Preventing weight gain in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

2025 Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: A Report of US and Global Data From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association (AHA), in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, nutrition, sleep, and obesity) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, glucose control, and metabolic syndrome) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The AHA Heart Disease and Stroke Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, brain health, complications of pregnancy, kidney disease, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, sudden cardiac arrest, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, valvular disease, venous thromboembolism, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The AHA, through its Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States and globally to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update with review of published literature through the year before writing. The 2025 AHA Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort in 2024 by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and AHA staff members. This year's edition includes a continued focus on health equity across several key domains and enhanced global data that reflect improved methods and incorporation of ≈3000 new data sources since last year's Statistical Update.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a heterogeneous disorder that is increasingly prevalent largely due to aging and obesity, resulting in a major disease burden worldwide. Knowledge about the underlying aetiology has improved, with increased understanding of the role of genetic factors, the microbiome, and existence of different pain mechanisms. However, this knowledge has not yet been translated into new treatment options. New evidence has questioned the efficacy of recommended treatments, such as therapeutic exercise programmes and the focus on weight loss, but managing obesity and maintaining activity remain important for the prevention and management of osteoarthritis. Approaches should consider individual and cultural preferences and resource availability to increase patient and community engagement, and optimise outcomes worldwide. Most of the focus has been on established osteoarthritis where management is primarily directed at relieving symptoms. The search for the much needed effective treatments that improve both symptoms and structure, often referred to as disease-modifying osteoarthritic drugs, is ongoing. Promising data indicate that targeting inflammation is effective in hand osteoarthritis.

Interventions for the prevention of weight gain during festive and holiday periods in children and adults: A systematic review

Some periods during the year, such as festive and summer holiday periods, have been associated with weight gain. We aimed to assess the effect of interventions for the prevention of body weight gain during festive and holiday periods in children and adults. A systematic search was conducted in six databases and supplementary sources until January 4, 2023. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cluster-RCTs, and non-RCTs. Our primary outcome measure was the change in body weight in adults or the change in BMI z-score or BMI percentile in children and adolescents. From 4216 records, 12 primary studies (from 22 reports) met the inclusion criteria-10 from the United States, one from the United Kingdom, and one from Chile. Two studies had a low risk of bias, two moderate, seven high, and one critical risk of bias. The meta-analysis in children included four of seven studies during the summer holidays (six interventions) and showed a mean difference in BMI z-score favoring the intervention group (-0.06 [95% CI -0.10, -0.01], p = 0.01, I2 = 0%, very low certainty evidence). The meta-analysis in adults included five studies during festive periods with a mean difference in weight favoring the intervention group (-0.99 kg [95% CI -2.15, 0.18], p = 0.10, I2 = 89%, very low certainty evidence). This review has highlighted potential interventions to prevent the increase in body weight during holiday periods. More work is needed to improve the quality of the evidence and to extend it to countries outside of the United States and United Kingdom and to the adolescent population.

Effects of Varying Protein Amounts and Types on Diet-Induced Thermogenesis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Protein is the most thermogenic macronutrient, but it is unclear how different amounts and types of protein impact diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT). The purpose of this meta-analysis was to compare the impact of isocaloric meals/diets containing different amounts or types of protein on energy metabolism. Databases were searched in June 2024 for studies that compare DIT or total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) in response to isocaloric acute meals or longer-term diets containing different amounts or types of protein. After identifying 3894 records, 52 studies were included. Standardized mean difference (SMD) estimates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for each outcome. In acute studies, intake of higher compared with lower-protein meals resulted in greater DIT (SMD: 0.45; 95% CI: 0.26, 0.65; P < 0.001) and TDEE (SMD: 0.52; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.73; P < 0.001). Notably, the subgroup analysis indicated that this effect on DIT was statistically significant for studies involving participants with normal weight but not overweight/obesity, although it is not clear if this finding was a true effect or because of study design characteristics. In chronic studies (ranging from 4 d to 1 y), intake of higher compared with lower-protein diets resulted in greater TDEE (SMD: 0.29; 95% CI: 0.10, 0.48; P = 0.003) and resting energy expenditure (SMD: 0.18; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.35; P = 0.039), but no differences in DIT (SMD: 0.10; 95% CI: -0.08, 0.28; P = 0.27). There was no evidence that different types of protein impacted energy metabolism. Higher protein meals/diets increase components of energy expenditure. This trial was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero; PROSPERO 2023) as CRD42023389642.

