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Zieger K, Cao C, Engele J. Evaluating CXCL12 for Effects on Reactive Gene Expression in Primary Astrocytes. J Mol Neurosci 2024; 74:57. [PMID: 38802573 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-024-02231-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Upon injury to the CNS, astrocytes undergo morphological and functional changes commonly referred to as astrocyte reactivity. Notably, these reactive processes include altered expression of factors that control immune processes and neuronal survival, as well as increased expression of the CXCL12 receptor, CXCR7/ACKR3. We now asked whether these events are related in that the astrocytic CXCL12 system modulates immune responses and/or neuronal survival. Short-term exposure of astrocytes cultured from the postnatal rat cortex to CXCL12 prominently increased the expression of serpine1/PAI1 on the mRNA level, but showed either no or only minor effects on the expression of additional reactive genes, selected from previous array studies. CXCL12-induced increases in PAI1 protein levels were only detectable in the additional presence of chemokines/cytokines, suggesting that translation of serpine1 mRNA depends on the cooperation of various factors. As expected, expression of most of the selected genes increased after acute or chronic activation of astrocytes with either LPS or a combination of IL-1β and TNFα. CXCL12 partially attenuated expression of some of the LPS and IL-1β/TNFα-induced genes under acute conditions, in particular those encoding CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and CCL5. Taken together, these findings argue for the involvement of the astrocyte CXCL12 system in the control of the immune response of the injured CNS, where it may control distinct steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstanze Zieger
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carolina Cao
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jürgen Engele
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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2
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Lu Y, Xing F, Peng S. The effect of CXCL12 on survival outcomes of patients with viral hepatitis-associated hepatocellular carcinoma after hepatectomy. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30782. [PMID: 38756575 PMCID: PMC11096947 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 axis is garnering growing attention. But the comprehension of its function in the progression of HCC remains controversial. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of CXCL12 and its receptor on the prognosis of patients with viral hepatitis-associated HCC after hepatectomy. Methods A total of 86 patients had been enrolled who had undergone hepatectomy for HCC and followed up to July 31, 2019, and their clinicopathological and follow-up data were recorded. Tumor and peritumoral tissues were obtained to detect the expression of CXCL12, CXCR4, and CXCR7 using immunohistochemistry. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was utilized to detect hepatitis B or C virus loads, while survival analysis was performed using the Kaplan-Meier method. Furthermore, the Cox proportional hazards regression model was employed to analyze the factors affecting the prognosis. Results The results revealed that the CXCL12, CXCR4, and CXCR7 expression in tumor tissues was lower than in the corresponding non-tumor tissues in 20.93 %, 22.09 %, and 23.26 % of the patients, respectively, and that only CXCL12 was found to be related to the extrahepatic invasion of HCC. The survival analysis and Cox regression showed that only CXCL12 was associated with the postoperative survival of patients with HCC, and that it was an independent prognostic risk factor in the CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 axis. The CXCL12low group represented shorter progression-free survival and lower overall survival rates. However, the subgroup analysis displayed that the survival difference associated with CXCL12 was only manifested in patients with higher expression of CXCR4 or CXCR7 in HCC, as compared to the surrounding tissues. Conclusions Our findings suggest that, when assessing the prognostic significance of CXCL12 in HCC, it is essential to consider the expression level of its receptor. Nevertheless, CXCL12 can potentially serve as a promising prognostic marker for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Lu
- the Department of Hospital Infection Control and Public Health Management, the Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Fei Xing
- the Department of Oncology, the Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, No. 36 Sanhao Street, Heping District, 110004, China
| | - Songlin Peng
- the Department of General Surgery, the Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518107, China
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Dermitzakis I, Manthou ME, Meditskou S, Tremblay MÈ, Petratos S, Zoupi L, Boziki M, Kesidou E, Simeonidou C, Theotokis P. Origin and Emergence of Microglia in the CNS-An Interesting (Hi)story of an Eccentric Cell. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:2609-2628. [PMID: 36975541 PMCID: PMC10047736 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45030171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia belong to tissue-resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), representing the primary innate immune cells. This cell type constitutes ~7% of non-neuronal cells in the mammalian brain and has a variety of biological roles integral to homeostasis and pathophysiology from the late embryonic to adult brain. Its unique identity that distinguishes its "glial" features from tissue-resident macrophages resides in the fact that once entering the CNS, it is perennially exposed to a unique environment following the formation of the blood-brain barrier. Additionally, tissue-resident macrophage progenies derive from various peripheral sites that exhibit hematopoietic potential, and this has resulted in interpretation issues surrounding their origin. Intensive research endeavors have intended to track microglial progenitors during development and disease. The current review provides a corpus of recent evidence in an attempt to disentangle the birthplace of microglia from the progenitor state and underlies the molecular elements that drive microgliogenesis. Furthermore, it caters towards tracking the lineage spatiotemporally during embryonic development and outlining microglial repopulation in the mature CNS. This collection of data can potentially shed light on the therapeutic potential of microglia for CNS perturbations across various levels of severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iasonas Dermitzakis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria Eleni Manthou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Soultana Meditskou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Steven Petratos
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Lida Zoupi
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences & Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Marina Boziki
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Evangelia Kesidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Laboratory of Experimental Physiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Constantina Simeonidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Physiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Paschalis Theotokis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Ma J, Dong L, Chang Q, Chen S, Zheng J, Li D, Wu S, Yang H, Li X. CXCR4 knockout induces neuropathological changes in the MPTP-lesioned model of Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2023; 1869:166597. [PMID: 36368650 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2022.166597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) is highly expressed in Parkinson's disease (PD) mice's brains and is related to astrocyte signaling and microglial activation. This makes CXCR4 related to neuroinflammation and also makes CXCR4 considered to be the PD development mechanism and possible therapeutic targets. Therefore, it is worth studying the effect of CXCR4 on neuropathological changes and its potential therapeutic value for PD. This study aimed to investigate the effect of CXCR4 knockout on neuropathological changes in the mouse model of PD and its mechanism. In this study, CXCR4-WT and CXCR4+/- C57BL mice were used to make Parkinson's model. Behavioral experiments, dopaminergic neuron markers, neuroinflammation, and blood-brain barrier damage were detected to verify the effect of CXCR4 knockout on neuropathological changes. CXCR4 knockout improved the behavioral results and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned mice. In the substantia nigra (SN) area of the brain of PD mouse model, the number of Iba1-positive (p = 0.0004) and GFAP-positive cells (p = 0.0349) was significantly lower in CXCR4 knockout group than CXCR4-WT group. CXCR4 knockout reduced MPTP-induced infiltration of peripheral immune cells and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. CXCR4 knockout also protected blood-brain barrier (BBB) from MPTP-induced damage. In conclusion, CXCR4 knockout inhibits the degeneration of dopamine neurons, microglial and astrocyte activation, neuroinflammation, and BBB damages in the MPTP-lesioned PD mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjun Ma
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China.
