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Koning E, McDonald A, Bambokian A, Gomes FA, Vorstman J, Berk M, Fabe J, McIntyre RS, Milev R, Mansur RB, Brietzke E. The concept of "metabolic jet lag" in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder: implications for research and clinical care. CNS Spectr 2023; 28:571-580. [PMID: 36503605 DOI: 10.1017/s1092852922001195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a potentially chronic mental disorder marked by recurrent depressive and manic episodes, circadian rhythm disruption, and changes in energetic metabolism. "Metabolic jet lag" refers to a state of shift in circadian patterns of energy homeostasis, affecting neuroendocrine, immune, and adipose tissue function, expressed through behavioral changes such as irregularities in sleep and appetite. Risk factors include genetic variation, mitochondrial dysfunction, lifestyle factors, poor gut microbiome health and abnormalities in hunger, satiety, and hedonistic function. Evidence suggests metabolic jet lag is a core component of BD pathophysiology, as individuals with BD frequently exhibit irregular eating rhythms and circadian desynchronization of their energetic metabolism, which is associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes. Although current diagnostic criteria lack any assessment of eating rhythms, technological advancements including mobile phone applications and ecological momentary assessment allow for the reliable tracking of biological rhythms. Overall, methodological refinement of metabolic jet lag assessment will increase knowledge in this field and stimulate the development of interventions targeting metabolic rhythms, such as time-restricted eating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Koning
- Centre for Neurosciences Studies (CNS), Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Alexandra McDonald
- Centre for Neurosciences Studies (CNS), Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Alexander Bambokian
- Centre for Neurosciences Studies (CNS), Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Fabiano A Gomes
- Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University School of Medicine, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jacob Vorstman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT, The Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Jennifer Fabe
- Department of Neurology, McMaster Children's Hospital, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Roger S McIntyre
- Department of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, University of Toronto, The Brain and Cognition Discovery Foundation, Toronto, Canada
| | - Roumen Milev
- Centre for Neurosciences Studies (CNS), Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University School of Medicine, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Providence Care Hospital, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Rodrigo B Mansur
- Department of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, University of Toronto, The Brain and Cognition Discovery Foundation, Toronto, Canada
| | - Elisa Brietzke
- Centre for Neurosciences Studies (CNS), Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University School of Medicine, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Kianersi S, Liu Y, Guasch-Ferré M, Redline S, Schernhammer E, Sun Q, Huang T. Chronotype, Unhealthy Lifestyle, and Diabetes Risk in Middle-Aged U.S. Women : A Prospective Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med 2023; 176:1330-1339. [PMID: 37696036 DOI: 10.7326/m23-0728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evening chronotype may promote adherence to an unhealthy lifestyle and increase type 2 diabetes risk. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the role of modifiable lifestyle behaviors in the association between chronotype and diabetes risk. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. SETTING Nurses' Health Study II. PARTICIPANTS 63 676 nurses aged 45 to 62 years with no history of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes in 2009 were prospectively followed until 2017. MEASUREMENTS Self-reported chronotype using a validated question from the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. The lifestyle behaviors that were measured were diet quality, physical activity, alcohol intake, body mass index (BMI), smoking, and sleep duration. Incident diabetes cases were self-reported and confirmed using a supplementary questionnaire. RESULTS Participants reporting a "definite evening" chronotype were 54% (95% CI, 49% to 59%) more likely to have an unhealthy lifestyle than participants reporting a "definite morning" chronotype. A total of 1925 diabetes cases were documented over 469 120 person-years of follow-up. Compared with the "definite morning" chronotype, the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for diabetes was 1.21 (CI, 1.09 to 1.35) for the "intermediate" chronotype and 1.72 (CI, 1.50 to 1.98) for the "definite evening" chronotype after adjustment for sociodemographic factors, shift work, and family history of diabetes. Further adjustment for BMI, physical activity, and diet quality attenuated the association comparing the "definite evening" and "definite morning" chronotypes to 1.31 (CI, 1.13 to 1.50), 1.54 (CI, 1.34 to 1.77), and 1.59 (CI, 1.38 to 1.83), respectively. Accounting for all measured lifestyle and sociodemographic factors resulted in a reduced but still positive association (HR comparing "definite evening" vs. "definite morning" chronotype, 1.19 [CI, 1.03 to 1.37]). LIMITATIONS Chronotype assessment using a single question, self-reported data, and homogeneity of the study population. CONCLUSION Middle-aged nurses with an evening chronotype were more likely to report unhealthy lifestyle behaviors and had increased diabetes risk compared with those with a morning chronotype. Accounting for BMI, physical activity, diet, and other modifiable lifestyle factors attenuated much but not all of the increased diabetes risk. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE National Institutes of Health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Kianersi
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (S.K., Y.L.)
