Sulfane Sulfur is an intrinsic signal activating MexR-regulated antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Oxidants induce Escherichia coli MarR glutathionylation in the presence of glutathione

The results of protein thiols reacting with oxidants may be different in the presence or absence of glutathione (GSH). Upon exposure to oxidants, such as Cu2+ and polysulfide, the multiple drug resistant regulator MarR dimer in Escherichia coli is believed to form tetramers linked by disulfide bonds between its Cys80 thiols. We confirmed this observation in the absence of GSH; however, the MarR-Cys80 thiol was primarily glutathionylated in the presence of GSH after MarR was treated with various oxidants, including octasulfur (S8), Cu2+, H2O2, ClO-, and a NO donor. When using S8 as the oxidizing agent, we identified four pathways to induce MarR-Cys80 glutathionylation. Since E. coli contains high concentrations of GSH, MarR is likely glutathionylated instead of forming tetramers inside the cells. When E. coli was exposed to S8, cellular levels of protein glutathionylation were increased and most MarR was glutathionylated, as shown by Western blot and LC-MS analyses. The glutathionylated MarR displayed reduced affinity to its cognate operator, resulting in the expression of its repressed genes. The results highlight the need to consider the wide presence of GSH when investigating protein thiol modification.

Unraveling tetracycline and its degradation product: Induction mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli

In aquatic environments, antibiotics degrade into byproducts, potentially enhancing bacterial resistance. However, the specific mechanisms by which these byproducts induce bacterial resistance remain elusive. This study conducted experimental evolution experiments to explore how E. coli adapts to tetracycline (TC) and its primary degradation products-anhydrotetracycline (ATC), epitetracycline (ETC), and 4-epianhydrotetracycline (EATC)-through evolution experiments. Prolonged exposure to TC and its byproducts significantly increased frequency of resistant mutants in E. coli ATCC25922, with a maximum 106-fold increase. Resistant mutants exhibited markedly elevated minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for TC, ampicillin (AMP), and ciprofloxacin (CIP), indicating multidrug resistance. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the antibiotic resistance phenotype could be related to enhanced target protection, metabolic adaptations, and reduced membrane permeability. The induction pathways between TC and its byproducts were distinct. Specifically, TC20d (where TC20d represents the mutants collected after 20 days of continuous exposure to TC) was associated with more alterations in ribosome-associated genes, which was correlated with an enhanced defensive response as shown by the data. Moreover, variations in energy metabolism gene expression suggest a robust metabolic defense in ATC20d and ETC20d. When TC and its byproducts-ATC, ETC, and EATC-act together, they induce antibiotic resistant mutants at rates of 29.8 %, 18.9 %, 18.3 %, and 31.9 %, respectively. This study provides a descriptive overview of the possible adaptive mechanisms and pathways that may be involved in antibiotic resistance due to environmental exposure.

Sulfide-Responsive Transcription Control in Escherichia coli

To elucidate the mechanism of large-scale transcriptional changes dependent on sulfide in Escherichia coli, a large-scale RNA-sequencing analysis was performed on wild-type and sulfide-responsive transcription factor YgaV deletion mutants grown under three conditions: aerobic, semi-aerobic, and semi-aerobic with sulfide. The resulting dataset from these six conditions was subjected to principal component analysis, which categorized the data into five principal components. Estimation of the typical gene expression regulatory mechanisms in each category suggested the presence of mechanisms that are dependent on sulfide but independent of YgaV, as well as those that depend on YgaV but not on sulfide. In YgaV-dependent transcriptional regulation, YgaV was found to function as both a repressor and an activator. These results support the previous hypothesis that YgaV acts as a global regulator responsible for redox homeostasis.

Bacterial Metallostasis: Metal Sensing, Metalloproteome Remodeling, and Metal Trafficking

Transition metals function as structural and catalytic cofactors for a large diversity of proteins and enzymes that collectively comprise the metalloproteome. Metallostasis considers all cellular processes, notably metal sensing, metalloproteome remodeling, and trafficking (or allocation) of metals that collectively ensure the functional integrity and adaptability of the metalloproteome. Bacteria employ both protein and RNA-based mechanisms that sense intracellular transition metal bioavailability and orchestrate systems-level outputs that maintain metallostasis. In this review, we contextualize metallostasis by briefly discussing the metalloproteome and specialized roles that metals play in biology. We then offer a comprehensive perspective on the diversity of metalloregulatory proteins and metal-sensing riboswitches, defining general principles within each sensor superfamily that capture how specificity is encoded in the sequence, and how selectivity can be leveraged in downstream synthetic biology and biotechnology applications. This is followed by a discussion of recent work that highlights selected metalloregulatory outputs, including metalloproteome remodeling and metal allocation by metallochaperones to both client proteins and compartments. We close by briefly discussing places where more work is needed to fill in gaps in our understanding of metallostasis.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing and biofilm attenuation by a di-hydroxy derivative of piperlongumine (PL-18)

Bacterial communication, Quorum Sensing (QS), is a target against virulence and prevention of antibiotic-resistant infections. 16 derivatives of Piperlongumine (PL), an amide alkaloid from Piper longum L., were screened for QS inhibition. PL-18 had the best QSI activity. PL-18 inhibited the lasR-lasI, rhlR-rhlI, and pqs QS systems of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. PL-18 inhibited pyocyanin and rhamnolipids that are QS-controlled virulence elements. Iron is an essential element for pathogenicity, biofilm formation and resilience in harsh environments, its uptake was inhibited by PL-18. Pl-18 significantly reduced the biofilm biovolume including in established biofilms. PL-18-coated silicon tubes significantly inhibited biofilm formation. The transcriptome study of treated P. aeruginosa showed that PL-18 indeed reduced the expression of QS and iron homeostasis related genes, and up regulated sulfur metabolism related genes. Altogether, PL-18 inhibits QS, virulence, iron uptake, and biofilm formation. Thus, PL-18 should be further developed against bacterial infection, antibiotic resistance, and biofilm formation.

