CrossTalk proposal: Weighing the evidence for Class A GPCR dimers, the evidence favours dimers

Time-dependent ligand-receptor binding kinetics and functionality in a heterodimeric receptor model

GPCRs heteromerize both in CNS and non-CNS regions. The cell uses receptor heteromerization to modulate receptor functionality and to provide fine tuning of receptor signaling. In order for pharmacologists to explore these mechanisms for therapeutic purposes, quantitative receptor models are needed. We have developed a time-dependent model of the binding kinetics and functionality of a preformed heterodimeric receptor involving two drugs. Two cases were considered: both or only one of the drugs are in excess with respect to the total concentration of the receptor. The latter case can be applied to those situations in which a drug causes unwanted side effects that need to be reduced by decreasing its concentration. The required efficacy can be maintained by the allosteric effects mutually exerted by the two drugs in the two-drug combination system. We discuss this concept assuming that the drug causing unwanted side effects is an opioid and that analgesia is the therapeutic effect. As additional points, allosteric modulation by endogenous compounds and synthetic bivalent ligands was included in the study. Receptor heteromerization offers a mechanistic understanding and quantification of the pharmacological effects elicited by combinations of two drugs at different doses and with different efficacies and cooperativity effects, thus providing a conceptual framework for drug combination therapy.

Dimerization of melanocortin 4 receptor controls puberty onset and body size polymorphism

Xiphophorus fish exhibit a clear phenotypic polymorphism in puberty onset and reproductive strategies of males. In X. nigrensis and X. multilineatus, puberty onset is genetically determined and linked to a melanocortin 4 receptor (Mc4r) polymorphism of wild-type and mutant alleles on the sex chromosomes. We hypothesized that Mc4r mutant alleles act on wild-type alleles by a dominant negative effect through receptor dimerization, leading to differential intracellular signaling and effector gene activation. Depending on signaling strength, the onset of puberty either occurs early or is delayed. Here, we show by Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) that wild-type Xiphophorus Mc4r monomers can form homodimers, but also heterodimers with mutant receptors resulting in compromised signaling which explains the reduced Mc4r signaling in large males. Thus, hetero- vs. homo- dimerization seems to be the key molecular mechanism for the polymorphism in puberty onset and body size in male fish.

Structural basis of dimerization of chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are prominent drug targets responsible for extracellular-to-intracellular signal transduction. GPCRs can form functional dimers that have been poorly characterized so far. Here, we show the dimerization mechanism of the chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 by means of an advanced free-energy technique named coarse-grained metadynamics. Our results reproduce binding events between the GPCRs occurring in the minute timescale, revealing a symmetric and an asymmetric dimeric structure for each of the three investigated systems, CCR5/CCR5, CXCR4/CXCR4, and CCR5/CXCR4. The transmembrane helices TM4-TM5 and TM6-TM7 are the preferred binding interfaces for CCR5 and CXCR4, respectively. The identified dimeric states differ in the access to the binding sites of the ligand and G protein, indicating that dimerization may represent a fine allosteric mechanism to regulate receptor activity. Our study offers structural basis for the design of ligands able to modulate the formation of CCR5 and CXCR4 dimers and in turn their activity, with therapeutic potential against HIV, cancer, and immune-inflammatory diseases.

Screening of Membrane Protein Production by Comparison of Transient Expression in Insect and Mammalian Cells

Membrane proteins are difficult biomolecules to express and purify. In this paper, we compare the small-scale production of six selected eukaryotic integral membrane proteins in insect and mammalian cell expression systems using different techniques for gene delivery. The target proteins were C terminally fused to the green fluorescent marker protein GFP to enable sensitive monitoring. We show that the choice of expression systems makes a considerable difference to the yield and quality of the six selected membrane proteins. Virus-free transient gene expression (TGE) in insect High Five cells combined with solubilization in dodecylmaltoside plus cholesteryl hemisuccinate generated the most homogeneous samples for all six targets. Further, the affinity purification of the solubilized proteins using the Twin-Strep^® tag improved protein quality in terms of yield and homogeneity compared to His-tag purification. TGE in High Five insect cells offers a fast and economically attractive alternative to the established methods that require either baculovirus construction and the infection of the insect cells or relatively expensive transient gene expression in mammalian cells for the production of integral membrane proteins.