| | - Yue Liu
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (S.K., Y.L.)
| | - Marta Guasch-Ferré
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, and Department of Public Health and Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark (M.G.)
| | - Susan Redline
- Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital; and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (S.R.)
| | - Eva Schernhammer
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, and Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Vienna, Austria (E.S.)
| | - Qi Sun
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, and Department of Epidemiology and Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts (Q.S.)
| | - Tianyi Huang
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, and Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (T.H.)
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Iacobelli P. Circadian dysregulation and Alzheimer’s disease: A comprehensive review. BRAIN SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022. [DOI: 10.26599/bsa.2022.9050021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the foremost variant of dementia, has been associated with a menagerie of risk factors, many of which are considered to be modifiable. Among these modifiable risk factors is circadian rhythm, the chronobiological system that regulates sleep‐wake cycles, food consumption timing, hydration timing, and immune responses amongst many other necessary physiological processes. Circadian rhythm at the level of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), is tightly regulated in the human body by a host of biomolecular substances, principally the hormones melatonin, cortisol, and serotonin. In addition, photic information projected along afferent pathways to the SCN and peripheral oscillators regulates the synthesis of these hormones and mediates the manner in which they act on the SCN and its substructures. Dysregulation of this cycle, whether induced by environmental changes involving irregular exposure to light, or through endogenous pathology, will have a negative impact on immune system optimization and will heighten the deposition of Aβ and the hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein. Given these correlations, it appears that there is a physiologic association between circadian rhythm dysregulation and AD. This review will explore the physiology of circadian dysregulation in the AD brain, and will propose a basic model for its role in AD‐typical pathology, derived from the literature compiled and referenced throughout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Iacobelli
- Department of Arts and Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, USA
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4
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Chaulin AM. Metabolic Pathway of Cardiospecific Troponins: From Fundamental Aspects to Diagnostic Role (Comprehensive Review). Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:841277. [PMID: 35517866 PMCID: PMC9062030 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.841277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Many molecules of the human body perform key regulatory functions and are widely used as targets for the development of therapeutic drugs or as specific diagnostic markers. These molecules undergo a significant metabolic pathway, during which they are influenced by a number of factors (biological characteristics, hormones, enzymes, etc.) that can affect molecular metabolism and, as a consequence, the serum concentration or activity of these molecules. Among the most important molecules in the field of cardiology are the molecules of cardiospecific troponins (Tns), which regulate the processes of myocardial contraction/relaxation and are used as markers for the early diagnosis of ischemic necrosis of cardiomyocytes (CMC) in myocardial infarction (MI). The diagnostic value and diagnostic capabilities of cardiospecific Tns have changed significantly after the advent of new (highly sensitive (HS)) detection methods. Thus, early diagnostic algorithms of MI were approved for clinical practice, thanks to which the possibility of rapid diagnosis and determination of optimal tactics for managing patients with MI was opened. Relatively recently, promising directions have also been opened for the use of cardiospecific Tns as prognostic markers both at the early stages of the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) (arterial hypertension (AH), heart failure (HF), coronary heart disease (CHD), etc.), and in non-ischemic extra-cardiac pathologies that can negatively affect CMC (for example, sepsis, chronic kidney disease (CKD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), etc.). Recent studies have also shown that cardiospecific Tns are present not only in blood serum, but also in other biological fluids (urine, oral fluid, pericardial fluid, amniotic fluid). Thus, cardiospecific Tns have additional diagnostic capabilities. However, the fundamental aspects of the metabolic pathway of cardiospecific Tns are definitively unknown, in particular, specific mechanisms of release of Tns from CMC in non-ischemic extra-cardiac pathologies, mechanisms of circulation and elimination of Tns from the human body, mechanisms of transport of Tns to other biological fluids and factors that may affect these processes have not been established. In this comprehensive manuscript, all stages of the metabolic pathway are consistently and in detail considered, starting from release from CMC and ending with excretion (removal) from the human body. In addition, the possible diagnostic role of individual stages and mechanisms, influencing factors is analyzed and directions for further research in this area are noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksey M Chaulin
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Samara State Medical University, Samara, Russia.,Samara Regional Clinical Cardiological Dispensary, Samara, Russia
