The Ralstonia solanacearum effector RipI induces a defence reaction by interacting with the bHLH93 transcription factor in Nicotiana benthamiana

Ralstonia solanacearum effector RipAK suppresses homodimerization of the host transcription factor ERF098 to enhance susceptibility and the sensitivity of pepper plants to dehydration

Plants have evolved a sophisticated immune system to defend against invasion by pathogens. In response, pathogens deploy copious effectors to evade the immune responses. However, the molecular mechanisms used by pathogen effectors to suppress plant immunity remain unclear. Herein, we report that an effector secreted by Ralstonia solanacearum, RipAK, modulates the transcriptional activity of the ethylene-responsive factor ERF098 to suppress immunity and dehydration tolerance, which causes bacterial wilt in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants. Silencing ERF098 enhances the resistance of pepper plants to R. solanacearum infection not only by inhibiting the host colonization of R. solanacearum but also by increasing the immunity and tolerance of pepper plants to dehydration and including the closure of stomata to reduce the loss of water in an abscisic acid signal-dependent manner. In contrast, the ectopic expression of ERF098 in Nicotiana benthamiana enhances wilt disease. We also show that RipAK targets and inhibits the ERF098 homodimerization to repress the expression of salicylic acid-dependent PR1 and dehydration tolerance-related OSR1 and OSM1 by cis-elements in their promoters. Taken together, our study reveals a regulatory mechanism used by the R. solanacearum effector RipAK to increase virulence by specifically inhibiting the homodimerization of ERF098 and reprogramming the transcription of PR1, OSR1, and OSM1 to boost susceptibility and dehydration sensitivity. Thus, our study sheds light on a previously unidentified strategy by which a pathogen simultaneously suppresses plant immunity and tolerance to dehydration by secreting an effector to interfere with the activity of a transcription factor and manipulate plant transcriptional programs.

A putative E3 ubiquitin ligase substrate receptor degrades transcription factor SmNAC to enhance bacterial wilt resistance in eggplant

Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is a severe soil-borne disease globally, limiting the production in Solanaceae plants. SmNAC negatively regulated eggplant resistance to Bacterial wilt (BW) though restraining salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis. However, other mechanisms through which SmNAC regulates BW resistance remain unknown. Here, we identified an interaction factor, SmDDA1b, encoding a substrate receptor for E3 ubiquitin ligase, from the eggplant cDNA library using SmNAC as bait. SmDDA1b expression was promoted by R. solanacearum inoculation and exogenous SA treatment. The virus-induced gene silencing of the SmDDA1b suppressed the BW resistance of eggplants; SmDDA1b overexpression enhanced the BW resistance of tomato plants. SmDDA1b positively regulates BW resistance by inhibiting the spread of R. solanacearum within plants. The SA content and the SA biosynthesis gene ICS1 and signaling pathway genes decreased in the SmDDA1b-silenced plants but increased in SmDDA1b-overexpression plants. Moreover, SmDDB1 protein showed interaction with SmCUL4 and SmDDA1b and protein degradation experiments indicated that SmDDA1b reduced SmNAC protein levels through proteasome degradation. Furthermore, SmNAC could directly bind the SmDDA1b promoter and repress its transcription. Thus, SmDDA1b is a novel regulator functioning in BW resistance of solanaceous crops via the SmNAC-mediated SA pathway. Those results also revealed a negative feedback loop between SmDDA1b and SmNAC controlling BW resistance.

Overexpressing GmCGS2 Improves Total Amino Acid and Protein Content in Soybean Seed

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is an important source of plant protein, the nutritional quality of which is considerably affected by the content of the sulfur-containing amino acid, methionine (Met). To improve the quality of soybean protein and increase the Met content in seeds, soybean cystathionine γ-synthase 2 (GmCGS2), the first unique enzyme in Met biosynthesis, was overexpressed in the soybean cultivar "Jack", producing three transgenic lines (OE3, OE4, and OE10). We detected a considerable increase in the content of free Met and other free amino acids in the developing seeds of the three transgenic lines at the 15th and 75th days after flowering (15D and 75D). In addition, transcriptome analysis showed that the expression of genes related to Met biosynthesis from the aspartate-family pathway and S-methyl Met cycle was promoted in developing green seeds of OE10. Ultimately, the accumulation of total amino acids and soluble proteins in transgenic mature seeds was promoted. Altogether, these results indicated that GmCGS2 plays an important role in Met biosynthesis, by providing a basis for improving the nutritional quality of soybean seeds.