| | - Linrui Dong
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Qingqing Chang
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Siyuan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Jinhua Zheng
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Dongsheng Li
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Shaopu Wu
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Hongqi Yang
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
| | - Xue Li
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Zhengzhou University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China; Department of Neurology, Henan University People's Hospital, Zhengzhou 450003, PR China
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Wang Q, Xu S, Wang B, Qin Y, Ji Y, Yang Q, Xu Y, Zhou Z. Chemokine receptor 7 mediates miRNA-182 to regulate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. CNS Neurosci Ther 2022; 29:712-726. [PMID: 36523152 PMCID: PMC9873520 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Chemokine receptor 7 (CXCR7) exerts protective effects on the brain. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, but their involvement in CXCR7-mediated brain protection is unknown. In this study, we investigated the role of miRNAs in CXCR7-mediated brain protection. METHODS CXCR7 levels in peripheral blood samples from patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and ischemic penumbra area brain tissues from middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats after recanalization were measured. An miRNA microarray analysis was performed to examine the expression of miRNAs caused by CXCR7 knockdown in ischemic penumbra area brain tissue in middle cerebral artery occlusion-reperfusion rats and to predict corresponding downstream target genes. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis revealed the most enriched pathways. A dual-luciferase reporter assay confirmed the direct regulation of miR-182 on the target gene TCF7L2. The correlation between TCF7L2 and CXCR7/miR-182 was verified using rescue assays. RESULTS CXCR7 expression was upregulated in MCAO rats and mechanical thrombectomy patients with AIS compared to that in controls. The motor and sensory functions of MCAO rats with CXCR7 knockdown further decreased, and the infarct volume and cerebral edema increased. miRNA microarray data showed that seven miRNAs were differentially expressed after shRNA-CXCR7 treatment. The dual-luciferase reporter assay confirmed that miR-182 directly targeted the TCF7L2 gene. Rescue assays confirmed that TCF7L2 is downstream of CXCR7/miR-182. KEGG pathway analysis showed that the Hippo pathway may be a key pathway in CXCR7 upregulation and plays a role in protecting the brain after interventional surgery. Animal experiments have shown that CXCR7-mediated cerebral I/R injury promotes the phosphorylation of key molecules YAP and TAZ in the Hippo pathway. CONCLUSION CXCR7 protects against cerebral I/R injury, possibly via the miR-182/TCF7L2/Hippo pathway. These results indicate that CXCR7 affects cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury through miRNA regulation and downstream pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina,Key Laboratory of Noncoding RNA Transformation Research of Anhui Higher Education InstitutesWannan Medical CollegeWuhuChina
| | - Sifan Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Yu Qin
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Yachen Ji
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Qian Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Yang Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
| | - Zhiming Zhou
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical CollegeYijishan HospitalWuhuChina
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Microglia contribute to the postnatal development of cortical somatostatin-positive inhibitory cells and to whisker-evoked cortical activity. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111209. [PMID: 35977514 PMCID: PMC9396528 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia play a key role in shaping the formation and refinement of the excitatory network of the brain. However, less is known about whether and how they organize the development of distinct inhibitory networks. We find that microglia are essential for the proper development of somatostatin-positive (SST+) cell synapses during the second postnatal week. We further identify a pair of molecules that act antagonistically to one another in the organization of SST+ cell axonal elaboration. Whereas CX3CL1 acts to suppress axonal growth and complexity, CXCL12 promotes it. Assessing the functional importance of microglia in the development of cortical activity, we find that a whisker stimulation paradigm that drives SST+ cell activation leads to reduced cortical spiking in brains depleted of microglia. Collectively, our data demonstrate an important role of microglia in regulating the development of SST+ cell output early in life. Microglia depletion leads to an increase of SST+ cell synapses during development Microglia control SST+ cell axonal development through CX3CL1 and CXCL12 Microglia depletion reduces sensory-driven cortical activation early postnatally
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7
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Puchert M, Koch C, Zieger K, Engele J. Identification of CXCL11 as part of chemokine network controlling skeletal muscle development. Cell Tissue Res 2021; 384:499-511. [PMID: 33502606 PMCID: PMC8141492 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03398-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The chemokine, CXCL12, and its receptors, CXCR4 and CXCR7, play pivotal roles during development and maintenance of limb muscles. CXCR7 additionally binds CXCL11, which uses CXCR3 as its prime receptor. Based on this cross-talk, we investigate whether CXCL11 would likewise affect development and/or function of skeletal muscles. Western blotting and immunolabelling demonstrated the developmentally restricted expression of CXCL11 in rat limb muscles, which was contrasted by the continuous expression of its receptors in proliferating and differentiating C2C12 cells as well as in late embryonic to adult rat limb muscle fibres. Consistent with a prime role in muscle formation, functional studies identified CXCL11 as a potent chemoattractant for undifferentiated C2C12 cells and further showed that CXCL11 does neither affect myoblast proliferation and differentiation nor metabolic/catabolic pathways in formed myotubes. The use of selective receptor antagonists unravelled complementary effects of CXCL11 and CXCL12 on C2C12 cell migration, which either require CXCR3/CXCR7 or CXCR4, respectively. Our findings provide new insights into the chemokine network controlling skeletal muscle development and function and, thus, might provide a base for future therapies of muscular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malte Puchert
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr.13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Koch
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr.13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Konstanze Zieger
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr.13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jürgen Engele
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr.13, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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8
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Cun Y, Diao B, Zhang Z, Wang G, Yu J, Ma L, Rao Z. Role of the stromal cell derived factor-1 in the biological functions of endothelial progenitor cells and its underlying mechanisms. Exp Ther Med 2020; 21:39. [PMID: 33273969 PMCID: PMC7706408 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2020.9471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stromal cell derived factor-1 (SDF-1) is a chemokine that plays a critical role in the homing of stem and progenitor cells, including endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs). However, little research has been undertaken to evaluate the roles of SDF-1 in the biological functions of EPCs and related signaling pathways. The present study aimed to investigate the biological functions of EPCs in response to SDF-1, as well as the underlying mechanisms. The effects of SDF-1 treatment on EPC proliferation, migration and tube formation were assessed by performing MTS, Transwell and in vitro tube formation assays, respectively. The phosphorylation status of Akt and ERK was evaluated by western blotting. The present results indicated that SDF-1 treatment enhanced EPC proliferation, migration and tube formation compared with the control group. Furthermore, SDF-1-induced EPC proliferation was significantly reduced following treatment with a C-X-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 4 antagonist (AMD3100), a PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) and the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor (MEK; PD98059). SDF-1-induced migration and angiogenesis were significantly suppressed by the PI3K inhibitor, but not the MEK inhibitor. Moreover, SDF-1 significantly increased the protein expression levels of phosphorylated (p)-Akt and p-ERK; however, SDF-1-induced effects on protein expression were suppressed by AMD3100, LY294002 and PD98059. Thus, SDF-1-induced EPC proliferation was mediated by activation of the Akt and ERK signaling pathways, whereas SDF-1-mediated EPC migration and tube formation only involved activation of the Akt signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Cun
- Department of Oncology, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Bo Diao
- Department of Clinical Experiment, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Zhimin Zhang
- Department of Oncology, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Gang Wang
- Department of Clinical Experiment, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Jing Yu
- Department of Clinical Experiment, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Lianting Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
| | - Zhiguo Rao
- Department of Oncology, General Hospital of Central Theater Command, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, P.R. China