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The Importance of Cardiac Troponin Metabolism in the Laboratory Diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction (Comprehensive Review). BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:6454467. [PMID: 35402607 PMCID: PMC8986381 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6454467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The study of the metabolism of endogenous molecules is not only of great fundamental significance but also of high practical importance, since many molecules serve as drug targets and/or biomarkers for laboratory diagnostics of diseases. Thus, cardiac troponin molecules have long been used as the main biomarkers for confirmation of diagnosis of myocardial infarction, and with the introduction of high-sensitivity test methods, many of our ideas about metabolism of these cardiac markers have changed significantly. In clinical practice, there are opening new promising diagnostic capabilities of cardiac troponins, the understanding and justification of which are closely connected with the fundamental principles of the metabolism of these molecules. Our current knowledge about the metabolism of cardiac troponins is insufficient and extremely disconnected from various literary sources. Thus, many researchers do not sufficiently understand the potential importance of cardiac troponin metabolism in the laboratory diagnosis of myocardial infarction. The purpose of this comprehensive review is to systematize information about the metabolism of cardiac troponins and during the discussion to focus on the potential impact of cTns metabolism on the laboratory diagnosis of myocardial infarction. The format of this comprehensive review includes a sequential consideration and analysis of the stages of the metabolic pathway, starting from possible release mechanisms and ending with elimination mechanisms. This will allow doctors and researchers to understand the significant importance of cTns metabolism and its impact on the laboratory diagnosis of myocardial infarction.
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6
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Chaulin AM. Biology of Cardiac Troponins: Emphasis on Metabolism. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11030429. [PMID: 35336802 PMCID: PMC8945489 DOI: 10.3390/biology11030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Cardiovascular diseases, including myocardial infarction, are among the most common diseases worldwide. Markers associated with the diagnosis of myocardial infarction have been in the spotlight for many years. The most commonly used markers of myocardial infarction are cardiac troponins. However, insufficient understanding of the biology and metabolism of cardiac troponins does not allow us to fully unlock the full diagnostic potential of these cardiomarkers. In this article, I summarized and discussed in detail the features of the metabolism of cardiac troponins. I conducted a comprehensive review of current literary sources and presented my point of view. The format of the manuscript includes a consistent description of the biology and stages of the metabolism of cardiac troponins, starting from the release and circulation, and ending with the features of elimination of cardiac troponins. The possible influence of the biology of cardiac troponins on the diagnostic value of cardiac troponins is analyzed. Based on the analysis of the literature, I found a close relationship between the diagnostic value of cardiac troponins and their biology/metabolism. Further research is needed to increase the diagnostic value of cardiac troponins, and to fully unlock their diagnostic potential. Abstract Understanding of the biology of endo- and exogenous molecules, in particular their metabolism, is not only of great theoretical importance, but also of high practical significance, since many molecules serve as drug targets or markers for the laboratory diagnostics of many human diseases. Thus, cardiac troponin (cTns) molecules have long been used as key markers for the confirmation of diagnosis of myocardial infarction (MI), and with the introduction of contemporary (high sensitivity) test methods, many of our concepts related to the biology of these cardiac markers have changed significantly. In current clinical practice, there are opening new promising diagnostic capabilities of cTns, the understanding and justification of which is closely connected with the theoretical principles of the metabolism of these molecules. However, today, the biology and metabolism of cTns have not been properly investigated; in particular, we do not know the precise mechanisms of release of these molecules from the myocardial cells (MCs) of healthy people and the mechanisms of circulation, and the elimination of cTns from the bloodstream. The main purpose of this manuscript is to systematize information about the biology of cTns, with an emphasis on the metabolism of cTns. The format of this paper, starting with the release of cTns in the blood and concluding with the metabolism/filtration of troponins, provides a comprehensive yet logically easy way for the readers to approach our current knowledge in the framework of understanding the basic mechanisms by which cTns are produced and processed. Conclusions. Based on the analysis of the current literature, the important role of biology and all stages of metabolism (release, circulation, removal) of cTns in laboratory diagnostics should be noted. It is necessary to continue studying the biology and metabolism of cTns, because this will improve the differential diagnosis of MI and i a new application of cTns immunoassays in current clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksey M. Chaulin
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Samara State Medical University, 89 Chapaevskaya Street, Samara Region, 443099 Samara, Russia; ; Tel.: +7-(927)-770-25-87
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery, Samara State Medical University, 89 Chapaevskaya Street, Samara Region, 443099 Samara, Russia
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7