An atypical NLR gene confers bacterial wilt susceptibility in Arabidopsis

Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) remains the most prevalent form of plant resistance in crop fields and wild habitats. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have proved to be successful in deciphering the quantitative genetic basis of complex traits such as QDR. To unravel the genetics of QDR to the devastating worldwide bacterial pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum, we performed a GWAS by challenging a highly polymorphic local mapping population of Arabidopsis thaliana with four R. solanacearum type III effector (T3E) mutants, identified as key pathogenicity determinants after a first screen on an A. thaliana core collection of 25 accessions. Although most quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were highly specific to the identity of the T3E mutant (ripAC, ripAG, ripAQ, and ripU), we finely mapped a common QTL located on a cluster of nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat (NLR) genes that exhibited structural variation. We functionally validated one of these NLRs as a susceptibility factor in response to R. solanacearum, named it Bacterial Wilt Susceptibility 1 (BWS1), and cloned two alleles that conferred contrasting levels of QDR. Further characterization indicated that expression of BWS1 leads to suppression of immunity triggered by different R. solanacearum effectors. In addition, we showed a direct interaction between BWS1 and RipAC T3E, and BWS1 and SUPPRESSOR OF G2 ALLELE OF skp1 (SGT1b), the latter interaction being suppressed by RipAC. Together, our results highlight a putative role for BWS1 as a quantitative susceptibility factor directly targeted by the T3E RipAC, mediating negative regulation of the SGT1-dependent immune response.

Effect of temperature on betacyanins synthesis and the transcriptome of Suaeda salsa

Introduction

Suaeda salsa (Linn.) Pall. is an important tourist resource and ecological restoration species in coastal wetlands. Environmental factors such as low temperature, darkness, phytohormone, salt stress and seawater flflooding, and light can induce betalain synthesis in S. salsa, which plays an important role in plant adaptation to abiotic stress processes and in shaping the beautiful "red beach" landscape.

Methods

In this study, Illumina sequencing was used to profifile the transcriptome sequence (RNA-Seq) of S. salsa leaves at different temperatures (5° C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, and 30°C) and to validate differentially expressed genes (DEGs) indicated by real-time PCR (RT-qPCR).

Results

The betacyanin content was highest in S. salsa leaves at 15°C. Transcription group data showed that compared to the control group (15°C), the "betacyanin biosynthesis pathway" was signifificantly enriched in the fifive different temperature groups. KEGG analysis showed that the DEGs were mainly involved in pathways of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, carbon fifixation in photosynthetic organisms, flflavonoid biosynthesis, and betacyanin biosynthesis. Among the key enzymes involved in biosynthesis of betacyanin, genes for tyrosinase, CYP76AD1 and 4,5-DOPA dioxygenase were signifificantly upregulated and most abundantly expressed at 15°C. It is possible that the gene for betacyanin synthesis from S. salsa is primarily regulated by the MYB1R1 and MYB1 transcription factor. Four DEGs were randomly selected for quantitative PCR analysis, and DEG expression was generally consistent with the RNA-Seq data, verifying the validity of the transcriptome sequencing data.

Discussion

Relative to other temperatures, 15°C was optimum for S. salsa betacyanin synthesis, and this provides a theoretical reference for coastal wetland ecological remediation, reveals mechanisms of S. salsa discoloration, and further mines its potential application for landscape vegetation.