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Gallizioli M, Miró-Mur F, Otxoa-de-Amezaga A, Cugota R, Salas-Perdomo A, Justicia C, Brait VH, Ruiz-Jaén F, Arbaizar-Rovirosa M, Pedragosa J, Bonfill-Teixidor E, Gelderblom M, Magnus T, Cano E, Del Fresno C, Sancho D, Planas AM. Dendritic Cells and Microglia Have Non-redundant Functions in the Inflamed Brain with Protective Effects of Type 1 cDCs. Cell Rep 2020; 33:108291. [PMID: 33086061 PMCID: PMC7578563 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain CD11c+ cells share features with microglia and dendritic cells (DCs). Sterile inflammation increases brain CD11c+ cells, but their phenotype, origin, and functions remain largely unknown. We report that, after cerebral ischemia, microglia attract DCs to the inflamed brain, and astroglia produce Flt3 ligand, supporting development and expansion of CD11c+ cells. CD11c+ cells in the inflamed brain are a complex population derived from proliferating microglia and infiltrating DCs, including a major subset of OX40L+ conventional cDC2, and also cDC1, plasmacytoid, and monocyte-derived DCs. Despite sharing certain morphological features and markers, CD11c+ microglia and DCs display differential expression of pattern recognition receptors and chemokine receptors. DCs excel CD11c- and CD11c+ microglia in the capacity to present antigen through MHCI and MHCII. Of note, cDC1s protect from brain injury after ischemia. We thus reveal aspects of the dynamics and functions of brain DCs in the regulation of inflammation and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Gallizioli
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Francesc Miró-Mur
- Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Fundació Clínic, Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Amaia Otxoa-de-Amezaga
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Roger Cugota
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Angélica Salas-Perdomo
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Fundació Clínic, Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Carles Justicia
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Vanessa H Brait
- Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Francisca Ruiz-Jaén
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Maria Arbaizar-Rovirosa
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Jordi Pedragosa
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Ester Bonfill-Teixidor
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain
| | - Mathias Gelderblom
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20251, Germany
| | - Tim Magnus
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg 20251, Germany
| | - Eva Cano
- Neuroinflammation Unit, Unidad Funcional de Investigación de Enfermedades Crónicas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid 28222, Spain
| | - Carlos Del Fresno
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - David Sancho
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC), Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Anna M Planas
- Department of Brain Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona (IIBB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona 08036, Spain; Area of Neurosciences, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona 08036, Spain.
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10
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Yu SJ, Wu KJ, Wang YS, Song JS, Wu CH, Jan JJ, Bae E, Chen H, Shia KS, Wang Y. Protective Effect of CXCR4 Antagonist CX807 in a Rat Model of Hemorrhagic Stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197085. [PMID: 32992950 PMCID: PMC7582767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a major cause of stroke, with high mortality and morbidity. There is no effective pharmacological therapy for ICH. Previous studies have indicated that CXCR4 antagonists reduced microglia activation, attenuated infiltration of T cells, and improved functional recovery in ischemic stroke animals. The interaction of CXCR4 antagonists and ICH has not been characterized. The purpose of this study is to examine the neuroprotective action of a novel CXCR4 antagonist CX807 against ICH. In primary cortical neuronal and BV2 microglia co-culture, CX807 reduced glutamate-mediated neuronal loss and microglia activation. Adult rats were locally administered with collagenase VII to induce ICH. CX807 was given systemically after the ICH. Early post-treatment with CX807 improved locomotor activity in ICH rats. Brain tissues were collected for qRTPCR and histological staining. ICH upregulated the expression of CXCR4, CD8, TNFα, IL6, and TLR4. The immunoreactivity of IBA1 and CD8, as well as TUNEL labeling, were enhanced in the perilesioned area. CX807 significantly mitigated these responses. In conclusion, our data suggest that CX807 is neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory against ICH. CX807 may have clinical implications for the treatment of hemorrhagic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Jin Yu
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
| | - Kuo-Jen Wu
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
| | - Yu-Syuan Wang
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
| | - Jen-Shin Song
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (J.-S.S.); (C.-H.W.); (J.-J.J.); (K.-S.S.)
| | - Chien-Huang Wu
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (J.-S.S.); (C.-H.W.); (J.-J.J.); (K.-S.S.)
| | - Jiing-Jyh Jan
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (J.-S.S.); (C.-H.W.); (J.-J.J.); (K.-S.S.)
| | - Eunkyung Bae
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
| | - Hsi Chen
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
| | - Kak-Shan Shia
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (J.-S.S.); (C.-H.W.); (J.-J.J.); (K.-S.S.)
| | - Yun Wang
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (S.-J.Y.); (K.-J.W.); (Y.-S.W.); (E.B.); (H.C.)
- Correspondence:
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11
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Koch C, Engele J. Functions of the CXCL12 Receptor ACKR3/CXCR7-What Has Been Perceived and What Has Been Overlooked. Mol Pharmacol 2020; 98:577-585. [PMID: 32883765 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.120.000056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The CXCL12 system is central to the development of many organs and is further crucially engaged in pathophysiological processes underlying cancer, inflammation, and cardiovascular disorders. This disease-associated role presently focuses major interest on the two CXCL12 receptors, CXCR4 and atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3)/CXCR7, as promising therapeutic targets. Major obstacles in these ongoing efforts are confusing reports on the differential use of either ACKR3/CXCR7 and/or CXCR4 across various cells as well as on the specific function(s) of ACKR3/CXCR7. Although basically no doubts remain that CXCR4 represents a classic chemokine receptor, functions assigned to ACKR3/CXCR7 range from those of a strictly silent scavenger receptor eventually modulating CXCR4 signaling to an active and independent signaling receptor. In this review, we depict a thorough analysis of our present knowledge on different modes of organization and functions of the cellular CXCL12 system. We further highlight the potential role of ACKR3/CXCR7 as a "crosslinker" of different receptor systems. Finally, we discuss mechanisms with the potency to impinge on the cellular organization of the CXCL12 system and hence might represent additional future therapeutic targets. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Delineating the recognized functions of atypical chemokine receptor 3 and CXCR4 in CXCL12 signaling is central to the more detailed understanding of the role of the CXCL12 system in health and disease and will help to guide future research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Koch
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jürgen Engele
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Leipzig, Medical Faculty, Leipzig, Germany
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12
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Festa LK, Irollo E, Platt BJ, Tian Y, Floresco S, Meucci O. CXCL12-induced rescue of cortical dendritic spines and cognitive flexibility. eLife 2020; 9:e49717. [PMID: 31971513 PMCID: PMC7007222 DOI: 10.7554/elife.49717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Synaptodendritic pruning is a common cause of cognitive decline in neurological disorders, including HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). HAND persists in treated patients as a result of chronic inflammation and low-level expression of viral proteins, though the mechanisms involved in synaptic damage are unclear. Here, we report that the chemokine CXCL12 recoups both cognitive performance and synaptodendritic health in a rodent model of HAND, which recapitulates the neuroinflammatory state of virally controlled individuals and the associated structural/functional deficiencies. CXCL12 preferentially regulates plastic thin spines on layer II/III pyramidal neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex via CXCR4-dependent stimulation of the Rac1/PAK actin polymerization pathway, leading to increased spine density and improved flexible behavior. Our studies unveil a critical role of CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling in spine dynamics and cognitive flexibility, suggesting that HAND - or other diseases driven by spine loss - may be reversible and upturned by targeting Rac1-dependent processes in cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay K Festa
- Department of Pharmacology and PhysiologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
- Center of Neuroimmunology and CNS Therapeutics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Infectious DiseasesDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Elena Irollo
- Department of Pharmacology and PhysiologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Brian J Platt
- Department of Pharmacology and PhysiologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Yuzen Tian
- Department of Pharmacology and PhysiologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Stan Floresco
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Olimpia Meucci
- Department of Pharmacology and PhysiologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
- Center of Neuroimmunology and CNS Therapeutics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Infectious DiseasesDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyDrexel University College of MedicinePhiladelphiaUnited States
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13