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Chaulin A. Metabolic Pathway of Cardiac Troponins and Its Diagnostic Value. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2022. [DOI: 10.2147/vhrm.s335851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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8
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Cardiac Troponins Metabolism: From Biochemical Mechanisms to Clinical Practice (Literature Review). Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222010928. [PMID: 34681585 PMCID: PMC8535601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222010928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolic processes of endo- and exogenous compounds play an important role in diagnosing and treating patients since many metabolites are laboratory biomarkers and/or targets for therapeutic agents. Cardiac troponins are one of the most critical biomarkers to diagnose cardiovascular diseases, including acute myocardial infarction. The study of troponin metabolism is of great interest as it opens up new possibilities for optimizing laboratory diagnostics. This article discusses in detail the key stages of the cardiac troponins metabolism, in particular the mechanisms of release from a healthy myocardium, mechanisms of circulation in the bloodstream, possible mechanisms of troponin penetration into other biological fluids (oral fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, pericardial and amniotic fluids), mechanisms of elimination of cardiac troponins from the blood, and daily changes in the levels of troponins in the blood. Considering these aspects of cardiac troponin metabolism, attention is focused on the potential value for clinical practice.
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Ghosh S, Lewis KN, Tulsian R, Astafev AA, Buffenstein R, Kondratov RV. It's about time; divergent circadian clocks in livers of mice and naked mole-rats. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21590. [PMID: 33871093 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100116r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Light is the key regulator of circadian clock, the time-keeping system synchronizing organism physiology and behavior with environmental day and night conditions. In its natural habitat, the strictly subterranean naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) has lived in a light-free environment for millennia. We questioned if this species retains a circadian clock and if the patterns of this clock and concomitant rhythms differed in liver tissue from mice and naked mole-rats. As expected, in mice, the various circadian clock genes peaked at different times of the day; the Period gene (Per) group peaked in the evening, whereas Brain and Muscle ARNT-like1 (Bmal1) gene peaked in the morning; this phase shift is considered to be fundamental for circadian clock function. In sharp contrast, in the naked mole-rat both Per1 and Per2, as well as Bmal1, peaked at the same time in the morning-around ZT2-suggesting the organization of the molecular circadian oscillator was different. Moreover, gene expression rhythms associated with glucose metabolism and mTOR signaling also differed between the species. Although the activity of mTORC1 was lower, while that of mTORC2 was higher in naked mole-rat livers compared to mice, unlike that of mice where the expression profiles of glucose metabolism genes were not synchronized, these were highly synchronized in naked mole-rats and likely linked to their use of feeding times at zeitgebers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumyaditya Ghosh
- BGES Department, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Kaitlyn N Lewis
- Barshop Institute for Aging and Longevity Studies, UTHSCSA, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Richa Tulsian
- BGES Department, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Artem A Astafev
- BGES Department, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Rochelle Buffenstein
- Barshop Institute for Aging and Longevity Studies, UTHSCSA, San Antonio, TX, USA.,Calico Life Sciences LLC, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Roman V Kondratov
- BGES Department, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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Zhang Y, Sun L, Zhu R, Zhang S, Liu S, Wang Y, Wu Y, Liao X, Mi J. Absence of Circadian Rhythm in Fecal Microbiota of Laying Hens under Common Light. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2065. [PMID: 34359193 PMCID: PMC8300245 DOI: 10.3390/ani11072065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The circadian rhythm of gut microbiota is an important biological rhythm that plays a crucial role in host health. However, few studies have determined the associations between the circadian rhythm and gut microbiota in laying hens. The present experiment investigated the circadian rhythm of fecal microbiota in laying hens. Feces samples were collected from 10 laying hens at nine different time points (06:00-12:00-18:00-00:00-06:00-12:00-18:00-00:00-06:00) to demonstrate the circadian rhythm of fecal microbiota. The results showed that the α and β diversity of the fecal microbiota fluctuated significantly at different time points. Beta nearest taxon index analysis suggested that assembly strategies of the abundant and rare amplicon sequence variant (ASV) sub-communities were different. Abundant ASVs preferred dispersal limitation (weak selection), and rare ASVs were randomly formed due to the "non-dominant" fractions. Highly robust fluctuations of fecal microbiota at the phylum level were found. For example, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria fluctuated inversely to each other, but the total ratio remained in a dynamic balance over 48 h. We identified that temporal dynamic changes had a significant effect on the relative abundance of the important bacteria in the feces microbial community using the random forest algorithm. Eight bacteria, Ruminococcus gnavus, Faecalibacterium, Ruminococcaceae, Enterococcus cecorum, Lachnospiraceae, Clostridium, Clostridiales, and Megamonas, showed significant changes over time. One unexpected finding was the fact that these eight bacteria belong to Firmicutes. The pathways showed significant fluctuation, including xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, and amino acid metabolism, which were consistent with the metabolic functions of amino acids and carbohydrates from the feed. This study showed that the defecation time may be an important factor in the diversity, proportion, and functions of the feces microbial community. However, there was no circadian rhythm of microbial community assembly confirmed by JTK_Cycle analysis. These results might suggest there was no obvious circadian rhythm of fecal microbiota in laying hens under common light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Lan Sun