Effect of H2S and cysteine homeostasis disturbance on ciprofloxacin sensitivity of Escherichia coli in cystine-free and cystine-fed minimal medium

Endogenous H2S has been proposed to be a universal defense mechanism against different antibiotics. Here, we studied the role of H2S transiently generated during ciprofloxacin (CF) treatment in M9 minimal medium with sulfate or produced by E. coli when fed with cystine. The cysM and mstA mutants did not produce H2S, while gshA generated more H2S in response to ciprofloxacin in cystine-free media. All mutants showed a reduced ability to maintain cysteine homeostasis under these conditions. We found no relationship between H2S generation, cysteine concentration and sensitivity to ciprofloxacin. Excess cysteine, which occurred during E. coli growth in cystine-fed media, triggered continuous H2S production, accelerated glutathione synthesis and cysteine export. This was accompanied by a twofold increase in ciprofloxacin tolerance in all strains except gshA, whose sensitivity increased 5-8-fold at high CF doses, indicating the importance of GSH in restoring the intracellular redox situation during growth in cystine-fed media.

Increased intracellular H2S levels enhance iron uptake in Escherichia coli

We investigated the impact of intracellular hydrogen sulfide (H2S) hyperaccumulation on the transcriptome of Escherichia coli. The wild-type (WT) strain overexpressing mstA, encoding 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfur transferase, produced significantly higher H2S levels than the control WT strain. The mstA-overexpressing strain exhibited increased resistance to antibiotics, supporting the prior hypothesis that intracellular H2S contributes to oxidative stress responses and antibiotic resistance. RNA-seq analysis revealed that over 1,000 genes were significantly upregulated or downregulated upon mstA overexpression. The upregulated genes encompassed those associated with iron uptake, including siderophore synthesis and iron import transporters. The mstA-overexpressing strain showed increased levels of intracellular iron content, indicating that H2S hyperaccumulation affects iron availability within cells. We found that the H2S-/supersulfide-responsive transcription factor YgaV is required for the upregulated expression of iron uptake genes in the mstA-overexpression conditions. These findings indicate that the expression of iron uptake genes is regulated by intracellular H2S, which is crucial for oxidative stress responses and antibiotic resistance in E. coli.

IMPORTANCE

H2S is recognized as a second messenger in bacteria, playing a vital role in diverse intracellular and extracellular activities, including oxidative stress responses and antibiotic resistance. Both H2S and iron serve as essential signaling molecules for gut bacteria. However, the intricate intracellular coordination between them, governing bacterial physiology, remains poorly understood. This study unveils a close relationship between intracellular H2S accumulation and iron uptake activity, a relationship critical for antibiotic resistance. We present additional evidence expanding the role of intracellular H2S synthesis in bacterial physiology.

MarR family proteins sense sulfane sulfur in bacteria

Members of the multiple antibiotic resistance regulator (MarR) protein family are ubiquitous in bacteria and play critical roles in regulating cellular metabolism and antibiotic resistance. MarR family proteins function as repressors, and their interactions with modulators induce the expression of controlled genes. The previously characterized modulators are insufficient to explain the activities of certain MarR family proteins. However, recently, several MarR family proteins have been reported to sense sulfane sulfur, including zero-valent sulfur, persulfide (R-SSH), and polysulfide (R-SnH, n ≥ 2). Sulfane sulfur is a common cellular component in bacteria whose levels vary during bacterial growth. The changing levels of sulfane sulfur affect the expression of many MarR-controlled genes. Sulfane sulfur reacts with the cysteine thiols of MarR family proteins, causing the formation of protein thiol persulfide, disulfide bonds, and other modifications. Several MarR family proteins that respond to reactive oxygen species (ROS) also sense sulfane sulfur, as both sulfane sulfur and ROS induce the formation of disulfide bonds. This review focused on MarR family proteins that sense sulfane sulfur. However, the sensing mechanisms reviewed here may also apply to other proteins that detect sulfane sulfur, which is emerging as a modulator of gene regulation.

Antibiotic influx and efflux in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Regulation and therapeutic implications

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a notorious multidrug-resistant pathogen that poses a serious and growing threat to the worldwide public health. The expression of resistance determinants is exquisitely modulated by the abundant regulatory proteins and the intricate signal sensing and transduction systems in this pathogen. Downregulation of antibiotic influx porin proteins and upregulation of antibiotic efflux pump systems owing to mutational changes in their regulators or the presence of distinct inducing molecular signals represent two of the most efficient mechanisms that restrict intracellular antibiotic accumulation and enable P. aeruginosa to resist multiple antibiotics. Treatment of P. aeruginosa infections is extremely challenging due to the highly inducible mechanism of antibiotic resistance. This review comprehensively summarizes the regulatory networks of the major porin proteins (OprD and OprH) and efflux pumps (MexAB-OprM, MexCD-OprJ, MexEF-OprN, and MexXY) that play critical roles in antibiotic influx and efflux in P. aeruginosa. It also discusses promising therapeutic approaches using safe and efficient adjuvants to enhance the efficacy of conventional antibiotics to combat multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa by controlling the expression levels of porins and efflux pumps. This review not only highlights the complexity of the regulatory network that induces antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa but also provides important therapeutic implications in targeting the inducible mechanism of resistance.