A randomised controlled trial to investigate the feasibility and acceptability of a small change approach to prevent weight gain

A weight gain prevention strategy showing merit is a small change approach (increase energy expenditure and/or decrease energy intake by 100-200 kcal/day). Studies have tested a small change approach in intensive interventions involving multiple contacts, unsuitable for delivery at scale. The aim here was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of a remote small change weight gain prevention intervention. A randomised controlled trial of 122 participants was conducted. The intervention was a remote 12-week small change weight gain prevention programme (targeting dietary and/or physical activity behaviours). The comparator group received a healthy lifestyle leaflet. Data were collected at baseline and 12-weeks. The primary outcome was the feasibility and acceptability, assessed against three stop-go traffic light criteria: retention, number of participants randomised per month and adherence to a small change approach. Participants' opinions of a small change approach and weight change were also measured. The traffic light stop-go criteria results were green for recruitment (122 participants recruited in three months) and retention (91%) and red for intervention adherence. Most participants (62%) found a small change approach helpful for weight management and the mean difference in weight was - 1.1 kg (95% CI - 1.7, - 0.4), favouring the intervention group. Excluding intervention adherence, the trial was feasible and acceptable to participants. Despite adherence being lower than expected, participants found a small change approach useful for weight management and gained less weight than comparators. With refinement to increase intervention adherence, progress to an effectiveness trial is warranted.ISRCTN18309466: 12/04/2022 (retrospectively registered).

Weight Gain Prevention Outcomes From a Pragmatic Digital Health Intervention With Community Health Center Patients: Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of obesity and its associated comorbidities continue to rise in the United States. Populations who are uninsured and from racial and ethnic minority groups continue to be disproportionately affected. These populations also experience fewer clinically meaningful outcomes in most weight loss trials. Weight gain prevention presents a useful strategy for individuals who experience barriers to weight loss. Given the often-limited weight management resources available to patients in primary care settings serving vulnerable patients, evaluating interventions with pragmatic designs may help inform the design of comprehensive obesity care delivered in primary care.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of Balance, a 2-arm, 12-month pragmatic randomized controlled trial of a digital weight gain prevention intervention, delivered to patients receiving primary care within federally qualified community health centers.

METHODS

Balance was a 2-arm, 12-month pragmatic randomized controlled trial of a digital weight gain prevention intervention delivered to individuals who had a BMI of 25-40 kg/m2, spoke English or Spanish, and were receiving primary care within a network of federally qualified community health centers in North Carolina. The Balance intervention was designed to encourage behavioral changes that result in a slight energy deficit. Intervention participants received tailored goal setting and tracking, skills training, self-monitoring, and responsive health coaching from registered dietitians. Weight was measured at regular primary care visits and documented in the electronic health record. We compared the percentage of ≤3% weight gain in each arm at 24 months after randomization-our primary outcome-using individual empirical best linear unbiased predictors from the linear mixed-effects model. We used individual empirical best linear unbiased predictors from participants with at least 1 electronic health record weight documented within a 6-month window centered on the 24-month time point.

RESULTS

We randomized 443 participants, of which 223 (50.3%) participants were allocated to the intervention arm. At baseline, participants had a mean BMI of 32.6 kg/m2. Most participants were Latino or Hispanic (n=200, 45.1%) or non-Latino or Hispanic White (n=115, 26%). In total, 53% (n=235) of participants had at least 1 visit with weight measured in the primary time window. The intervention group had a higher proportion with ≤3% weight gain at 6 months (risk ratio=1.12, 95% CI 0.94-1.28; risk difference=9.5, 95% CI -4.5 to 16.4 percentage points). This difference attenuated to the null by 24 months (risk ratio=1.00, 95% CI 0.82-1.20; risk difference=0.2, 95% CI -12.1 to 11.0 percentage points).