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Run Zhu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shiyu Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shuo Liu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yan Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yinbao Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xindi Liao
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jiandui Mi
- National Engineering Research Center for Breeding Swine Industry, College of Animal Science, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Y.Z.); (L.S.); (R.Z.); (S.Z.); (S.L.); (Y.W.); (Y.W.)
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding and Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
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The Circadian Physiology: Implications in Livestock Health. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22042111. [PMID: 33672703 PMCID: PMC7924354 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Circadian rhythms exist in almost all types of cells in mammals. Thousands of genes exhibit approximately 24 h oscillations in their expression levels, making the circadian clock a crucial regulator of their normal functioning. In this regard, environmental factors to which internal physiological processes are synchronized (e.g., nutrition, feeding/eating patterns, timing and light exposure), become critical to optimize animal physiology, both by managing energy use and by realigning the incompatible processes. Once the circadian clock is disrupted, animals will face the increased risks of diseases, especially metabolic phenotypes. However, little is known about the molecular components of these clocks in domestic species and by which they respond to external stimuli. Here we review evidence for rhythmic control of livestock production and summarize the associated physiological functions, and the molecular mechanisms of the circadian regulation in pig, sheep and cattle. Identification of environmental and physiological inputs that affect circadian gene expressions will help development of novel targets and the corresponding approaches to optimize production efficiency in farm animals.
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Logan RW, Parekh PK, Kaplan G, Becker-Krail D, Williams W, Yamaguchi S, Yoshino J, Shelton MA, Zhu X, Zhang H, Waplinger S, Fitzgerald E, Oliver-Smith J, Sundarvelu P, Enwright JF, Huang YH, McClung CA. NAD+ cellular redox and SIRT1 regulate the diurnal rhythms of tyrosine hydroxylase and conditioned cocaine reward. Mol Psychiatry 2019; 24:1668-1684. [PMID: 29728703 PMCID: PMC6215755 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-018-0061-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The diurnal regulation of dopamine is important for normal physiology and diseases such as addiction. Here we find a novel role for the CLOCK protein to antagonize CREB-mediated transcriptional activity at the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) promoter, which is mediated by the interaction with the metabolic sensing protein, Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1). Additionally, we demonstrate that the transcriptional activity of TH is modulated by the cellular redox state, and daily rhythms of redox balance in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), along with TH transcription, are highly disrupted following chronic cocaine administration. Furthermore, CLOCK and SIRT1 are important for regulating cocaine reward and dopaminergic (DAergic) activity, with interesting differences depending on whether DAergic activity is in a heightened state and if there is a functional CLOCK protein. Taken together, we find that rhythms in cellular metabolism and circadian proteins work together to regulate dopamine synthesis and the reward value for drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W. Logan
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA,Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, 04609
| | - Puja K. Parekh
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Gabrielle Kaplan
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Darius Becker-Krail
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Wilbur Williams
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - Shintaro Yamaguchi
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, 04609
| | - Jun Yoshino
- Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, 04609
| | - Micah A. Shelton
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - Xiyu Zhu
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA
| | - Hui Zhang
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,School of Medicine, Peking Union Medical College, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Spencer Waplinger
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - Ethan Fitzgerald
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - Jeffrey Oliver-Smith
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - Poornima Sundarvelu
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | - John F. Enwright
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA
| | | | - Colleen A. McClung
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219, USA,Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260, USA,Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, 04609,Correspondence: (C.A.M.)