The histamine H3 receptor modulates dopamine D2 receptor-dependent signaling pathways and mouse behaviors

The histamine H3 receptor (H3R) is highly enriched in the spiny projection neurons (SPNs) of the striatum, in both the D1 receptor (D1R)-expressing and D2 receptor (D2R)-expressing populations. A crossantagonistic interaction between H3R and D1R has been demonstrated in mice, both at the behavioral level and at the biochemical level. Although interactive behavioral effects have been described upon coactivation of H3R and D2R, the molecular mechanisms underlying this interaction are poorly understood. Here, we show that activation of H3R with the selective agonist R-(-)-α-methylhistamine dihydrobromide mitigates D2R agonist-induced locomotor activity and stereotypic behavior. Using biochemical approaches and the proximity ligation assay, we demonstrated the existence of an H3R-D2R complex in the mouse striatum. In addition, we examined consequences of simultaneous H3R-D2R agonism on the phosphorylation levels of several signaling molecules using immunohistochemistry. H3R agonist treatment modulated Akt (serine/threonine PKB)-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta signaling in response to D2R activation via a β-arrestin 2-dependent mechanism in D2R-SPNs but not in D1R-SPNs. Phosphorylation of mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase 1 and rpS6 (ribosomal protein S6) was largely unchanged under these conditions. As Akt-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta signaling has been implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders, this work may help clarify the role of H3R in modulating D2R function, leading to a better understanding of pathophysiology involving the interaction between histamine and dopamine systems.

Heterobivalent Ligand for the Adenosine A2A-Dopamine D2 Receptor Heteromer

A G protein-coupled receptor heteromer that fulfills the established criteria for its existence in vivo is the complex between adenosine A2A (A2AR) and dopamine D2 (D2R) receptors. Here, we have designed and synthesized heterobivalent ligands for the A2AR-D2R heteromer with various spacer lengths. The indispensable simultaneous binding of these ligands to the two different orthosteric sites of the heteromer has been evaluated by radioligand competition-binding assays in the absence and presence of specific peptides that disrupt the formation of the heteromer, label-free dynamic mass redistribution assays in living cells, and molecular dynamic simulations. This combination of techniques has permitted us to identify compound 26 [KDB1 (A2AR) = 2.1 nM, KDB1 (D2R) = 0.13 nM], with a spacer length of 43-atoms, as a true bivalent ligand that simultaneously binds to the two different orthosteric sites. Moreover, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer experiments indicate that 26 favors the stabilization of the A2AR-D2R heteromer.

Oligomerization of yeast α-factor receptor detected by fluorescent energy transfer between ligands

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise a large superfamily of transmembrane receptors responsible for transducing responses to the binding of a wide variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, ions, and other small molecules. There is extensive evidence that GPCRs exist as homo-and hetero-oligomeric complexes; however, in many cases, the role of oligomerization and the extent to which it occurs at low physiological levels of receptor expression in cells remain unclear. We report here the use of flow cytometry to detect receptor-receptor interactions based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer between fluorescently labeled cell-impermeant ligands bound to yeast α-mating pheromone receptors that are members of the GPCR superfamily. A novel, to our knowledge, procedure was used to analyze energy transfer as a function of receptor occupancy by donor and acceptor ligands. Measurements of loss of donor fluorescence due to energy transfer in cells expressing high levels of receptors were used to calibrate measurements of enhanced acceptor emission due to energy transfer in cells expressing low levels of receptors. The procedure allows determination of energy transfer efficiencies over a 50-fold range of expression of full-length receptors at the surface of living cells without the need to create fluorescent or bioluminescent fusion proteins. Energy transfer efficiencies for fluorescently labeled derivatives of the receptor agonist α-factor do not depend on receptor expression level and are unaffected by C-terminal truncation of receptors. Fluorescently labeled derivatives of α-factor that act as receptor antagonists exhibit higher transfer efficiencies than those for labeled agonists. Although the approach cannot determine the number of receptors per oligomer, these results demonstrate that ligand-bound, native α-factor receptors exist as stable oligomers in the cell membranes of intact yeast cells at normal physiological expression levels and that the extent of oligomer formation is not dependent on the concentration of receptors in the membrane.