CONCLUSIONS

In adults with overweight or obesity receiving primary care at a community health center, we did not find long-term evidence to support the dissemination of a digital health intervention for weight gain prevention.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03003403; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03003403.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

RR2-10.1186/s12889-019-6926-7.

2024 Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics: A Report of US and Global Data From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association (AHA), in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, nutrition, sleep, and obesity) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, glucose control, and metabolic syndrome) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The AHA Heart Disease and Stroke Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, brain health, complications of pregnancy, kidney disease, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, sudden cardiac arrest, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, valvular disease, venous thromboembolism, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The AHA, through its Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States and globally to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update with review of published literature through the year before writing. The 2024 AHA Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort in 2023 by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and AHA staff members. The AHA strives to further understand and help heal health problems inflicted by structural racism, a public health crisis that can significantly damage physical and mental health and perpetuate disparities in access to health care, education, income, housing, and several other factors vital to healthy lives. This year's edition includes additional global data, as well as data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, with an enhanced focus on health equity across several key domains.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

Our biology working against us in obesity: A narrative review on implications for management of osteoarthritis

Obesity is the major modifiable risk factor for osteoarthritis (OA). A major focus of management in OA is weight loss. Although we live in an obesogenic environment, obesity has a predominantly genetic and epigenetic basis. This explains a person's weight set point which is defended by biological mechanisms making weight loss difficult to achieve and maintain long term, regardless of the methods used. Significant weight regain occurs after weight loss, with weight tending to return to pre-treatment levels after cessation of interventions including the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists. An area that has received little attention is the slow, insidious weight creep of 0.5-1 kg/year over adulthood that sees individuals relentlessly increase weight. There is evidence that low intensity, personalised lifestyle interventions can prevent this weight creep, providing patients with achievable goals. In this narrative review, we examine the evidence for weight loss in OA, the biological mechanisms that make weight loss difficult to achieve and maintain and the potential negative impacts on patients. We review the evidence for preventing weight gain, the improvement in patient outcomes and the potential for significant healthcare savings through reduced knee replacements. We propose a combined approach of weight loss when indicated, together with targeting weight creep across adult years and the potential role of metformin. Implementing these combined approaches is likely to be more effective in improving patient related outcomes, reducing joint damage and healthcare costs, than our current focus on achieving weight loss in OA.

HOMA-IR is positively correlated with biological age and advanced aging in the US adult population

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance (IR) had been reported to be associated with age; however, few studies have explored the association between IR and biological age (BA). The HOMA-IR value is a useful indicator of the extent of IR. This cross-sectional study is to explore the relationship between HOMA-IR and BA/advanced aging in the US population.

METHODS

This study is a cross-sectional analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data. The survey comprised 12,266 people from the NHANES, and their full HOMA-IR data as well as BA data were extracted. Four multiple linear regressions were performed to analyze the association between HOMA-IR and BA, and four multiple logistic regression models were performed to analyze the association between HOMA-IR and advanced aging. In addition, trend tests and stratified analysis were performed and smoothed fitted curves were plotted to test the robustness of the results.

RESULTS

HOMA-IR was positively correlated with BA [β: 0.51 (0.39, 0.63)], and it was the same to advanced aging [OR: 1.05 (1.02, 1.07)], and both showed a monotonically increasing trend. The trend tests showed that the results were stable (all P for trend < 0.0001). The smoothed fitted curves showed that there were non-linear relationships between HOMA-IR and BA/advanced aging. And the stratified analysis indicated that the relationship between HOMA-IR and BA/advanced aging remained robust in all subgroups.

CONCLUSION

The study suggested that HOMA-IR is positively correlated with BA and advanced aging in the US adult population, with a monotonic upward trend. This is a new finding to reveal the relationship between HOMA-IR and age from new standpoint of BA rather than chronological age (CA). And it may contribute to a better understanding of human health aging and may aid future research in this field.