Hydrogen sulfide production does not affect antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been proposed to protect bacteria from antibiotics, pointing to H2S-producing enzymes as possible targets for the development of antibiotic adjuvants. Here, MIC assays performed with Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutants producing altered H2S levels demonstrate that H2S does not affect antibiotic resistance in this bacterium. Moreover, correlation analyses in a large collection of P. aeruginosa cystic fibrosis isolates argue against the protective role of H2S from antibiotic activity during chronic lung infection.

Cysteine and resistance to oxidative stress: implications for virulence and antibiotic resistance

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), including the superoxide radical anion (O2•-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydroxyl radical (•HO), are inherent components of bacterial metabolism in an aerobic environment. Bacteria also encounter exogenous ROS, such as those produced by the host cells during the respiratory burst. As ROS have the capacity to damage bacterial DNA, proteins, and lipids, detoxification of ROS is critical for bacterial survival. It has been recently recognised that low-molecular-weight (LMW) thiols play a central role in this process. Here, we review the emerging role of cysteine in bacterial resistance to ROS with a link to broader elements of bacterial lifestyle closely associated with cysteine-mediated oxidative stress response, including virulence and antibiotic resistance.

Exploring calcium channel blocker as a candidate drug for Pseudomonas aeruginosa through network pharmacology and experimental validation

Calcium channel blocker (CCB) is known to possess antibacterial effects. We aimed to apply network pharmacology (docking and protein-protein interaction [PPI] analyses) to predict the potential targets and mechanisms of CCB against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) as well as to verify the effect of these drugs. The chemical structures of three CCBs were obtained through the Drug Bank platform. The potential channel proteins, efflux pump proteins and ion channel proteins of CCB against bacteria were derived from the literature. These proteins were collected through the PDB and Uniprot platform. The binding mode of the docking complexes was simulated by the CB-Dock platform and Discovery Studio 2019 Client software. The PPI network was constructed by the String platform and Cytoscape 3.8.2 platform. GO was explained by the PANTHER platform. The pathway diagram was drawn with the Pathway Builder Tool 2.0 software. The inhibitory effect of CCB on PA was verified through antibacterial experiments. Finally, 76 proteins were obtained: the iron channel protein of PA demonstrated a good docking relationship with all three CCBs, and the optimum binding energy was approximately -9.0 kcal/mol. GO analysis (biological process [BP], cellular component [CC], and molecular function [MF]) of protein genes showed a good docking relationship (optimum binding energy <-8.0 kcal/mol). The MF annotation results indicated that the target of CCB may be present on the PA membrane protein. The ion channel protein PPI enrichment p-value was 6.65e-08, and PfeA showed the strongest correlation. The experimental results suggested that CCB could inhibit the growth of PA. CCB might be an effective and interesting antimicrobial treatment strategy as CCB can potentially inhibit the growth of PA.

Sensing and regulation of reactive sulfur species (RSS) in bacteria

The infected host deploys generalized oxidative stress caused by small inorganic reactive molecules as antibacterial weapons. An emerging consensus is that hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and forms of sulfur with sulfur-sulfur bonds termed reactive sulfur species (RSS) provide protection against oxidative stressors and antibiotics, as antioxidants. Here, we review our current understanding of RSS chemistry and its impact on bacterial physiology. We start by describing the basic chemistry of these reactive species and the experimental approaches developed to detect them in cells. We highlight the role of thiol persulfides in H2S-signaling and discuss three structural classes of ubiquitous RSS sensors that tightly regulate cellular H2S/RSS levels in bacteria, with a specific focus on the chemical specificity of these sensors.

Transcription factor OxyR regulates sulfane sulfur removal and L-cysteine biosynthesis in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Sulfane sulfur, a collective term for hydrogen polysulfide and organic persulfide, often damages cells at high concentrations. Cells can regulate intracellular sulfane sulfur levels through specific mechanisms, but these mechanisms are unclear in Corynebacterium glutamicum. OxyR is a transcription factor capable of sensing oxidative stress and is also responsive to sulfane sulfur. In this study, we found that OxyR functioned directly in regulating sulfane sulfur in C. glutamicum. OxyR binds to the promoter of katA and nrdH and regulates its expression, as revealed via in vitro electrophoretic mobility shift assay analysis, real-time quantitative PCR, and reporting systems. Overexpression of katA and nrdH reduced intracellular sulfane sulfur levels by over 30% and 20% in C. glutamicum, respectively. RNA-sequencing analysis showed that the lack of OxyR downregulated the expression of sulfur assimilation pathway genes and/or sulfur transcription factors, which may reduce the rate of sulfur assimilation. In addition, OxyR also affected the biosynthesis of L-cysteine in C. glutamicum. OxyR overexpression strain Cg-2 accumulated 183 mg/L of L-cysteine, increased by approximately 30% compared with the control (142 mg/L). In summary, OxyR not only regulated sulfane sulfur levels by controlling the expression of katA and nrdH in C. glutamicum but also facilitated the sulfur assimilation and L-cysteine synthesis pathways, providing a potential target for constructing robust cell factories of sulfur-containing amino acids and their derivatives. IMPORTANCE C. glutamicum is an important industrial microorganism used to produce various amino acids. In the production of sulfur-containing amino acids, cells inevitably accumulate a large amount of sulfane sulfur. However, few studies have focused on sulfane sulfur removal in C. glutamicum. In this study, we not only revealed the regulatory mechanism of OxyR on intracellular sulfane sulfur removal but also explored the effects of OxyR on the sulfur assimilation and L-cysteine synthesis pathways in C. glutamicum. This is the first study on the removal of sulfane sulfur in C. glutamicum. These results contribute to the understanding of sulfur regulatory mechanisms and may aid in the future optimization of C. glutamicum for biosynthesis of sulfur-containing amino acids.