Selective and Wash-Resistant Fluorescent Dihydrocodeinone Derivatives Allow Single-Molecule Imaging of μ-Opioid Receptor Dimerization

μ-Opioid receptors (μ-ORs) play a critical role in the modulation of pain and mediate the effects of the most powerful analgesic drugs. Despite extensive efforts, it remains insufficiently understood how μ-ORs produce specific effects in living cells. We developed new fluorescent ligands based on the μ-OR antagonist E-p-nitrocinnamoylamino-dihydrocodeinone (CACO), that display high affinity, long residence time and pronounced selectivity. Using these ligands, we achieved single-molecule imaging of μ-ORs on the surface of living cells at physiological expression levels. Our results reveal a high heterogeneity in the diffusion of μ-ORs, with a relevant immobile fraction. Using a pair of fluorescent ligands of different color, we provide evidence that μ-ORs interact with each other to form short-lived homodimers on the plasma membrane. This approach provides a new strategy to investigate μ-OR pharmacology at single-molecule level.

Prediction and targeting of GPCR oligomer interfaces

GPCR oligomerization has emerged as a hot topic in the GPCR field in the last years. Receptors that are part of these oligomers can influence each other's function, although it is not yet entirely understood how these interactions work. The existence of such a highly complex network of interactions between GPCRs generates the possibility of alternative targets for new therapeutic approaches. However, challenges still exist in the characterization of these complexes, especially at the interface level. Different experimental approaches, such as FRET or BRET, are usually combined to study GPCR oligomer interactions. Computational methods have been applied as a useful tool for retrieving information from GPCR sequences and the few X-ray-resolved oligomeric structures that are accessible, as well as for predicting new and trustworthy GPCR oligomeric interfaces. Machine-learning (ML) approaches have recently helped with some hindrances of other methods. By joining and evaluating multiple structure-, sequence- and co-evolution-based features on the same algorithm, it is possible to dilute the issues of particular structures and residues that arise from the experimental methodology into all-encompassing algorithms capable of accurately predict GPCR-GPCR interfaces. All these methods used as a single or a combined approach provide useful information about GPCR oligomerization and its role in GPCR function and dynamics. Altogether, we present experimental, computational and machine-learning methods used to study oligomers interfaces, as well as strategies that have been used to target these dynamic complexes.

Single Proteoliposome High-Content Analysis Reveals Differences in the Homo-Oligomerization of GPCRs

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control vital cellular signaling pathways. GPCR oligomerization is proposed to increase signaling diversity. However, many reports have arrived at disparate conclusions regarding the existence, stability, and stoichiometry of GPCR oligomers, partly because of cellular complexity and ensemble averaging of intrareconstitution heterogeneities that complicate the interpretation of oligomerization data. To overcome these limitations, we exploited fluorescence-microscopy-based high-content analysis of single proteoliposomes. This allowed multidimensional quantification of intrinsic monomer-monomer interactions of three class A GPCRs (β₂-adrenergic receptor, cannabinoid receptor type 1, and opsin). Using a billion-fold less protein than conventional assays, we quantified oligomer stoichiometries, association constants, and the influence of two ligands and membrane curvature on oligomerization, revealing key similarities and differences for three GPCRs with decidedly different physiological functions. The assays introduced here will assist with the quantitative experimental observation of oligomerization for transmembrane proteins in general.

