replenishing motivational incentives via positive affect. This study examined whether 40-s "microbreaks" improve work recovery and to what extent different microbreak content (mastery vs. relaxation activities) boost performance. Using an experimental study, we randomly assigned individuals to receive a relaxation microbreak (n = 59), a mastery microbreak (n = 68), or no break (n = 72) in the middle of a monotonous work task and assessed work performance. Microbreaks improved task performance and within-task recovery, but only for psychological detachment (not positive affect). Mastery breaks also resulted in more psychological detachment than relaxation breaks, but this increased detachment did not explain performance differences between break types. These results build on existing recovery theories by further demonstrating within-task recovery and provide practical implications for organizations to consider the importance of microbreaks.

Methods in Experimental Work Break Research: A Scoping Review

The number of studies on work breaks and the importance of this subject is growing rapidly, with research showing that work breaks increase employees' wellbeing and performance and workplace safety. However, comparing the results of work break research is difficult since the study designs and methods are heterogeneous and there is no standard theoretical model for work breaks. Based on a systematic literature search, this scoping review included a total of 93 studies on experimental work break research conducted over the last 30 years. This scoping review provides a first structured evaluation regarding the underlying theoretical framework, the variables investigated, and the measurement methods applied. Studies using a combination of measurement methods from the categories "self-report measures," "performance measures," and "physiological measures" are most common and to be preferred in work break research. This overview supplies important information for ergonomics researchers allowing them to design work break studies with a more structured and stronger theory-based approach. A standard theoretical model for work breaks is needed in order to further increase the comparability of studies in the field of experimental work break research in the future.

Reach for your cell phone at your own risk: The cognitive costs of media choice for breaks

INTRODUCTION

Since there is steady increase in cell phone addiction, the act of reaching for a phone between tasks, or even mid-task, is becoming more commonplace, without a true understanding about the potential cognitive costs of taking a break in this way as opposed to taking a break through another medium.

METHODS

This experimental study included 414 participants who completed a cognitively demanding task (solving anagrams) either on paper or on a computer screen. Participants in three of four randomly assigned conditions engaged in a break task (selecting items for a hypothetical shopping list) either on a cell phone, a larger computer screen, or on a paper in the middle of the task. The fourth condition had participants engaging in both halves of the cognitive task with no break.

RESULTS

The results show that using cell phone for a break did not allow brain to recharge as effectively as the other types of breaks, both in terms of being able to perform quickly and efficiently in the second half of the task (how long it took to complete), and in terms of performance (how many anagrams were successfully solved in the second half).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

As people are increasingly addicted to their cell phones, it is important to know the unintended costs associated with reaching for this device every spare minute. Although people may assume that it is not different from any other kind of interaction or break, this study shows that the phone might be more cognitively taxing than expected.