Increased intracellular persulfide levels attenuate HlyU-mediated hemolysin transcriptional activation in Vibrio cholerae

The vertebrate host's immune system and resident commensal bacteria deploy a range of highly reactive small molecules that provide a barrier against infections by microbial pathogens. Gut pathogens, such as Vibrio cholerae, sense and respond to these stressors by modulating the expression of exotoxins that are crucial for colonization. Here, we employ mass spectrometry-based profiling, metabolomics, expression assays, and biophysical approaches to show that transcriptional activation of the hemolysin gene hlyA in V. cholerae is regulated by intracellular forms of sulfur with sulfur-sulfur bonds, termed reactive sulfur species (RSS). We first present a comprehensive sequence similarity network analysis of the arsenic repressor superfamily of transcriptional regulators, where RSS and hydrogen peroxide sensors segregate into distinct clusters of sequences. We show that HlyU, transcriptional activator of hlyA in V. cholerae, belongs to the RSS-sensing cluster and readily reacts with organic persulfides, showing no reactivity or DNA dissociation following treatment with glutathione disulfide or hydrogen peroxide. Surprisingly, in V. cholerae cell cultures, both sulfide and peroxide treatment downregulate HlyU-dependent transcriptional activation of hlyA. However, RSS metabolite profiling shows that both sulfide and peroxide treatment raise the endogenous inorganic sulfide and disulfide levels to a similar extent, accounting for this crosstalk, and confirming that V. cholerae attenuates HlyU-mediated activation of hlyA in a specific response to intracellular RSS. These findings provide new evidence that gut pathogens may harness RSS-sensing as an evolutionary adaptation that allows them to overcome the gut inflammatory response by modulating the expression of exotoxins.

The biological functions of protein S-sulfhydration in eukaryotes and the ever-increasing understanding of its effects on bacteria

As a critical endogenous signaling molecule, hydrogen sulfide may induce reversible post-translational modifications on cysteine residues of proteins, generating a persulfide bond known as S-sulfhydration. A systemic overview of the biofunctions of S-sulfhydration will equip us better to characterize its regulatory roles in antioxidant defense, inflammatory response, and cell fate, as well as its pathological mechanisms related to cardiovascular, neurological, and multiple organ diseases, etc. Nevertheless, the understanding of S-sulfhydration is mostly built on mammalian cells and animal models. We subsequently summarized the mediation effects of this specific post-transcriptional modification on physiological processes and virulence in bacteria. The high-sensitivity and high-throughput detection technologies are required for studying the signal transduction mechanism of H₂S and protein S-sulfhydration modification. Herein, we reviewed the establishment and development of different approaches to assess S-sulfhydration, including the biotin-switch method, modified biotin-switch method, alkylation-based cysteine-labelled assay, and Tag-switch method. Finally, we discussed the limitations of the impacts of S-sulfhydration in pathogens-host interactions and envisaged the challenges to design drugs and antibiotics targeting the S-sulfhydrated proteins in the host or pathogens.

Characterization of a novel phage vB_Pae_HB2107-3I that infects Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Bacteriophages are potential antibiotic substitutes for the treatment of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Here, we report the genome sequences of a double-stranded DNA podovirus vB_Pae_HB2107-3I against clinical multi-drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Phage vB_Pae_HB2107-3I remained stable over a wide range of temperatures (37-60 °C) and pH values (pH 4-12). At MOI of 0.01, the latent period of vB_Pae_HB2107-3I was 10 min, and the final titer reached about 8.1 × 10⁹ PFU/mL. The vB_Pae_HB2107-3I genome is 45,929 bp, with an average G + C content of 57%. A total of 72 open reading frames (ORFs) were predicted, of which 22 ORFs have a predicted function. Genome analyses confirmed the lysogenic nature of this phage. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that phage vB_Pae_HB2107-3I was a novel member of Caudovirales infecting P. aeruginosa. The characterization of vB_Pae_HB2107-3I enrich the research on Pseudomonas phages and provide a promising biocontrol agent against P. aeruginosa infections.

The Rhodanese PspE Converts Thiosulfate to Cellular Sulfane Sulfur in Escherichia coli

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and its oxidation product zero-valent sulfur (S⁰) play important roles in animals, plants, and bacteria. Inside cells, S⁰ exists in various forms, including polysulfide and persulfide, which are collectively referred to as sulfane sulfur. Due to the known health benefits, the donors of H₂S and sulfane sulfur have been developed and tested. Among them, thiosulfate is a known H₂S and sulfane sulfur donor. We have previously reported that thiosulfate is an effective sulfane sulfur donor in Escherichia coli; however, it is unclear how it converts thiosulfate to cellular sulfane sulfur. In this study, we showed that one of the various rhodaneses, PspE, in E. coli was responsible for the conversion. After the thiosulfate addition, the ΔpspE mutant did not increase cellular sulfane sulfur, but the wild type and the complemented strain ΔpspE::pspE increased cellular sulfane sulfur from about 92 μM to 220 μM and 355 μM, respectively. LC-MS analysis revealed a significant increase in glutathione persulfide (GSSH) in the wild type and the ΔpspE::pspE strain. The kinetic analysis supported that PspE was the most effective rhodanese in E. coli in converting thiosulfate to glutathione persulfide. The increased cellular sulfane sulfur alleviated the toxicity of hydrogen peroxide during E. coli growth. Although cellular thiols might reduce the increased cellular sulfane sulfur to H₂S, increased H₂S was not detected in the wild type. The finding that rhodanese is required to convert thiosulfate to cellular sulfane sulfur in E. coli may guide the use of thiosulfate as the donor of H₂S and sulfane sulfur in human and animal tests.