Rearrangement of the transmembrane domain interfaces associated with the activation of a GPCR hetero-oligomer

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can integrate extracellular signals via allosteric interactions within dimers and higher-order oligomers. However, the structural bases of these interactions remain unclear. Here, we use the GABA_B receptor heterodimer as a model as it forms large complexes in the brain. It is subjected to genetic mutations mainly affecting transmembrane 6 (TM6) and involved in human diseases. By cross-linking, we identify the transmembrane interfaces involved in GABA_B1-GABA_B2, as well as GABA_B1-GABA_B1 interactions. Our data are consistent with an oligomer made of a row of GABA_B1. We bring evidence that agonist activation induces a concerted rearrangement of the various interfaces. While the GB1-GB2 interface is proposed to involve TM5 in the inactive state, cross-linking of TM6s lead to constitutive activity. These data bring insight for our understanding of the allosteric interaction between GPCRs within oligomers.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), such as GABA_B, can integrate extracellular signals via allosteric interactions within dimers and oligomers. Here authors use crosslinking and identify two transmembrane interfaces in GABA_B which undergo a concerted rearrangement upon agonist activation.

Luminescence- and Fluorescence-Based Complementation Assays to Screen for GPCR Oligomerization: Current State of the Art

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have the propensity to form homo- and heterodimers. Dysfunction of these dimers has been associated with multiple diseases, e.g., pre-eclampsia, schizophrenia, and depression, among others. Over the past two decades, considerable efforts have been made towards the development of screening assays for studying these GPCR dimer complexes in living cells. As a first step, a robust in vitro assay in an overexpression system is essential to identify and characterize specific GPCR–GPCR interactions, followed by methodologies to demonstrate association at endogenous levels and eventually in vivo. This review focuses on protein complementation assays (PCAs) which have been utilized to study GPCR oligomerization. These approaches are typically fluorescence- and luminescence-based, making identification and localization of protein–protein interactions feasible. The GPCRs of interest are fused to complementary fluorescent or luminescent fragments that, upon GPCR di- or oligomerization, may reconstitute to a functional reporter, of which the activity can be measured. Various protein complementation assays have the disadvantage that the interaction between the reconstituted split fragments is irreversible, which can lead to false positive read-outs. Reversible systems offer several advantages, as they do not only allow to follow the kinetics of GPCR–GPCR interactions, but also allow evaluation of receptor complex modulation by ligands (either agonists or antagonists). Protein complementation assays may be used for high throughput screenings as well, which is highly relevant given the growing interest and effort to identify small molecule drugs that could potentially target disease-relevant dimers. In addition to providing an overview on how PCAs have allowed to gain better insights into GPCR–GPCR interactions, this review also aims at providing practical guidance on how to perform PCA-based assays.

GPCR interaction as a possible way for allosteric control between receptors

For more than twenty years now, GPCR dimers and larger oligomers have been the subject of intense debates. Evidence for a role of such complexes in receptor trafficking to and from the plasma membrane have been provided. However, one main issue is of course to determine whether or not such a phenomenon can be responsible for an allosteric and reciprocal control (allosteric control) of the subunits. Such a possibility would indeed add to the possible ways a cell integrates various signals targeting GPCRs. Among the large GPCR family, the class C receptors that include mGlu and GABA_B receptors, represent excellent models to examine such a possibility as they are mandatory dimers. In the present review, we will report on the observed allosteric interaction between the subunits of class C GPCRs, both mGluRs and GABA_BRs, and on the structural bases of these interactions. We will then discuss these findings for other GPCR types such as the rhodopsin-like class A receptors. We will show that many of the observations made with class C receptors have also been reported with class A receptors, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in the allosteric control between subunits in GPCR dimers may not be unique to class C GPCRs.