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Festa LK, Irollo E, Platt BJ, Tian Y, Floresco S, Meucci O. CXCL12-induced rescue of cortical dendritic spines and cognitive flexibility. eLife 2020. [PMID: 31971513 DOI: 10.7554/elife.49717.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptodendritic pruning is a common cause of cognitive decline in neurological disorders, including HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). HAND persists in treated patients as a result of chronic inflammation and low-level expression of viral proteins, though the mechanisms involved in synaptic damage are unclear. Here, we report that the chemokine CXCL12 recoups both cognitive performance and synaptodendritic health in a rodent model of HAND, which recapitulates the neuroinflammatory state of virally controlled individuals and the associated structural/functional deficiencies. CXCL12 preferentially regulates plastic thin spines on layer II/III pyramidal neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex via CXCR4-dependent stimulation of the Rac1/PAK actin polymerization pathway, leading to increased spine density and improved flexible behavior. Our studies unveil a critical role of CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling in spine dynamics and cognitive flexibility, suggesting that HAND - or other diseases driven by spine loss - may be reversible and upturned by targeting Rac1-dependent processes in cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay K Festa
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States.,Center of Neuroimmunology and CNS Therapeutics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Elena Irollo
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Brian J Platt
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Yuzen Tian
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Stan Floresco
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Olimpia Meucci
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States.,Center of Neuroimmunology and CNS Therapeutics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, United States
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14
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Figarella K, Wolburg H, Garaschuk O, Duszenko M. Microglia in neuropathology caused by protozoan parasites. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 95:333-349. [PMID: 31682077 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) is the most severe consequence of some parasitic infections. Protozoal infections comprise a group of diseases that together affect billions of people worldwide and, according to the World Health Organization, are responsible for more than 500000 deaths annually. They include African and American trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis, and amoebiasis. Mechanisms underlying invasion of the brain parenchyma by protozoa are not well understood and may depend on parasite nature: a vascular invasion route is most common. Immunosuppression favors parasite invasion into the CNS and therefore the host immune response plays a pivotal role in the development of a neuropathology in these infectious diseases. In the brain, microglia are the resident immune cells active in defense against pathogens that target the CNS. Beside their direct role in innate immunity, they also play a principal role in coordinating the trafficking and recruitment of other immune cells from the periphery to the CNS. Despite their evident involvement in the neuropathology of protozoan infections, little attention has given to microglia-parasite interactions. This review describes the most prominent features of microglial cells and protozoan parasites and summarizes the most recent information regarding the reaction of microglial cells to parasitic infections. We highlight the involvement of the periphery-brain axis and emphasize possible scenarios for microglia-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Figarella
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Hartwig Wolburg
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Olga Garaschuk
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Duszenko
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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15
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Puchert M, Obst J, Koch C, Zieger K, Engele J. CXCL11 promotes tumor progression by the biased use of the chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CXCR7. Cytokine 2019; 125:154809. [PMID: 31437604 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2019.154809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The chemokine, CXCL11, is highly expressed in different solid tumors and controls tumor growth, metastasis, and lymphocyte infiltration. Although of potential clinical interest, it is presently unknown whether these tumor-promoting activities involve the CXCL11 receptors, CXCR3 and/or CXCR7. This issue is further intrigued by the fact that CXCR3 exists in the two functionally divergent splice variants, CXCR3A and CXCR3B, which exert pro- and anti-tumorigenic influences, respectively. To unravel the role of the various CXCL11 receptors in tumor progression, we have now defined their role in CXCL11-induced chemotaxis of the tumor cell lines, A549, C33-A, DLD-1, MDA-MB-231, and PC-3. CXCL11-induced cell migration was either sensitive to the CXCR3 antagonist, ÀMG487 (DLD-1), the CXCR7 antagonist, CCX771 (C33-A, PC-3), or both (A549, MDA-231). Moreover, in C33-A and PC-3 cells, but not in the other tumor cells, pharmacological activation and inhibition of CXCR3B prevented and potentiated CXCL11-induced cell migration, respectively. Both immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis finally revealed that the observed cell type specific organization of the CXCL11 system is not the result of differences in expression levels or subcellular location of CXCL11 receptors. Our findings imply that the therapeutic use of CXCR3 antagonists in cancer patients requires exact knowledge of the organization of the CXCR3 system in the respective tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malte Puchert
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jessica Obst
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Koch
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Konstanze Zieger
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jürgen Engele
- Institute of Anatomy, Medical Faculty, University of Leipzig, Liebigstr. 13, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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16
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Smolders SMT, Kessels S, Vangansewinkel T, Rigo JM, Legendre P, Brône B. Microglia: Brain cells on the move. Prog Neurobiol 2019; 178:101612. [PMID: 30954517 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the biology of microglia - i.e. the fascinating immigrated resident immune cell population of the central nervous system (CNS). Recent literature reviews have largely dealt with the plentiful functions of microglia in CNS homeostasis, development and pathology, and the influences of sex and the microbiome. In this review, the intriguing aspect of their physical plasticity during CNS development will get specific attention. Microglia move around (mobility) and reshape their processes (motility). Microglial migration into and inside the CNS is most prominent throughout development and consequently most of the data described in this review concern mobility and motility in the changing environment of the developing brain. Here, we first define microglia based on their highly specialized age- and region-dependent gene expression signature and associated functional heterogeneity. Next, we describe their origin, the migration route of immature microglial cells towards the CNS, the mechanisms underlying their invasion of the CNS, and their spatiotemporal localization and surveying behaviour inside the developing CNS. These processes are dependent on microglial mobility and motility which are determined by the microenvironment of the CNS. Therefore, we further zoom in on the changing environment during CNS development. We elaborate on the extracellular matrix and the respective integrin receptors on microglia and we discuss the purinergic and molecular signalling in microglial mobility. In the last section, we discuss the physiological and pathological functions of microglia in which mobility and motility are involved to stress the importance of microglial 'movement'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Marie-Thérèse Smolders
- UHasselt, BIOMED, Diepenbeek, Belgium; INSERM, UMR-S 1130, CNRS, UMR 8246, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Institute of Biology Paris Seine, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, UM CR18, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | - Pascal Legendre
- INSERM, UMR-S 1130, CNRS, UMR 8246, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Institute of Biology Paris Seine, Paris, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Université Paris 06, UM CR18, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Paris, France
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17
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Eltoukhy HS, Sinha G, Moore CA, Gergues M, Rameshwar P. Secretome within the bone marrow microenvironment: A basis for mesenchymal stem cell treatment and role in cancer dormancy. Biochimie 2018; 155:92-103. [PMID: 29859990 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2018.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The secretome produced by cells within the bone marrow is significant to homeostasis. The bone marrow, a well-studied organ, has multiple niches with distinct roles for supporting stem cell functions. Thus, an understanding of mediators involved in the regulation of stem cells could serve as a model for clinical problems and solutions such as tissue repair and regeneration. The exosome secretome of bone marrow stem cells is a developing area of research with respect to the regenerative potential by bone marrow cell, particularly the mesenchymal stem cells. The bone marrow niche regulates endogenous processes such as hematopoiesis but could also support the survival of tumors such as facilitating the cancer stem cells to exist in dormancy for decades. The bone marrow-derived secretome will be critical to future development of therapeutic strategies for oncologic diseases, in addition to regenerative medicine. This article discusses the importance for parallel studies to determine how the same secretome may compromise safety during the use of stem cells in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussam S Eltoukhy