Transcription Factor MdbHLH093 Enhances Powdery Mildew Resistance by Promoting Salicylic Acid Signaling and Hydrogen Peroxide Accumulation

Powdery mildew is an apple disease caused by the obligate trophic fungus Podosphaera leucotricha. Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors play important roles in plant development and stress responses, and they have been widely studied in model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana. However, their role in the stress response of perennial fruit trees remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of MdbHLH093 in the powdery mildew of apples. The expression of MdbHLH093 was significantly induced during the infection of apples with powdery mildew, and the allogenic overexpression of MdbHLH093 in A. thaliana enhanced the resistance to powdery mildew by increasing the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and activating the salicylic acid (SA) signaling pathway. The transient overexpression of MdbHLH093 in apple leaves increased the resistance to powdery mildew. Conversely, when MdbHLH093 expression was silenced, the sensitivity of apple leaves to powdery mildew was increased. The physical interaction between MdbHLH093 and MdMYB116 was demonstrated by yeast two-hybrid, bi-molecular fluorescence complementation, and split luciferase experiments. Collectively, these results indicate that MdbHLH093 interacts with MdMYB116 to improve apple resistance to powdery mildew by increasing the accumulation of H₂O₂ and activating the SA signaling pathway, as well as by providing a new candidate gene for resistance molecular breeding.

From prediction to function: Current practices and challenges towards the functional characterization of type III effectors

The type III secretion system (T3SS) is a well-studied pathogenicity determinant of many bacteria through which effectors (T3Es) are translocated into the host cell, where they exercise a wide range of functions to deceive the host cell's immunity and to establish a niche. Here we look at the different approaches that are used to functionally characterize a T3E. Such approaches include host localization studies, virulence screenings, biochemical activity assays, and large-scale omics, such as transcriptomics, interactomics, and metabolomics, among others. By means of the phytopathogenic Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC) as a case study, the current advances of these methods will be explored, alongside the progress made in understanding effector biology. Data obtained by such complementary methods provide crucial information to comprehend the entire function of the effectome and will eventually lead to a better understanding of the phytopathogen, opening opportunities to tackle it.

Integrated Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Analyses Reveal the Molecular Mechanisms of Red-light on Carotenoids Biosynthesis in Tomato Fruit

Carotenoids are the main pigments responsible of the coloration and account for the major antioxidant activity of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit. Significant increments in total carotenoids and lycopene levels were observed in tomato fruit illuminated by red-light relative to white light in previous studies, but the mechanism of carotenoids biosynthesis regulated by red-light is still unclear. In the present study, the influence of red-light on carotenoids biosynthesis in postharvest tomato fruit was conducted using targeted metabolomics and transcriptomic methods. A total of 25 differentially accumulated carotenoids and 1939 differentially expressed genes were isolated and identified. The results illustrated that the content of phytoene and lycopene were considerably higher in fruit treated with red-light than those with white light at 12 h. These differentially expressed genes are mainly enriched in plant hormone signal transduction, photosynthesis, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and plant circadian. Moreover, from the results of co-expression network analysis, 15 transcription factors from red-light treated fruit were screened, of these, transcription factors of SlERF4, SlbHLH93 and SlIAA29, which involves in signal transduction of light and hormones, respectively, that may also play important roles in carotenoids biosynthesis regulated by red-light in tomato fruit. It is concluded that red-light enhanced carotenoids biosynthesis in postharvest tomato fruit and the mechanisms of enhanced carotenoids biosynthesis were not only associated with the direct regulation by red-light signaling, but also with the indirect regulation by hormonal signaling.

Different epitopes of Ralstonia solanacearum effector RipAW are recognized by two Nicotiana species and trigger immune responses

Diverse pathogen effectors convergently target conserved components in plant immunity guarded by intracellular nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) and activate effector-triggered immunity (ETI), often causing cell death. Little is known of the differences underlying ETI in different plants triggered by the same effector. In this study, we demonstrated that effector RipAW triggers ETI on Nicotiana benthamiana and Nicotiana tabacum. Both the first 107 amino acids (N1-107 ) and RipAW E3-ligase activity are required but not sufficient for triggering ETI on N. benthamiana. However, on N. tabacum, the N1-107 fragment is essential and sufficient for inducing cell death. The first 60 amino acids of the protein are not essential for RipAW-triggered cell death on either N. benthamiana or N. tabacum. Furthermore, simultaneous mutation of both R75 and R78 disrupts RipAW-triggered ETI on N. tabacum, but not on N. benthamiana. In addition, N. tabacum recognizes more RipAW orthologs than N. benthamiana. These data showcase the commonalities and specificities of RipAW-activated ETI in two evolutionally related species, suggesting Nicotiana species have acquired different abilities to perceive RipAW and activate plant defences during plant-pathogen co-evolution.