Increased intracellular persulfide levels attenuate HlyU-mediated hemolysin transcriptional activation in Vibrio cholerae

The vertebrate host’s immune system and resident commensal bacteria deploy a range of highly reactive small molecules that provide a barrier against infections by microbial pathogens. Gut pathogens, such as Vibrio cholerae , sense and respond to these stressors by modulating the expression of exotoxins that are crucial for colonization. Here, we employ mass-spectrometry-based profiling, metabolomics, expression assays and biophysical approaches to show that transcriptional activation of the hemolysin gene hlyA in V. cholerae is regulated by intracellular reactive sulfur species (RSS), specifically sulfane sulfur. We first present a comprehensive sequence similarity network analysis of the arsenic repressor (ArsR) superfamily of transcriptional regulators where RSS and reactive oxygen species (ROS) sensors segregate into distinct clusters. We show that HlyU, transcriptional activator of hlyA in V. cholerae , belongs to the RSS-sensing cluster and readily reacts with organic persulfides, showing no reactivity and remaining DNA-bound following treatment with various ROS in vitro, including H 2 O 2 . Surprisingly, in V. cholerae cell cultures, both sulfide and peroxide treatment downregulate HlyU-dependent transcriptional activation of hlyA . However, RSS metabolite profiling shows that both sulfide and peroxide treatment raise the endogenous inorganic sulfide and disulfide levels to a similar extent, accounting for this crosstalk, and confirming that V. cholerae attenuates HlyU-mediated activation of hlyA in a specific response to intracellular RSS. These findings provide new evidence that gut pathogens may harness RSS-sensing as an evolutionary adaptation that allows them to overcome the gut inflammatory response by modulating the expression of exotoxins.

The Transcriptional Repressor PerR Senses Sulfane Sulfur by Cysteine Persulfidation at the Structural Zn2+ Site in Synechococcus sp. PCC7002

Cyanobacteria can perform both anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis, a characteristic which ensured that these organisms were crucial in the evolution of the early Earth and the biosphere. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced in oxygenic photosynthesis and reactive sulfur species (RSS) produced in anoxygenic photosynthesis are closely related to intracellular redox equilibrium. ROS comprise superoxide anion (O₂^●-), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and hydroxyl radicals (^●OH). RSS comprise H₂S and sulfane sulfur (persulfide, polysulfide, and S₈). Although the sensing mechanism for ROS in cyanobacteria has been explored, that of RSS has not been elucidated. Here, we studied the function of the transcriptional repressor PerR in RSS sensing in Synechococcus sp. PCC7002 (PCC7002). PerR was previously reported to sense ROS; however, our results revealed that it also participated in RSS sensing. PerR repressed the expression of prxI and downregulated the tolerance of PCC7002 to polysulfide (H₂S_n). The reporter system indicated that PerR sensed H₂S_n. Cys¹²¹ of the Cys4:Zn²⁺ site, which contains four cysteines (Cys¹²¹, Cys¹²⁴, Cys¹⁶⁰, and Cys¹⁶³) bound to one zinc atom, could be modified by H₂S_n to Cys¹²¹-SSH, as a result of which the zinc atom was released from the site. Moreover, Cys¹⁹ could also be modified by polysulfide to Cys¹⁹-SSH. Thus, our results reveal that PerR, a representative of the Cys₄ zinc finger proteins, senses H₂S_n. Our findings provide a new perspective to explore the adaptation strategy of cyanobacteria in Proterozoic and contemporary sulfurization oceans.

The Pleiotropic Regulator AdpA Regulates the Removal of Excessive Sulfane Sulfur in Streptomyces coelicolor

Reactive sulfane sulfur (RSS), including persulfide, polysulfide, and elemental sulfur (S₈), has important physiological functions, such as resisting antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli and regulating secondary metabolites production in Streptomyces spp. However, at excessive levels it is toxic. Streptomyces cells may use known enzymes to remove extra sulfane sulfur, and an unknown regulator is involved in the regulation of these enzymes. AdpA is a multi-functional transcriptional regulator universally present in Streptomyces spp. Herein, we report that AdpA was essential for Streptomyces coelicolor survival when facing external RSS stress. AdpA deletion also resulted in intracellular RSS accumulation. Thioredoxins and thioredoxin reductases were responsible for anti-RSS stress via reducing RSS to gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). AdpA directly activated the expression of these enzymes at the presence of excess RSS. Since AdpA and thioredoxin systems are widely present in Streptomyces, this finding unveiled a new mechanism of anti-RSS stress by these bacteria.

Characterization of the newly isolated Pseudomonas phage vB_Pae_LC3I3

Here, we report the genome sequence of a double-stranded DNA siphovirus, vB_Pae_LC3I3 infective for P. aeruginosa PA14. Phage vB_Pae_LC3I3 was identified as a linear double-stranded DNA phage of 49,926 bp with 59% G+C content. The vB_Pae_LC3I3 genome contains 78 open reading frames, and the function of 22 ORFs can be predicted. Genome analysis confirmed the lysogenic nature of this phage, which encodes the typical lysogen-related integrase and CI/Cro regulator. One-step growth curve revealed that the latent period of phage vB_Pae_LC3I3 lasted for 30 min. And vB_Pae_LC3I3 showed good temperature stability and pH stability. Based on electron microscopy, phylogenetic, and comparative genomic analyses, this novel Pseudomonas temperate phage represents a novel unassigned siphoviruses cluster. The study of phage vB_Pae_LC3I3 will provide basic information for further research on treatment of P. aeruginosa infections.