- Department of Medicine - Division of Hematology/Oncology, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Garima Sinha
- Department of Medicine - Division of Hematology/Oncology, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Caitlyn A Moore
- Department of Medicine - Division of Hematology/Oncology, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Marina Gergues
- Department of Medicine - Division of Hematology/Oncology, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Pranela Rameshwar
- Department of Medicine - Division of Hematology/Oncology, Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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18
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The 5T4 oncofetal glycoprotein does not act as a general organizer of the CXCL12 system in cancer cells. Exp Cell Res 2018; 364:175-183. [PMID: 29408206 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The chemokine, CXCL12, promotes cancer growth and metastasis through interaction with either CXCR4 and/or CXCR7. This tumor-specific organization of the CXCL12 system obscures current therapeutic approaches, aiming at the selective inactivation of CXCL12 receptors. Since it has been previously suggested that the cellular use of CXCR4 or CXCR7 is dictated by the 5T4 oncofetal glycoprotein, we have now tested whether 5T4 would represent a general and reliable marker for the organization of the CXCL12 system in cancer cells. The CXCR4 antagonist, AMD3100, as well as the CXCR7 antagonist, CCX771, demonstrated that the cancer cell lines A549, C33A, DLD-1, MDA-231, and PC-3 use either CXCR7 and/or CXCR4 for mediating CXCL12-induced chemotaxis and cell proliferation. The use of CXCL12 receptors as well as their subcellular localization remained unchanged in most cell lines following siRNA-mediated depletion of 5T4. In distinct cell lines, inhibition of 5T4 expression, however, modulated tumor cell migration and proliferation per se. Collectively our analyses fail to demonstrate general organizational influences of 5T4 of the CXCL12 system in different cancer cell lines, and, hence, dismiss its future use as a diagnostic marker.
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19
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Wu CH, Song JS, Kuan HH, Wu SH, Chou MC, Jan JJ, Tsou LK, Ke YY, Chen CT, Yeh KC, Wang SY, Yeh TK, Tseng CT, Huang CL, Wu MH, Kuo PC, Lee CJ, Shia KS. Development of Stem-Cell-Mobilizing Agents Targeting CXCR4 Receptor for Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation and Beyond. J Med Chem 2018; 61:818-833. [PMID: 29314840 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The function of the CXCR4/CXCL12 axis accounts for many disease indications, including tissue/nerve regeneration, cancer metastasis, and inflammation. Blocking CXCR4 signaling with its antagonists may lead to moving out CXCR4+ cell types from bone marrow to peripheral circulation. We have discovered a novel series of pyrimidine-based CXCR4 antagonists, a representative (i.e., 16) of which was tolerated at a higher dose and showed better HSC-mobilizing ability at the maximal response dose relative to the approved drug 1 (AMD3100), and thus considered a potential drug candidate for PBSCT indication. Docking compound 16 into the X-ray crystal structure of CXCR4 receptor revealed that it adopted a spider-like conformation striding over both major and minor subpockets. This putative binding mode provides a new insight into CXCR4 receptor-ligand interactions for further structural modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Huang Wu
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Jen-Shin Song
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Hsuan-Hao Kuan
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Szu-Huei Wu
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Ming-Chen Chou
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Jiing-Jyh Jan
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Lun K Tsou
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Yi-Yu Ke
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Chiung-Tong Chen
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Kai-Chia Yeh
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Sing-Yi Wang
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Teng-Kuang Yeh
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Chen-Tso Tseng
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Chen-Lung Huang
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Mine-Hsine Wu
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Po-Chu Kuo
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Chia-Jui Lee
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
| | - Kak-Shan Shia
- Institute of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Research, National Health Research Institutes , Miaoli County 35053, Taiwan, R.O.C
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20
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Chen C, Chu SF, Liu DD, Zhang Z, Kong LL, Zhou X, Chen NH. Chemokines play complex roles in cerebral ischemia. Neurochem Int 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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21
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Astrocytic expression of the CXCL12 receptor, CXCR7/ACKR3 is a hallmark of the diseased, but not developing CNS. Mol Cell Neurosci 2017; 85:105-118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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22
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Yokoyama JS, Karch CM, Fan CC, Bonham LW, Kouri N, Ross OA, Rademakers R, Kim J, Wang Y, Höglinger GU, Müller U, Ferrari R, Hardy J, Momeni P, Sugrue LP, Hess CP, James Barkovich A, Boxer AL, Seeley WW, Rabinovici GD, Rosen HJ, Miller BL, Schmansky NJ, Fischl B, Hyman BT, Dickson DW, Schellenberg GD, Andreassen OA, Dale AM, Desikan RS. Shared genetic risk between corticobasal degeneration, progressive supranuclear palsy, and frontotemporal dementia. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 133:825-837. [PMID: 28271184 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-017-1693-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Corticobasal degeneration (CBD), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and a subset of frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by tau inclusions in neurons and glia (tauopathies). Although clinical, pathological and genetic evidence suggests overlapping pathobiology between CBD, PSP, and FTD, the relationship between these disorders is still not well understood. Using summary statistics (odds ratios and p values) from large genome-wide association studies (total n = 14,286 cases and controls) and recently established genetic methods, we investigated the genetic overlap between CBD and PSP and CBD and FTD. We found up to 800-fold enrichment of genetic risk in CBD across different levels of significance for PSP or FTD. In addition to NSF (tagging the MAPT H1 haplotype), we observed that SNPs in or near MOBP, CXCR4, EGFR, and GLDC showed significant genetic overlap between CBD and PSP, whereas only SNPs tagging the MAPT haplotype overlapped between CBD and FTD. The risk alleles of the shared SNPs were associated with expression changes in cis-genes. Evaluating transcriptome levels across adult human brains, we found a unique neuroanatomic gene expression signature for each of the five overlapping gene loci (omnibus ANOVA p < 2.0 × 10-16). Functionally, we found that these shared risk genes were associated with protein interaction and gene co-expression networks and showed enrichment for several neurodevelopmental pathways. Our findings suggest: (1) novel genetic overlap between CBD and PSP beyond the MAPT locus; (2) strong ties between CBD and FTD through the MAPT clade, and (3) unique combinations of overlapping genes that may, in part, influence selective regional or neuronal vulnerability observed in specific tauopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer S Yokoyama
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
| | - Celeste M Karch
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Chun C Fan
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Luke W Bonham
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Naomi Kouri
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Owen A Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Rosa Rademakers
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Jungsu Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Yunpeng Wang
- NORMENT; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo and Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Günter U Höglinger
- Department of Neurology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrich Müller
- Institut for Humangenetik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Giessen, Germany
| | - Raffaele Ferrari
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - John Hardy
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - Parastoo Momeni
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Science Center, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Leo P Sugrue
- Neuroradiology Section, L-352, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 92037-0841, USA
| | - Christopher P Hess
- Neuroradiology Section, L-352, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 92037-0841, USA
| | - A James Barkovich
- Neuroradiology Section, L-352, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 92037-0841, USA
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Gil D Rabinovici
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Howard J Rosen
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Bruce L Miller
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, Suite 190, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Nicholas J Schmansky
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Bruce Fischl
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bradley T Hyman
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Dennis W Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Gerard D Schellenberg
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- Department of Neurology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany
| | - Anders M Dale
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Departments of Radiology and Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rahul S Desikan
- Neuroradiology Section, L-352, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 92037-0841, USA.