Consumption of Common Bean Suppresses the Obesogenic Increase in Adipose Depot Mass: Impact of Dose and Biological Sex

Obesity prevention is stated as a simple objective in the public health guidelines of most countries: avoid adult weight gain. However, the success of the global population in accomplishing this goal is limited as reflected in the persisting pandemic of overweight and obesity. While many intervention strategies have been proposed, most are directed at mitigating the consequences of obesity. Efforts intended to prevent unintentional weight gain and associated adiposity are termed anti-obesogenic. Herein, evidence is presented that a neglected category of foods, pulses, i.e., grain legumes, have anti-obesogenic activity. Using a preclinical mouse model of obesity, a dose-response study design in animals of both biological sexes, and cooked, freeze-dried, and milled common bean as a representative pulse, data are presented showing that the rate of body weight gain is slowed, and fat accumulation is suppressed when 70% of the dietary protein is provided from common bean. These anti-obesogenic effects are reduced at lower amounts of common bean (17.5% or 35%). The anti-obesogenic responsiveness is greater in female than in male mice. RNA sequence analysis indicates that the sex-related differences extend to gene expression patterns, particularly those related to immune regulation within adipose tissue. In addition, our findings indicate the potential value of a precision nutrition approach for human intervention studies that identify "pulse anti-obesogenic responders". A precision approach may reduce the concentration of pulses required in the diet for benefits, but candidate biomarkers of responsivity to pulse consumption remain to be determined.

A small change approach on adiposity, lean mass and bone mineral density in adults with overweight and obesity: A randomized controlled trial

We sought to determine whether small changes in physical activity and diet could prevent adverse changes in body composition over 2 years in adults with overweight and obesity. Previously inactive adults (N = 289) were included in a secondary analysis of data derived from a 3-year, single-centre, two-arm, longitudinal randomized controlled trial. Participants were randomized to a small change approach (N = 144, body mass index: 32.4 ± 4.2 [mean ± standard deviation], age: 52.3 ±. 10.6 years) or usual care (N = 145, body mass index: 32.4 ± 4.2, age: 53.1 ± 10.6 years). Small change approach participants were counselled to make small changes in diet and physical activity, while usual care participants were asked to maintain their usual lifestyle. Adiposity, lean mass and bone mineral density were measured by dual-x-ray absorptiometry. The change in total adiposity was significantly greater in the small change approach group than usual care at 6 and 12 months but did not remain significant at 24 months (mean change [standard error] -0.8 [0.4] vs. -0.7 [0.4] kg; difference 0.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.2 to 1.1). Changes in visceral fat were significantly greater in the small change approach than usual care at 6 and 12 months but did not remain significant at 24 months (-0.04 [0.03] vs. 0.02 [0.03] kg; difference 0.06, 95% CI: -1.5 to 0.3). Changes in lean mass or bone mineral density were not significantly different between groups at any time point (all p > 0.1). The small change approach did not prevent gains in adiposity or losses in lean mass compared to usual care at 2 years in adults with overweight or obesity. No difference from baseline in adiposity, lean mass or bone mineral density was observed in either arm of the trial.

Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2023 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association

BACKGROUND

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, annually reports the most up-to-date statistics related to heart disease, stroke, and cardiovascular risk factors, including core health behaviors (smoking, physical activity, diet, and weight) and health factors (cholesterol, blood pressure, and glucose control) that contribute to cardiovascular health. The Statistical Update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions (including stroke, congenital heart disease, rhythm disorders, subclinical atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, heart failure, valvular disease, venous disease, and peripheral artery disease) and the associated outcomes (including quality of care, procedures, and economic costs).