Role of Trehalose Synthesis in Ralstonia syzygii subsp. indonesiensis PW1001 in Inducing Hypersensitive Response on Eggplant (Solanum melongena cv. Senryo-nigou)

Ralstonia syzygii subsp. indonesiensis (Rsi, former name: Ralstonia solanacearum phylotype IV) PW1001, a causal agent of potato wilt disease, induces hypersensitive response (HR) on its non-host eggplant (Solanum melongena cv. Senryo-nigou). The disaccharide trehalose is involved in abiotic and biotic stress tolerance in many organisms. We found that trehalose is required for eliciting HR on eggplant by plant pathogen Rsi PW1001. In R. solanacearum, it is known that the OtsA/OtsB pathway is the dominant trehalose synthesis pathway, and otsA and otsB encode trehalose-6-phosphate (T6P) synthase and T6P phosphatase, respectively. We generated otsA and otsB mutant strains and found that these mutant strains reduced the bacterial trehalose concentration and HR induction on eggplant leaves compared to wild-type. Trehalose functions intracellularly in Rsi PW1001 because addition of exogenous trehalose did not affect the HR level and ion leakage. Requirement of trehalose in HR induction is not common in R. solanacearum species complex because mutation of otsA in Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum (former name: Ralstonia solanacearum phylotype I) RS1002 did not affect HR on the leaves of its non-host tobacco and wild eggplant Solanum torvum. Further, we also found that each otsA and otsB mutant had reduced ability to grow in a medium containing NaCl and sucrose, indicating that trehalose also has an important role in osmotic stress tolerance.

Identification of RipAZ1 as an avirulence determinant of Ralstonia solanacearum in Solanum americanum

Ralstonia solanacearum causes bacterial wilt disease in many plant species. Type III-secreted effectors (T3Es) play crucial roles in bacterial pathogenesis. However, some T3Es are recognized by corresponding disease resistance proteins and activate plant immunity. In this study, we identified the R. solanacearum T3E protein RipAZ1 (Ralstonia injected protein AZ1) as an avirulence determinant in the black nightshade species Solanum americanum. Based on the S. americanum accession-specific avirulence phenotype of R. solanacearum strain Pe_26, 12 candidate avirulence T3Es were selected for further analysis. Among these candidates, only RipAZ1 induced a cell death response when transiently expressed in a bacterial wilt-resistant S. americanum accession. Furthermore, loss of ripAZ1 in the avirulent R. solanacearum strain Pe_26 resulted in acquired virulence. Our analysis of the natural sequence and functional variation of RipAZ1 demonstrated that the naturally occurring C-terminal truncation results in loss of RipAZ1-triggered cell death. We also show that the 213 amino acid central region of RipAZ1 is sufficient to induce cell death in S. americanum. Finally, we show that RipAZ1 may activate defence in host cell cytoplasm. Taken together, our data indicate that the nucleocytoplasmic T3E RipAZ1 confers R. solanacearum avirulence in S. americanum. Few avirulence genes are known in vascular bacterial phytopathogens and ripAZ1 is the first one in R. solanacearum that is recognized in black nightshades. This work thus opens the way for the identification of disease resistance genes responsible for the specific recognition of RipAZ1, which can be a source of resistance against the devastating bacterial wilt disease.

Comparative Transcriptome Profiling Reveals Defense-Related Genes Against Ralstonia solanacearum Infection in Tobacco