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Huang M, Wan Y, Mao L, He QW, Xia YP, Li M, Li YN, Jin HJ, Hu B. Inhibiting the Migration of M1 Microglia at Hyperacute Period Could Improve Outcome of tMCAO Rats. CNS Neurosci Ther 2016; 23:222-232. [PMID: 27991729 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Revised: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To study whether inhibiting microglia migration to the ischemic boundary zone (IBZ) at the early phase could improve neurological outcomes after stroke. METHODS The transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) was induced in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. AMD3100, a highly selective CXC-chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) antagonist, was used to inhibit microglia migration. Microglia was evaluated by immunofluorescence in vivo, and their migration was tested by transwell assay in vitro. Expressions of cytokines were detected by real-time PCR. Infarct volume was determined by triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Functional recovery of tMCAO rats was evaluated by behavior tests. RESULTS M1 microglia in the IBZ was rapidly increased within 3 days after tMCAO, accompanied with enhanced expression of CXCR4. Chemokine CXC motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) was also increased in the IBZ. And AMD3100 could obviously decline M1 microglia migration induced by CXCL12 and secretion of related inflammatory cytokines in the IBZ after stroke. This was accompanied by significant attenuated infarct volume and improved neurological outcomes. CONCLUSION This study confirms the protective efficacy of inhibiting microglia migration at the hyperacute phase as a therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke in tMCAO model of rats, and its therapeutic time window could last for 24 h after cerebral ischemia reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Huang
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Neurology, Institute of Neural Regeneration and Repair, The First Hospital of Yichang, Three Gorges University College of Medicine, Yichang, China
| | - Yan Wan
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ling Mao
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Quan-Wei He
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuan-Peng Xia
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Man Li
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ya-Nan Li
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Hui-Juan Jin
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Bo Hu
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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24
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Wu KJ, Yu SJ, Shia KS, Wu CH, Song JS, Kuan HH, Yeh KC, Chen CT, Bae E, Wang Y. A Novel CXCR4 Antagonist CX549 Induces Neuroprotection in Stroke Brain. Cell Transplant 2016; 26:571-583. [PMID: 27938478 DOI: 10.3727/096368916x693563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) is a receptor for a pleiotropic chemokine CXCL12. Previous studies have shown that the acute administration of the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 reduced neuroinflammation in stroke brain and mobilized bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). The purpose of this study was to characterize the neuroprotective and neurotrophic effect of a novel CXCR4 antagonist CX549. We demonstrated that CX549 had a higher affinity for CXCR4 and was more potent than AMD3100 to inhibit CXCL12-mediated chemotaxis in culture. CX549 effectively reduced the activation of microglia and improved neuronal survival after injury in neuron/microglia cocultures. Early poststroke treatment with CX549 significantly improved behavioral function, reduced brain infarction, and suppressed the expression of inflammatory markers. Compared to AMD3100, CX549 has a higher affinity for CXCR4, is more efficient to mobilize HSCs for transplantation, and induces behavioral improvement. Our data support that CX549 is a potent anti-inflammatory agent, is neuroprotective against ischemic brain injury, and may have clinical implications for the treatment of stroke.
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25
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Lindsay SL, Johnstone SA, McGrath MA, Mallinson D, Barnett SC. Comparative miRNA-Based Fingerprinting Reveals Biological Differences in Human Olfactory Mucosa- and Bone-Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells. Stem Cell Reports 2016; 6:729-742. [PMID: 27117785 PMCID: PMC4940454 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously we reported that nestin-positive human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) derived from the olfactory mucosa (OM) enhanced CNS myelination in vitro to a greater extent than bone-marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs). miRNA-based fingerprinting revealed the two MSCs were 64% homologous, with 26 miRNAs differentially expressed. We focused on miR-146a-5p and miR-140-5p due to their reported role in the regulation of chemokine production and myelination. The lower expression of miR-140-5p in OM-MSCs correlated with higher secretion of CXCL12 compared with BM-MSCs. Addition of CXCL12 and its pharmacological inhibitors to neural co-cultures supported these data. Studies on related miR-146a-5p targets demonstrated that OM-MSCs had lower levels of Toll-like receptors and secreted less pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-8, and CCL2. OM-MSCs polarized microglia to an anti-inflammatory phenotype, illustrating potential differences in their inflammatory response. Nestin-positive OM-MSCs could therefore offer a cell transplantation alternative for CNS repair, should these biological behaviors be translated in vivo. OM-MSCs share 64% miRNA homology to BM-MSCs and differentially express 26 miRNAs CXCL12 promotes CNS myelination and is negatively regulated by miR-140-5p in BM-MSCs miR-146a-5p negatively regulates IL-6, IL-8, TLR2, and TLR4 on OM-MSCs These properties make OM-MSCs a suitable candidate for transplant-mediated CNS repair
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Louise Lindsay
- Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Steven Andrew Johnstone
- Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Michael Anthony McGrath
- Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - David Mallinson
- Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; Sistemic UK, Kelvin Campus, Maryhill Road, Glasgow G20 0SP, UK
| | - Susan Carol Barnett
- Institute of Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
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26