Generation and Physiology of Hydrogen Sulfide and Reactive Sulfur Species in Bacteria

Sulfur is not only one of the most abundant elements on the Earth, but it is also essential to all living organisms. As life likely began and evolved in a hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)-rich environment, sulfur metabolism represents an early form of energy generation via various reactions in prokaryotes and has driven the sulfur biogeochemical cycle since. It has long been known that H₂S is toxic to cells at high concentrations, but now this gaseous molecule, at the physiological level, is recognized as a signaling molecule and a regulator of critical biological processes. Recently, many metabolites of H₂S, collectively called reactive sulfur species (RSS), have been gradually appreciated as having similar or divergent regulatory roles compared with H₂S in living organisms, especially mammals. In prokaryotes, even in bacteria, investigations into generation and physiology of RSS remain preliminary and an understanding of the relevant biological processes is still in its infancy. Despite this, recent and exciting advances in the fields are many. Here, we discuss abiotic and biotic generation of H₂S/RSS, sulfur-transforming enzymes and their functioning mechanisms, and their physiological roles as well as the sensing and regulation of H₂S/RSS.

Sulfane Sulfur Is an Intrinsic Signal for the Organic Peroxide Sensor OhrR of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Sulfane sulfur, including organic persulfide and polysulfide, is a normal cellular component, and its level varies during growth. It is emerging as a signaling molecule in bacteria, regulating the gene regulator MarR in Escherichia coli, MexR in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and MgrA of Staphylococcus aureus. They are MarR-family regulators and are often repressors for multiple antibiotic resistance genes. Here, we report that another MarR-type regulator OhrR that represses the expression of itself and a thiol peroxidase gene ohr in P. aeruginosa PAO1 also responded to sulfane sulfur. PaOhrR formed disulfide bonds between three Cys residues within a dimer after polysulfide treatment. The modification reduced its affinity to its cognate DNA binding site. An Escherichia coli reporter system, in which mKate was under the repression of OhrR, showed that PaOhrR derepressed its controlled gene when polysulfide was added, whereas the mutant PaOhrR with two Cys residues changed to Ser residues did not respond to polysulfide. The expression of the PaOhrR-repressed mKate was significantly increased when the cells enter the late log phase when cellular sulfane sulfur reached a maximum, but the mKate expression under the control of the PaOhrR-C9SC19S double mutant was not increased. Furthermore, the expression levels of ohrR and ohr in P. aeruginosa PAO1 were significantly increased when cellular sulfane sulfur was high. Thus, PaOhrR senses both exogenous and intrinsic sulfane sulfur to derepress its controlled genes. The finding also suggests that sulfane sulfur may be a common inducer of the MarR-type regulators, which may confer the bacteria to resist certain stresses without being exposed to the stresses.

Optimization of a Method for Detecting Intracellular Sulfane Sulfur Levels and Evaluation of Reagents That Affect the Levels in Escherichia coli

Sulfane sulfur is a class of compounds containing zero-valent sulfur. Most sulfane sulfur compounds are reactive and play important signaling roles. Key enzymes involved in the production and metabolism of sulfane sulfur have been characterized; however, little is known about how to change intracellular sulfane sulfur (iSS) levels. To accurately measure iSS, we optimized a previously reported method, in which reactive iSS reacts with sulfite to produce thiosulfate, a stable sulfane sulfur compound, before detection. With the improved method, several factors were tested to influence iSS in Escherichia coli. Temperature, pH, and osmotic pressure showed little effect. At commonly used concentrations, most tested oxidants, including hydrogen peroxide, tert-butyl hydroperoxide, hypochlorous acid, and diamide, did not affect iSS, but carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone increased iSS. For reductants, 10 mM dithiothreitol significantly decreased iSS, but tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine did not. Among different sulfur-bearing compounds, NaHS, cysteine, S₂O₃²⁻ and diallyl disulfide increased iSS, of which only S₂O₃²⁻ did not inhibit E. coli growth at 10 mM or less. Thus, with the improved method, we have identified reagents that may be used to change iSS in E. coli and other organisms, providing tools to further study the physiological functions of iSS.

Biodesulfurization of thiosulfate by a Pseudomonas strain PSP1 and the investigation of underlying metabolic mechanisms

The increasing public expectations for good air quality have necessitated the development of biodeodorization technology. Among different malodorous pollutants, H₂S has attracted extensive attention and diverse biodesulfurization technology has been developed for efficient H₂S removal. In this study, a novel heterotrophic Pseudomonas strain, PSP1, was isolated from biogas slurry and its biodesulfurization ability was investigated. Culture conditions of 30 °C and 200 rpm were determined as the optimal for both cell growth and thiosulfate conversion. Under such conditions, the highest OD₆₀₀ value was observed as 6.74 and 50 mM thiosulfate within 10 h. PSP1 was found to convert thiosulfate to sulfane which could be decomposed into elemental sulfur and therefore achieved desulfurization. However, this process was relatively weak as more than 60% thiosulfate was converted into soluble tetrathionate. The whole genome sequencing and functional annotation identified the genes in PSP1 associated with sulfur metabolism and the RT-qPCR analysis quantified the expression level of corresponding genes. The expression level of tsdA, which was responsible for tetrathionate production, was around 60 folds higher than genes for sulfane production (e.g. TST1, cysI). Further research would focus on the enhancement of sulfane production pathway through metabolic engineering tools.