METHODS

The American Heart Association, through its Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee, continuously monitors and evaluates sources of data on heart disease and stroke in the United States to provide the most current information available in the annual Statistical Update with review of published literature through the year before writing. The 2023 Statistical Update is the product of a full year's worth of effort in 2022 by dedicated volunteer clinicians and scientists, committed government professionals, and American Heart Association staff members. The American Heart Association strives to further understand and help heal health problems inflicted by structural racism, a public health crisis that can significantly damage physical and mental health and perpetuate disparities in access to health care, education, income, housing, and several other factors vital to healthy lives. This year's edition includes additional COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) publications, as well as data on the monitoring and benefits of cardiovascular health in the population, with an enhanced focus on health equity across several key domains.

RESULTS

Each of the chapters in the Statistical Update focuses on a different topic related to heart disease and stroke statistics.

CONCLUSIONS

The Statistical Update represents a critical resource for the lay public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.

Application of a Realistic Evaluation Approach on Three Public Health Programs Aiming at Prevention of Obesity

Rich literature abounds concerning the clinical effectiveness of programs aiming to produce weight gain/obesity prevention outcomes. However, there is very little evidence on how these outcomes are produced, and what interplay of factors made those programs effective (or not) in the environment that produced those effects. This study aims to describe the application of realistic evaluation in the field of obesity prevention, as an approach to unravel those components that influence the capacity of a program to produce its effects and to examine its significance in an effort to understand those components. The concepts of critical realism have informed the development of an interview topic guide, while three European programs were selected as case studies after a rigorous selection process. In total, 26 in-depth semi-structured interviews were taken, paired with personal observation and secondary data research. Several grounded context-mechanisms-outcomes (CMO) configurations were described within the respective context of each location, with the mechanisms introduced from each project resulting in distinctive outcomes. This study highlights the potential of realistic evaluation as a comprehensive framework to explain in which contextual circumstances of each program’s effects are produced, how certain underlying mechanisms produce those effects, and how to explicitly connect the context and the acting mechanisms into distinct outcome patterns, which will ultimately form unique configuration sets for each of the analyzed projects.

Factors Associated With Dietary Behaviors Among Malaysian Adults: Application of the Social Cognitive Theory

Background: Dietary behavior applying theory-based approaches is seldom documented in the general adult population. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the eating behavior of Malaysian adults and the demographic factors that were associated with positive eating habits. Methods: In this cross-sectional survey, the convenience sampling technique was used to sample Malaysian adults aged 18 or older. The questionnaire was based on constructs from Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), which has six scales or constructs, including self-efficacy, intentions, situation, social support, behavioral strategies, and outcome expectations and expectancies. All the six constructs demonstrated adequate model fit using confirmatory analysis fit by the developers and good internal reliability using Cronbach’s alpha in this study. The data were descriptively analyzed, and subsequently, logistic regressions were performed, assessing demographic factors associated with healthy eating habits. The variables achieving a P value<0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: A total of 461 respondents completed the questionnaire. Good social support (83.30%), outcome expectations (90.24%) and expectancies (92.41%), and the situation in relation to healthy eating (88.94%) were frequently observed among the respondents. The sentence has been revised to express the idea more clearly. "However, the observations in these dimensions were not necessarily translated into good self-efficacy (33.41%), intentions (39.91%), and behavioral strategies relating to healthy eating (53.15%). Additionally, demographic variables such as ethnicity, age, and region were significantly associated with the positive attitude observed on the questionnaire constructs. Conclusion: In summary, the findings of the study revealed that many Malaysians have poor self-efficacy, intentions, and behavioral strategies when it came to eating healthy. The demographic factors significantly associated with dietary behaviors should be targeted in future interventional studies and awareness programs.

Effect of Sleep Extension on Objectively Assessed Energy Intake Among Adults With Overweight in Real-life Settings: A Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Short sleep duration has been recognized as a risk factor for obesity. Whether extending sleep duration may mitigate this risk remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effects of a sleep extension intervention on objectively assessed energy intake, energy expenditure, and body weight in real-life settings among adults with overweight who habitually curtailed their sleep duration.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This single-center, randomized clinical trial was conducted from November 1, 2014, to October 30, 2020. Participants were adults aged 21 to 40 years with a body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) between 25.0 and 29.9 and had habitual sleep duration of less than 6.5 hours per night. Data were analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle.