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Mercurio L, Ajmone-Cat MA, Cecchetti S, Ricci A, Bozzuto G, Molinari A, Manni I, Pollo B, Scala S, Carpinelli G, Minghetti L. Targeting CXCR4 by a selective peptide antagonist modulates tumor microenvironment and microglia reactivity in a human glioblastoma model. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2016; 35:55. [PMID: 27015814 PMCID: PMC4807593 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-016-0326-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway regulates tumor cell proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis and the tumor-microenvironment cross-talk in several solid tumors, including glioblastoma (GBM), the most common and fatal brain cancer. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of peptide R, a new specific CXCR4 antagonist that we recently developed by a ligand-based approach, in an in vitro and in vivo model of GBM. The well-characterized CXCR4 antagonist Plerixafor was also included in the study. METHODS The effects of peptide R on CXCR4 expression, cell survival and migration were assessed on the human glioblastoma cell line U87MG exposed to CXCL12, by immunofluorescence and western blotting, MTT assay, flow cytometry and transwell chamber migration assay. Peptide R was then tested in vivo, by using U87MG intracranial xenografts in CD1 nude mice. Peptide R was administered for 23 days since cell implantation and tumor volume was assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at 4.7 T. Glioma associated microglia/macrophage (GAMs) polarization (anti-tumor M1 versus pro-tumor M2 phenotypes) and expressions of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and CD31 were assessed by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. RESULTS We found that peptide R impairs the metabolic activity and cell proliferation of human U87MG cells and stably reduces CXCR4 expression and cell migration in response to CXCL12 in vitro. In the orthotopic U87MG model, peptide R reduced tumor cellularity, promoted M1 features of GAMs and astrogliosis, and hindered intra-tumor vasculature. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that targeting CXCR4 by peptide R might represent a novel therapeutic approach against GBM, and contribute to the rationale to further explore in more complex pre-clinical settings the therapeutic potential of peptide R, alone or in combination with standard therapies of GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mercurio
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Serena Cecchetti
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Ricci
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Bozzuto
- Department of Technology and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Agnese Molinari
- Department of Technology and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Isabella Manni
- Department of Research, Diagnosis and Innovative Technologies, Regina Elena National Cancer Institute, Rome, Italy
| | - Bianca Pollo
- Division of Neuropathology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Scala
- Molecular Immunology, Functional Genomics, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione G. Pascale" IRCCS, Napoli, Italy
| | - Giulia Carpinelli
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
| | - Luisa Minghetti
- Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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27
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Neural progenitor cells orchestrate microglia migration and positioning into the developing cortex. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5611. [PMID: 25425146 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are observed in the early developing forebrain and contribute to the regulation of neurogenesis through still unravelled mechanisms. In the developing cerebral cortex, microglia cluster in the ventricular/subventricular zone (VZ/SVZ), a region containing Cxcl12-expressing basal progenitors (BPs). Here we show that the ablation of BP as well as genetic loss of Cxcl12 affect microglia recruitment into the SVZ. Ectopic Cxcl12 expression or pharmacological blockage of CxcR4 further supports that Cxcl12/CxcR4 signalling is involved in microglial recruitment during cortical development. Furthermore, we found that cell death in the developing forebrain triggers microglial proliferation and that this is mediated by the release of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). Finally, we show that the depletion of microglia in mice lacking receptor for colony-stimulating factor-1 (Csf-1R) reduces BPs into the cerebral cortex.
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28
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Wei SG, Zhang ZH, Yu Y, Felder RB. Central SDF-1/CXCL12 expression and its cardiovascular and sympathetic effects: the role of angiotensin II, TNF-α, and MAP kinase signaling. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2014; 307:H1643-54. [PMID: 25260613 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00432.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The chemokine stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL12) and its receptors are expressed by neurons and glial cells in cardiovascular autonomic regions of the brain, including the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), and contribute to neurohumoral excitation in rats with ischemia-induced heart failure. The present study examined factors regulating the expression of SDF-1 in the PVN and mechanisms mediating its sympatho-excitatory effects. In urethane anesthetized rats, a 4-h intracerebroventricular (ICV) infusion of angiotensin II (ANG II) or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in doses that increase mean blood pressure (MBP) and sympathetic drive increased the expression of SDF-1 in PVN. ICV administration of SDF-1 increased the phosphorylation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), JNK, and p38 MAPK in PVN, along with MBP, heart rate (HR), and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA), but did not affect total p44/42 MAPK, JNK, and p38 MAPK levels. ICV pretreatment with the selective p44/42 MAPK inhibitor PD98059 prevented the SDF-1-induced increases in MBP, HR, and RSNA; ICV pretreatment with the selective JNK and p38 MAPK inhibitors attenuated but did not block these SDF-1-induced excitatory responses. ICV PD98059 also prevented the sympatho-excitatory response to bilateral PVN microinjections of SDF-1. ICV pretreatment with SDF-1 short-hairpin RNA significantly reduced ANG II- and TNF-α-induced phosphorylation of p44/42 MAPK in PVN. These findings identify TNF-α and ANG II as drivers of SDF-1 expression in PVN and suggest that the full expression of their cardiovascular and sympathetic effects depends upon SDF-1-mediated activation of p44/42 MAPK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-Guang Wei
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa; and
| | - Zhi-Hua Zhang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa; and
| | - Yang Yu
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa; and
| | - Robert B Felder
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa; and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Iowa City, Iowa
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29
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Sema3E/PlexinD1 regulates the migration of hem-derived Cajal-Retzius cells in developing cerebral cortex. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4265. [PMID: 24969029 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During the development of the cerebral cortex, Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells settle in the preplate and coordinate the precise growth of the neocortex. Indeed, CR cells migrate tangentially from specific proliferative regions of the telencephalon (for example, the cortical hem (CH)) to populate the entire cortical surface. This is a very finely tuned process regulated by an emerging number of factors that has been sequentially revealed in recent years. However, the putative participation of one of the major families of axon guidance molecules in this process, the Semaphorins, was not explored. Here we show that Semaphorin-3E (Sema3E) is a natural negative regulator of the migration of PlexinD1-positive CR cells originating in the CH. Our results also indicate that Sema3E/PlexinD1 signalling controls the motogenic potential of CR cells in vitro and in vivo. Indeed, absence of Sema3E/PlexinD1 signalling increased the migratory properties of CR cells. This modulation implies negative effects on CXCL12/CXCR4 signalling and increased ADF/Cofilin activity.