Emerging roles of cystathionine β-synthase in various forms of cancer

The expression of the reverse transsulfuration enzyme cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS) is markedly increased in many forms of cancer, including colorectal, ovarian, lung, breast and kidney, while in other cancers (liver cancer and glioma) it becomes downregulated. According to the clinical database data in high-CBS-expressor cancers (e.g. colon or ovarian cancer), high CBS expression typically predicts lower survival, while in the low-CBS-expressor cancers (e.g. liver cancer), low CBS expression is associated with lower survival. In the high-CBS expressing tumor cells, CBS, and its product hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) serves as a bioenergetic, proliferative, cytoprotective and stemness factor; it also supports angiogenesis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in the cancer microenvironment. The current article reviews the various tumor-cell-supporting roles of the CBS/H₂S axis in high-CBS expressor cancers and overviews the anticancer effects of CBS silencing and pharmacological CBS inhibition in various cancer models in vitro and in vivo; it also outlines potential approaches for biomarker identification, to support future targeted cancer therapies based on pharmacological CBS inhibition.

Sulfane Sulfur Posttranslationally Modifies the Global Regulator AdpA to Influence Actinorhodin Production and Morphological Differentiation of Streptomyces coelicolor

The transcription factor AdpA is a key regulator controlling both secondary metabolism and morphological differentiation in Streptomyces. Due to its critical functions, its expression undergoes multilevel regulations at transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and translational levels, yet no posttranslational regulation has been reported. Sulfane sulfur, such as hydro polysulfide (HS_nH, n ≥ 2) and organic polysulfide (RS_nH, n ≥ 2), is common inside microorganisms, but its physiological functions are largely unclear. Here, we discovered that sulfane sulfur posttranslationally modifies AdpA in Streptomyces coelicolor via specifically reacting with Cys⁶² of AdpA to form a persulfide (Cys⁶²-SSH). This modification decreases the affinity of AdpA to its self-promoter P_adpA, allowing increased expression of adpA, further promoting the expression of its target genes actII-4 and wblA. ActII-4 activates actinorhodin biosynthesis, and WblA regulates morphological development. Bioinformatics analyses indicated that AdpA-Cys⁶² is highly conserved in Streptomyces, suggesting the prevalence of such modification in this genus. Thus, our study unveils a new type of regulation on the AdpA activity and sheds a light on how sulfane sulfur stimulates the production of antibiotics in Streptomyces.

Quorum Sensing Promotes Phage Infection in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Quorum sensing (QS) is used to coordinate social behaviors, such as virulence and biofilm formation, across bacterial populations. However, the role of QS in regulating phage-bacterium interactions remains unclear. Preventing phage recognition and adsorption are the first steps of bacterial defense against phages; however, both phage recognition and adsorption are a prerequisite for the successful application of phage therapy. In the present study, we report that QS upregulated the expression of phage receptors, thus increasing phage adsorption and infection rates in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In P. aeruginosa PAO1, we found that las QS, instead of rhl QS, upregulated the expression of galU for lipopolysaccharide synthesis. Lipopolysaccharides act as the receptor of the phage vB_Pae_QDWS. This las QS-mediated phage susceptibility is a dynamic process, depending on host cell density. Our data suggest that inhibiting QS may reduce the therapeutic efficacy of phages. IMPORTANCE Phage resistance is a major limitation of phage therapy, and understanding the mechanisms by which bacteria block phage infection is critical for the successful application of phage therapy. In the present study, we found that Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 uses las QS to promote phage infection by upregulating the expression of galU, which is necessary for the synthesis of phage receptor lipopolysaccharides. In contrast to the results of previous reports, we showed that QS increases the efficacy of phage-mediated bacterial killing. Since QS upregulates the expression of virulence factors and promotes biofilm development, which are positively correlated with lipopolysaccharide production in P. aeruginosa, increased phage susceptibility is a novel QS-mediated trade-off. QS inhibition may increase the efficacy of antibiotic treatment, but it will reduce the effectiveness of phage therapy.

Expression of a phage-encoded Gp21 protein protects Pseudomonas aeruginosa against phage infection

There is a continuously expanding gap between predicted phage gene sequences and their corresponding functions, which largely hampered the development of phage therapy. Previous studies reported several phage proteins that could interfere with the intracellular processes of the host to obtain efficient infection. But few phage proteins that protect host against phage infection has been identified and characterized in detail. Here, we isolate a phage vB_Pae_QDWS capable of infecting Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, and report its encoded Gp21 protein protects PAO1 against phage infection. Expressing of Gp21 regulate bacterial quorum sensing with an inhibitory effect in low cell density and activation effect in high cell density. By testing the TFPs-mediated twitching motility and transmission electron microscopy analysis, Gp21 was found decreased the pilus synthesis. Further constructing the TFPs synthesis gene pilB mutant and performing adsorption and phage resistance assay, we demonstrated Gp21 protein could block phage infection via decreasing the TFPs-mediated phage adsorption. Gp21 is a novel protein that inhibit phage efficacy against bacteria. The study deepens our understanding of phage-host interactions. Importance The majority of the annotated phage genes are currently deposited as "hypothetical protein" with unknown function. Researches revealed that some phage proteins serve to inhibit or redirect the host intracellular processes for phage infection. Differently, we report a phage encoded protein Gp21 that protect the host against phage infection. The pathways that Gp21 involved in anti-phage defense in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 are interfering with quorum sensing and decreasing the type IV pilus-mediated phage adsorption. Gp21 is a novel protein with a low sequence homology with other reported twitching inhibitory proteins. As a lytic phage derived protein, Gp21 expression protects P. aeruginosa PAO1 from reinfection by phage vB_Pae_QDWS, which may explain the well-known pseudolysogeny caused by virulent phages. Our discoveries provide valuable new insight into the phage-host evolutionary dynamics.