Bacterial wilt (BW) caused by Ralstonia solanacearum (R. solanacearum), is a vascular disease affecting diverse solanaceous crops and causing tremendous damage to crop production. However, our knowledge of the mechanism underlying its resistance or susceptibility is very limited. In this study, we characterized the physiological differences and compared the defense-related transcriptomes of two tobacco varieties, 4411-3 (highly resistant, HR) and K326 (moderately resistant, MR), after R. solanacearum infection at 0, 10, and 17 days after inoculation (dpi). A total of 3967 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between the HR and MR genotypes under mock condition at three time points, including1395 up-regulated genes in the HR genotype and 2640 up-regulated genes in the MR genotype. Also, 6,233 and 21,541 DEGs were induced in the HR and MR genotypes after R. solanacearum infection, respectively. Furthermore, GO and KEGG analyses revealed that DEGs in the HR genotype were related to the cell wall, starch and sucrose metabolism, glutathione metabolism, ABC transporters, endocytosis, glycerolipid metabolism, and glycerophospholipid metabolism. The defense-related genes generally showed genotype-specific regulation and expression differences after R. solanacearum infection. In addition, genes related to auxin and ABA were dramatically up-regulated in the HR genotype. The contents of auxin and ABA in the MR genotype were significantly higher than those in the HR genotype after R. solanacearum infection, providing insight into the defense mechanisms of tobacco. Altogether, these results clarify the physiological and transcriptional regulation of R. solanacearum resistance infection in tobacco, and improve our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the plant-pathogen interaction.

The large, diverse, and robust arsenal of Ralstonia solanacearum type III effectors and their in planta functions

The type III secretion system with its delivered type III effectors (T3Es) is one of the main virulence determinants of Ralstonia solanacearum, a worldwide devastating plant pathogenic bacterium affecting many crop species. The pan-effectome of the R. solanacearum species complex has been exhaustively identified and is composed of more than 100 different T3Es. Among the reported strains, their content ranges from 45 to 76 T3Es. This considerably large and varied effectome could be considered one of the factors contributing to the wide host range of R. solanacearum. In order to understand how R. solanacearum uses its T3Es to subvert the host cellular processes, many functional studies have been conducted over the last three decades. It has been shown that R. solanacearum effectors, as those from other plant pathogens, can suppress plant defence mechanisms, modulate the host metabolism, or avoid bacterial recognition through a wide variety of molecular mechanisms. R. solanacearum T3Es can also be perceived by the plant and trigger immune responses. To date, the molecular mechanisms employed by R. solanacearum T3Es to modulate these host processes have been described for a growing number of T3Es, although they remain unknown for the majority of them. In this microreview, we summarize and discuss the current knowledge on the characterized R. solanacearum species complex T3Es.

Super-Multiple Deletion Analysis of Type III Effectors in Ralstonia solanacearum OE1-1 for Full Virulence Toward Host Plants

Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC) posses extremely abundant type III effectors (T3Es) that are translocated into plant cells via a syringe-like apparatus assembled by a type III secretion system (T3SS) to subvert host defense initiated by innate immunity. More than 100 T3Es are predicted among different RSSC strains, with an average of about 70 T3Es in each strain. Among them, 32 T3Es are found to be conserved among the RSSC and hence called the core T3Es. Here, we genetically characterized contribution of abundant T3Es to virulence of a Japanese RSSC strain OE1-1 toward host plants. While all the T3Es members of AWR family contributed slightly to virulence, those of the GALA, HLK, and SKWP families did not influence full virulence of OE1-1. Mutant OE1-1D21E (with deletion of all 21 T3Es members of four families) exhibited slightly impaired virulence, while mutant OE1-1D36E (deleting all 21 T3Es of 4 families and 15 core T3Es) exhibited substantially reduced virulence. Mutant OE1-1D42E (deleting all 21 T3Es of 4 families, 15 core T3Es and 6 extended core T3Es) failed to cause any disease on tobacco plants with leaf infiltration but retained faint virulence on tobacco plants with petiole inoculation. The proliferation of mutant OE1-1D42E in tobacco stems was substantially impaired with about three orders of magnitude less than that of OE1-1, while no impact in tobacco leaves if directly infiltrated into leaves. On the contrary, the OE1-1D42E mutant retained faint virulence on eggplants with leaf infiltration but completely lost virulence on eggplants with root-cutting inoculation. The proliferation of OE1-1D42E mutant both in eggplant leaves and stems was substantially impaired. Intriguingly, mutant OE1-1D42E still caused necrotic lesions in tobacco and eggplant leaves, indicating that some other than the 42 removed effectors are involved in expansion of necrotic lesions in host leaves. All taken together, we here genetically demonstrated that all the core and extended core T3Es are nearly crucial for virulence of OE1-1 toward host plants and provided currently a kind of T3Es-free strain that enables primary functional studies of individual T3Es in host cells.