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30
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Liu P, Feng Y, Dong C, Yang D, Li B, Chen X, Zhang Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Zhao L. Administration of BMSCs with muscone in rats with gentamicin-induced AKI improves their therapeutic efficacy. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97123. [PMID: 24824427 PMCID: PMC4019657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic action of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in acute kidney injury (AKI) has been reported by several groups. However, recent studies indicated that BMSCs homed to kidney tissues at very low levels after transplantation. The lack of specific homing of exogenously infused cells limited the effective implementation of BMSC-based therapies. In this study, we provided evidence that the administration of BMSCs combined with muscone in rats with gentamicin-induced AKI intravenously, was a feasible strategy to drive BMSCs to damaged tissues and improve the BMSC-based therapeutic effect. The effect of muscone on BMSC bioactivity was analyzed in vitro and in vivo. The results indicated that muscone could promote BMSC migration and proliferation. Some secretory capacity of BMSC still could be improved in some degree. The BMSC-based therapeutic action was ameliorated by promoting the recovery of biochemical variables in urine or blood, as well as the inhibition of cell apoptosis and inflammation. In addition, the up-regulation of CXCR4 and CXCR7 expression in BMSCs could be the possible mechanism of muscone amelioration. Thus, our study indicated that enhancement of BMSCs bioactivities with muscone could increase the BMSC therapeutic potential and further developed a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AKI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Liu
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yetong Feng
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Chao Dong
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
| | - Dandan Yang
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan University, Shenzhen People's Hospital, Shenzhen, P.R. China
| | - Zhongjun Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan University, Shenzhen People's Hospital, Shenzhen, P.R. China
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- * E-mail: (LZ); (YZ); (YW)
| | - Yulai Zhou
- Department of Regeneration Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, P.R. China
- * E-mail: (LZ); (YZ); (YW)
| | - Lei Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Second Clinical Medical College of Jinan University, Shenzhen People's Hospital, Shenzhen, P.R. China
- * E-mail: (LZ); (YZ); (YW)
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31
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Rivat C, Sebaihi S, Van Steenwinckel J, Fouquet S, Kitabgi P, Pohl M, Melik Parsadaniantz S, Reaux-Le Goazigo A. Src family kinases involved in CXCL12-induced loss of acute morphine analgesia. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 38:38-52. [PMID: 24263070 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/30/2013] [Accepted: 11/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional interactions between the chemokine receptor CXCR4 and opioid receptors have been reported in the brain, leading to a decreased morphine analgesic activity. However the cellular mechanisms responsible for this loss of opioid analgesia are largely unknown. Here we examined whether Src family-kinases (SFK)-linked mechanisms induced by CXCR4 contributed to the loss of acute morphine analgesia and could represent a new physiological anti-opioid signaling pathway. In this way, we showed by immunohistochemistry and western blot that CXCL12 rapidly activated SFK phosphorylation in vitro in primary cultured lumbar rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) but also in vivo in the DRG and the spinal cord. We showed that SFK activation occurred in a sub population of sensory neurons, in spinal microglia but also in spinal nerve terminals expressing mu-(MOR) and delta-opioid (DOR) receptor. In addition we described that CXCR4 is detected in MOR- and DOR-immunoreactive neurons in the DRG and spinal cord. In vivo, we demonstrated that an intrathecal administration of CXCL12 (1μg) significantly attenuated the subcutaneous morphine (4mg/kg) analgesia. Conversely, pretreatment with a potent CXCR4 antagonist (5μg) significantly enhanced morphine analgesia. Similar effects were obtained after an intrathecal injection of a specific SFK inhibitor, PP2 (10μg). Furthermore, PP2 abrogated CXCL12-induced decrease in morphine analgesia by suppressing SFK activation in the spinal cord. In conclusion, our data highlight that CXCL12-induced loss of acute morphine analgesia is linked to Src family kinases activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyril Rivat
- Institut des Neurosciences, INSERM U1051, 34091 Montpellier, France
| | - Soumia Sebaihi
- Pain Group, CRICM, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UMRS 975, Paris, France
| | - Juliette Van Steenwinckel
- Pathophysiology and Neuroprotection in Brain Damage, INSERM UMR 676, Université Paris 7, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Fouquet
- Centre de Recherche Institut de la Vision, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, INSERM, UMR_S968, CNRS, UMR_7210, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Kitabgi
- Pain Group, CRICM, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UMRS 975, Paris, France
| | - Michel Pohl
- Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, INSERM UMR894, Equipe: Douleurs, Neuroinflammation et Stress, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Melik Parsadaniantz
- Centre de Recherche Institut de la Vision, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, INSERM, UMR_S968, CNRS, UMR_7210, Paris, France
| | - Annabelle Reaux-Le Goazigo
- Centre de Recherche Institut de la Vision, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, INSERM, UMR_S968, CNRS, UMR_7210, Paris, France.
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32
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Steinhagen M, Hoffmeister PG, Nordsieck K, Hötzel R, Baumann L, Hacker MC, Schulz-Siegmund M, Beck-Sickinger AG. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) mediated release of MMP-9 resistant stromal cell-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α) from surface modified polymer films. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:5891-5899. [PMID: 24646074 DOI: 10.1021/am500794q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Preparation of smart materials by coatings of established surfaces with biomolecules will lead to the next generation of functionalized biomaterials. Rejection of implants is still a major problem in medical applications but masking the implant material with protein coatings is a promising approach. These layers not only disguise the material but also equip it with a certain biological function. The anti-inflammatory chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α) is well suited to take over this function, because it efficiently attracts stem cells and promotes their differentiation and proliferation. At least the initial stem cell homing requires the formation of a concentration gradient. Thus, a reliable and robust release mechanism of SDF-1α from the material is essential. Several proteases, most notably matrix metalloproteinases, are upregulated during inflammation, which, in principle, can be exploited for a tightly controlled release of SDF-1α. Herein, we present the covalent immobilization of M-[S4V]-SDF-1α on novel biodegradable polymer films, which consist of heterobifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) and oligolactide-based functionalized macromers. A peptidic linker with a trimeric matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) cleavage site (MCS) was used as connection and the linkage between the three components was achieved by combination of expressed protein ligation and Cu(I) catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition. The MCS was used for MMP-9 mediated release of M-[S4V]-SDF-1α from the biomaterial and the released SDF-1α derivative was biologically active and induced strong cell migration, which demonstrates the great potential of this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Steinhagen
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biosciences, Pharmacy and Psychology, Universität Leipzig , Brüderstraße 34, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Nash B, Meucci O. Functions of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 in the central nervous system and its regulation by μ-opioid receptors. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 118:105-28. [PMID: 25175863 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801284-0.00005-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Activation of the G protein-coupled receptor CXCR4 by its chemokine ligand CXCL12 regulates a number of physiopathological functions in the central nervous system, during development as well as later in life. In addition to the more classical roles of the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis in the recruitment of immune cells or migration and proliferation of neural precursor cells, recent studies suggest that CXCR4 signaling also modulates synaptic function and neuronal survival in the mature brain, through direct and indirect effects on neurons and glia. These effects, which include regulation of glutamate receptors and uptake, and of dendritic spine density, can significantly alter the ability of neurons to face excitotoxic insults. Therefore, they are particularly relevant to neurodegenerative diseases featuring alterations of glutamate neurotransmission, such as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Importantly, CXCR4 signaling can be dysregulated by HIV viral proteins, host HIV-induced factors, and opioids. Potential mechanisms of opioid regulation of CXCR4 include heterologous desensitization, transcriptional regulation and changes in receptor expression levels, opioid-chemokine receptor dimer or heteromer formation, and the newly described modulation by the protein ferritin heavy chain-all leading to inhibition of CXCR4 signaling. After reviewing major effects of chemokines and opioids in the CNS, this chapter discusses chemokine-opioid interactions in neuronal and immune cells, focusing on their potential contribution to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Nash
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Olimpia Meucci
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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The peculiarities of the SDF-1/CXCL12 system: in some cells, CXCR4 and CXCR7 sing solos, in others, they sing duets. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 355:239-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1747-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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