INTERVENTIONS

After a 2-week habitual sleep period at baseline, participants were randomized to either an individualized sleep hygiene counseling session that was intended to extend their bedtime to 8.5 hours (sleep extension group) or to continue their habitual sleep (control group). All participants were instructed to continue daily routine activities at home without any prescribed diet or physical activity.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was change in energy intake from baseline, which was objectively assessed as the sum of total energy expenditure and change in body energy stores. Total energy expenditure was measured by the doubly labeled water method. Change in body energy stores was computed using regression of daily home weights and body composition changes from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Sleep duration was monitored by actigraphy. Changes from baseline were compared between the 2 groups using intention-to-treat analysis.

RESULTS

Data from 80 randomized participants (mean [SD] age, 29.8 [5.1] years; 41 men [51.3%]) were analyzed. Sleep duration was increased by approximately 1.2 hours per night (95% CI, 1.0 to 1.4 hours; P < .001) in the sleep extension group vs the control group. The sleep extension group had a significant decrease in energy intake compared with the control group (-270 kcal/d; 95% CI, -393 to -147 kcal/d; P < .001). The change in sleep duration was inversely correlated with the change in energy intake (r = -0.41; 95% CI, -0.59 to -0.20; P < .001). No significant treatment effect in total energy expenditure was found, resulting in weight reduction in the sleep extension group vs the control group.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This trial found that sleep extension reduced energy intake and resulted in a negative energy balance in real-life settings among adults with overweight who habitually curtailed their sleep duration. Improving and maintaining healthy sleep duration over longer periods could be part of obesity prevention and weight loss programs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02253368.

Behaviour Change Techniques in Weight Gain Prevention Interventions in Adults of Reproductive Age: Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression

Weight gain prevention interventions are likely to be more effective with the inclusion of behaviour change techniques. However, evidence on which behaviour change techniques (BCT) are most effective for preventing weight gain and improving lifestyle (diet and physical activity) is limited, especially in reproductive-aged adults. This meta-analysis and meta-regression aimed to identify BCT associated with changes in weight, energy intake and physical activity in reproductive-aged adults. BCT were identified using the BCT Taxonomy (v1) from each intervention. Meta-regression analyses were used to identify BCT associated with change in weight, energy intake and physical activity. Thirty-four articles were included with twenty-nine articles for the meta-analysis. Forty-three of the ninety-three possible BCT listed in the taxonomy were identified in the included studies. Feedback on behaviour and Graded tasks were significantly associated with less weight gain, and Review behaviour goals was significantly associated with lower energy intake. No individual BCT were significantly associated with physical activity. Our analysis provides further evidence for which BCT are most effective in weight gain prevention interventions. The findings support that the use of key BCT within interventions can contribute to successful weight gain prevention in adults of reproductive age.

The Relationship of Diet and Physical Activity with Weight Gain and Weight Gain Prevention in Women of Reproductive Age

Reproductive-age women often see increased weight gain, which carries an increased risk of long-term overweight and obesity and adverse maternal and child health outcomes. Supporting women to achieve optimal weight through lifestyle modification (diet and physical activity) is of critical importance to reduce weight gain across key reproductive life-stages (preconception, pregnancy and postpartum). This review comprehensively summarizes the current state of knowledge on the contribution of diet and physical activity to weight gain and weight gain prevention in reproductive-aged women. Suboptimal diets including a higher proportion of discretionary choices or energy intake from fats, added sugars, sweets or processed foods are associated with higher weight gain, whereas increased consumption of core foods including fruits, vegetables and whole grains and engaging in regular physical activity are associated with reduced weight gain in reproductive age women. Diet and physical activity contributing to excessive gestational weight gain are well documented. However, there is limited research assessing diet and physical activity components associated with weight gain during the preconception and postpartum period. This review highlights the need for further research to identify key dietary and physical activity components targeting the critical windows of reproductive life-stages in women to best guide interventions to prevent weight gain.