Functional asymmetry and chemical reactivity of CsoR family persulfide sensors

CstR is a persulfide-sensing member of the functionally diverse copper-sensitive operon repressor (CsoR) superfamily. While CstR regulates the bacterial response to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and more oxidized reactive sulfur species (RSS) in Gram-positive pathogens, other dithiol-containing CsoR proteins respond to host derived Cu(I) toxicity, sometimes in the same bacterial cytoplasm, but without regulatory crosstalk in cells. It is not clear what prevents this crosstalk, nor the extent to which RSS sensors exhibit specificity over other oxidants. Here, we report a sequence similarity network (SSN) analysis of the entire CsoR superfamily, which together with the first crystallographic structure of a CstR and comprehensive mass spectrometry-based kinetic profiling experiments, reveal new insights into the molecular basis of RSS specificity in CstRs. We find that the more N-terminal cysteine is the attacking Cys in CstR and is far more nucleophilic than in a CsoR. Moreover, our CstR crystal structure is markedly asymmetric and chemical reactivity experiments reveal the functional impact of this asymmetry. Substitution of the Asn wedge between the resolving and the attacking thiol with Ala significantly decreases asymmetry in the crystal structure and markedly impacts the distribution of species, despite adopting the same global structure as the parent repressor. Companion NMR, SAXS and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the structural and functional asymmetry can be traced to fast internal dynamics of the tetramer. Furthermore, this asymmetry is preserved in all CstRs and with all oxidants tested, giving rise to markedly distinct distributions of crosslinked products. Our exploration of the sequence, structural, and kinetic features that determine oxidant-specificity suggest that the product distribution upon RSS exposure is determined by internal flexibility.

Sulfane Sulfur Is a Strong Inducer of the Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Regulator MarR in Escherichia coli

Sulfane sulfur, including persulfide and polysulfide, is produced from the metabolism of sulfur-containing organic compounds or from sulfide oxidation. It is a normal cellular component, participating in signaling. In bacteria, it modifies gene regulators to activate the expression of genes involved in sulfur metabolism. However, to determine whether sulfane sulfur is a common signal in bacteria, additional evidence is required. The ubiquitous multiple antibiotic resistance regulator (MarR) family of regulators controls the expression of numerous genes, but the intrinsic inducers are often elusive. Recently, two MarR family members, Pseudomonas aeruginosa MexR and Staphylococcus aureus MgrA, have been reported to sense sulfane sulfur. Here, we report that Escherichia coli MarR, the prototypical member of the family, also senses sulfane sulfur to form one or two disulfide or trisulfide bonds between two dimers. Although the tetramer with two disulfide bonds does not bind to its target DNA, our results suggest that the tetramer with one disulfide bond does bind to its target DNA, with reduced affinity. An MarR-repressed mKate reporter is strongly induced by polysulfide in E. coli. Further investigation is needed to determine whether sulfane sulfur is a common signal of the family members, but three members sense cellular sulfane sulfur to turn on antibiotic resistance genes. The findings offer additional support for a general signaling role of sulfane sulfur in bacteria.

Methods in sulfide and persulfide research

Sulfides and persulfides/polysulfides (R-Sn-R', n > 2; R-Sn-H, n > 1) are endogenously produced metabolites that are abundant in mammalian and human cells and tissues. The most typical persulfides that are widely distributed among different organisms include various reactive persulfides-low-molecular-weight thiol compounds such as cysteine hydropersulfide, glutathione hydropersulfide, and glutathione trisulfide as well as protein-bound thiols. These species are generally more redox-active than are other simple thiols and disulfides. Although hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has been suggested for years to be a small signaling molecule, it is intimately linked biochemically to persulfides and may actually be more relevant as a marker of functionally active persulfides. Reactive persulfides can act as powerful antioxidants and redox signaling species and are involved in energy metabolism. Recent evidence revealed that cysteinyl-tRNA synthetases (CARSs) act as the principal cysteine persulfide synthases in mammals and contribute significantly to endogenous persulfide/polysulfide production, in addition to being associated with a battery of enzymes including cystathionine β-synthase, cystathionine γ-lyase, and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase, which have been described as H2S-producing enzymes. The reactive sulfur metabolites including persulfides/polysulfides derived from CARS2, a mitochondrial isoform of CARS, also mediate not only mitochondrial biogenesis and bioenergetics but also anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions. The physiological roles of persulfides, their biosynthetic pathways, and their pathophysiology in various diseases are not fully understood, however. Developing basic and high precision techniques and methods for the detection, characterization, and quantitation of sulfides and persulfides is therefore of great importance so as to thoroughly understand and clarify the exact functions and roles of these species in cells and in vivo.

Sulfane Sulfur Regulates LasR-Mediated Quorum Sensing and Virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1

Sulfane sulfur, such as inorganic and organic polysulfide (HS_n^- and RS_n^-, n > 2), is a common cellular component, produced either from hydrogen sulfide oxidation or cysteine metabolism. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, LasR is a quorum sensing master regulator. After binding its autoinducer, LasR binds to its target DNA to activate the transcription of a suite of genes, including virulence factors. Herein, we report that the production of hydrogen sulfide and sulfane sulfur were positively correlated in P. aeruginosa PAO1, and sulfane sulfur was able to modify LasR, which generated Cys¹⁸⁸ persulfide and trisulfide and produced a pentasulfur link between Cys²⁰¹ and Cys²⁰³. The modifications did not affect LasR binding to its target DNA site, but made it several-fold more effective than unmodified LasR in activating transcription in both in vitro and in vivo assays. On the contrary, H₂O₂ inactivates LasR via producing a disulfide bond between Cys²⁰¹ and Cys²⁰³. P. aeruginosa PAO1 had a high cellular sulfane sulfur and high LasR activity in the mid log phase and early stationary phase, but a low sulfane sulfur and low LasR activity in the declination phase. Thus, sulfane sulfur is a new signaling factor in the bacterium, adding another level of control over LasR-mediated quorum sensing and turning down the activity in old cells.