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13
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Huang T, Redline S. Cross-sectional and Prospective Associations of Actigraphy-Assessed Sleep Regularity With Metabolic Abnormalities: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Diabetes Care 2019; 42:1422-1429. [PMID: 31167888 PMCID: PMC6647049 DOI: 10.2337/dc19-0596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To cross-sectionally and prospectively investigate the association between irregular sleep patterns, a potential marker for circadian disruption, and metabolic abnormalities. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis, participants completed 7-day actigraphy at exam 5 (2010-2013) and were prospectively followed throughout exam 6 (2016 to 2017). Sleep regularity was quantified by the 7-day SD of actigraphy-assessed sleep duration and sleep onset timing. Metabolic abnormalities were defined by 1) the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria and 2) a data-driven clustering of metabolic factors. RESULTS In the exam 5 cross-sectional analysis adjusted for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors (n = 2,003), every 1-h increase in the sleep duration SD was associated with 27% (95% CI 1.10, 1.47) higher odds of metabolic syndrome, and every 1-h increase in the sleep timing SD was associated with 23% (95% CI 1.06, 1.42) higher odds. The associations remained significant with additional adjustment for sleep-related factors including sleep duration. In the prospective analysis (n = 970), the corresponding fully adjusted odds ratio (OR) was 1.27 (95% CI 0.97, 1.65) for sleep duration and 1.36 (1.03, 1.80) for sleep timing. Compared with the cluster of few metabolic changes, every 1-h increase in sleep variability was associated with almost doubled odds for the cluster characterized by incidence of multiple metabolic abnormalities (OR 1.97 [95% CI 1.18, 3.30] for sleep duration and OR 2.10 [95% CI 1.25, 3.53] for sleep timing). CONCLUSIONS Increased variability in sleep duration and timing was associated with higher prevalence and incidence of metabolic abnormalities even after consideration of sleep duration and other lifestyle factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyi Huang
- Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Susan Redline
- Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
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14
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Morris JL, Letson HL, Gillman R, Hazratwala K, Wilkinson M, McEwen P, Dobson GP. The CNS theory of osteoarthritis: Opportunities beyond the joint. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2019; 49:331-336. [PMID: 30982553 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of global disability that affects more than half of the population over 65. It is not a single disease but a progressive, inflammatory- and immune-altering multi-disease that affects the whole joint. OA has many risk factors including age, obesity, gender, lifestyle, joint morphology, metabolic dysfunction and genetic disposition. A major stumbling block in treating clinical OA has been the inability to detect its early onset and disease progression. This gap in understanding may arise from our failure to recognize that the OA patient exhibits a vulnerability to dysregulation of central feedback circuits that control sympathetic tone, inflammation, circadian rhythms (central and peripheral clocks), gut microbiome, metabolic redox and whole joint pathology. Early detection of OA and slowing its progression may come from discoveries outside the joint targeting these potentially modifiable upstream targets. We argue that future treatments may benefit from moving from a knee-centric viewpoint to a more systems-based, whole-body approach. The challenge, however, will be to better characterize these key circuits and apply this knowledge to develop new therapies and interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie L Morris
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia; Heart, Trauma and Sepsis Research Laboratory, College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, 4811, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Hayley L Letson
- Heart, Trauma and Sepsis Research Laboratory, College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, 4811, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Rhys Gillman
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Kaushik Hazratwala
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Matthew Wilkinson
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Peter McEwen
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia
| | - Geoffrey P Dobson
- The Orthopaedic Research Institute of Queensland (ORIQL), Townsville 4812, Queensland, Australia; Heart, Trauma and Sepsis Research Laboratory, College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, 4811, Queensland, Australia.
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15
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Freyberg Z, Logan RW. The Intertwined Roles of Circadian Rhythms and Neuronal Metabolism Fueling Drug Reward and Addiction. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 5:80-89. [PMID: 30631826 DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a highly prevalent and devastating disorder with few effective treatments, resulting in enormous burdens on family and society. The cellular and behavioral effects of drugs of abuse are related to their abilities to elevate synaptic dopamine levels. Midbrain dopaminergic neurons projecting from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens play crucial roles in substance-induced neural and behavioral plasticity. Significantly, increasing work suggests that interplay between the brain circadian system and the cellular bioenergetic machinery in these dopamine neurons plays a critical role in mediating the actions of drugs of abuse. Here, we describe recent progress in elucidating the interconnections between circadian and metabolic systems at the molecular and cellular levels and their relationships to modulation of drug reward and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Freyberg
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, pittsburgh, PA, USA 15219.,Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA 15213
| | - Ryan W Logan
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, pittsburgh, PA, USA 15219.,Center for Systems Neurogenetics of Addiction, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, 04609
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16
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Onaolapo AY, Onaolapo OJ. Circadian dysrhythmia-linked diabetes mellitus: Examining melatonin’s roles in prophylaxis and management. World J Diabetes 2018; 9:99-114. [PMID: 30079146 PMCID: PMC6068738 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v9.i7.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic, life-threatening metabolic disorder that occurs worldwide. Despite an increase in the knowledge of the risk factors that are associated with diabetes mellitus, its worldwide prevalence has continued to rise; thus, necessitating more research into its aetiology. Recent researches are beginning to link a dysregulation of the circadian rhythm to impairment of intermediary metabolism; with evidences that circadian rhythm dysfunction might play an important role in the aetiology, course or prognosis of some cases of diabetes mellitus. These evidences thereby suggest possible relationships between the circadian rhythm regulator melatonin, and diabetes mellitus. In this review, we discuss the roles of the circadian rhythm in the regulation of the metabolism of carbohydrates and other macronutrients; with emphasis on the importance of melatonin and the impacts of its deficiency on carbohydrate homeostasis. Also, the possibility of using melatonin and its analogs for the “prophylaxis” or management of diabetes mellitus is also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adejoke Y Onaolapo
- Behavioural Neuroscience/Neurobiology Unit, Department of Anatomy, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomosho 210211, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Olakunle J Onaolapo
- Behavioural Neuroscience/Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Osogbo 230263, Osun State, Nigeria
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Danchin A. Bacteria in the ageing gut: did the taming of fire promote a long human lifespan? Environ Microbiol 2018; 20:1966-1987. [PMID: 29727052 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Unique among animals as they evolved towards Homo sapiens, hominins progressively cooked their food on a routine basis. Cooked products are characterized by singular chemical compounds, derived from the pervasive Maillard reaction. This same reaction is omnipresent in normal metabolism involving carbonyls and amines, and its products accumulate with age. The gut microbiota acts as a first line of defence against the toxicity of cooked Maillard compounds, that also selectively shape the microbial flora, letting specific metabolites to reach the blood stream. Positive selection of metabolic functions allowed the body of hominins who tamed fire to use and dispose of these age-related compounds. I propose here that, as a hopeful accidental consequence, this resulted in extending human lifespan far beyond that of our great ape cousins. The limited data exploring the role of taming fire on the human genetic setup and on its microbiota is discussed in relation with ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Danchin
- Integromics, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, Paris, 75013, France.,School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, Hong Kong University, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
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18
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Anderson G. Linking the biological underpinnings of depression: Role of mitochondria interactions with melatonin, inflammation, sirtuins, tryptophan catabolites, DNA repair and oxidative and nitrosative stress, with consequences for classification and cognition. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 80:255-266. [PMID: 28433458 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The pathophysiological underpinnings of neuroprogressive processes in recurrent major depressive disorder (rMDD) are reviewed. A wide array of biochemical processes underlie MDD presentations and their shift to a recurrent, neuroprogressive course, including: increased immune-inflammation, tryptophan catabolites (TRYCATs), mitochondrial dysfunction, aryl hydrocarbonn receptor activation, and oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS), as well as decreased sirtuins and melatonergic pathway activity. These biochemical changes may have their roots in central, systemic and/or peripheral sites, including in the gut, as well as in developmental processes, such as prenatal stressors and breastfeeding consequences. Consequently, conceptualizations of MDD have dramatically moved from simple psychological and central biochemical models, such as lowered brain serotonin, to a conceptualization that incorporates whole body processes over a lifespan developmental timescale. However, important hubs are proposed, including the gut-brain axis, and mitochondrial functioning, which may provide achievable common treatment targets despite considerable inter-individual variability in biochemical changes. This provides a more realistic model of the complexity of MDD and the pathophysiological processes that underpin the shift to rMDD and consequent cognitive deficits. Such accumulating data on the pathophysiological processes underpinning MDD highlights the need in psychiatry to shift to a classification system that is based on biochemical processes, rather than subjective phenomenology.
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