Dimers of serotonin receptors: Impact on ligand affinity and signaling

Membrane receptors often form complexes with other membrane proteins that directly interact with different effectors of the signal transduction machinery. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) were for long time considered as single pharmacological entities. However, evidence for oligomerization appeared for various classes and subtypes of GPCRs. This review focuses on metabotropic serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors, which belong to the rhodopsin-like class A of GPCRs, and will summarize the convergent evidence that homo- and hetero-dimers containing 5-HT receptors exist in transfected cells and in-vivo. We will show that complexes involving 5-HT receptors may acquire new signal transduction pathways and new physiological roles. In some cases, these complexes participate in disease-specific deregulations, that can be differentially affected by various drugs. Hence, selecting receptor complex-specific responses of these heterodimers may constitute an emerging strategy likely to improve beneficial therapeutic effects.

Protein-Protein Docking in Drug Design and Discovery

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are responsible for a number of key physiological processes in the living cells and underlie the pathomechanism of many diseases. Nowadays, along with the concept of so-called "hot spots" in protein-protein interactions, which are well-defined interface regions responsible for most of the binding energy, these interfaces can be targeted with modulators. In order to apply structure-based design techniques to design PPIs modulators, a three-dimensional structure of protein complex has to be available. In this context in silico approaches, in particular protein-protein docking, are a valuable complement to experimental methods for elucidating 3D structure of protein complexes. Protein-protein docking is easy to use and does not require significant computer resources and time (in contrast to molecular dynamics) and it results in 3D structure of a protein complex (in contrast to sequence-based methods of predicting binding interfaces). However, protein-protein docking cannot address all the aspects of protein dynamics, in particular the global conformational changes during protein complex formation. In spite of this fact, protein-protein docking is widely used to model complexes of water-soluble proteins and less commonly to predict structures of transmembrane protein assemblies, including dimers and oligomers of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In this chapter we review the principles of protein-protein docking, available algorithms and software and discuss the recent examples, benefits, and drawbacks of protein-protein docking application to water-soluble proteins, membrane anchoring and transmembrane proteins, including GPCRs.

Allosteric Modulation of Class A GPCRs: Targets, Agents, and Emerging Concepts

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been tractable drug targets for decades with over one-third of currently marketed drugs targeting GPCRs. Of these, the class A GPCR superfamily is highly represented, and continued drug discovery for this family of receptors may provide novel therapeutics for a vast range of diseases. GPCR allosteric modulation is an innovative targeting approach that broadens the available small molecule toolbox and is proving to be a viable drug discovery strategy, as evidenced by recent FDA approvals and clinical trials. Numerous class A GPCR allosteric modulators have been discovered recently, and emerging trends such as the availability of GPCR crystal structures, diverse functional assays, and structure-based computational approaches are improving optimization and development. This Perspective provides an update on allosterically targeted class A GPCRs and their disease indications and the medicinal chemistry approaches toward novel allosteric modulators and highlights emerging trends and opportunities in the field.

Constraints on GPCR Heterodimerization Revealed by the Type-4 Induced-Association BRET Assay

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest and most pharmacologically important family of cell-surface receptors encoded by the human genome. In many instances, the distinct signaling behavior of certain GPCRs has been explained in terms of the formation of heteromers with, for example, distinct signaling properties and allosteric cross-regulation. Confirmation of this has, however, been limited by the paucity of reliable methods for probing heteromeric GPCR interactions in situ. The most widely used assays for GPCR stoichiometry, based on resonance energy transfer, are unsuited to reporting heteromeric interactions. Here, we describe a targeted bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assay, called type-4 BRET, which detects both homo- and heteromeric interactions using induced multimerization of protomers within such complexes, at constant expression. Using type-4 BRET assays, we investigate heterodimerization among known GPCR homodimers: the CXC chemokine receptor 4 and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors. We observe that CXC chemokine receptor 4 and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors can form heterodimers with GPCRs from their immediate subfamilies but not with more distantly related receptors. We also show that heterodimerization appears to disrupt homodimeric interactions, suggesting the sharing of interfaces. Broadly, these observations indicate that heterodimerization results from the divergence of homodimeric receptors and will therefore likely be restricted to closely related homodimeric GPCRs.

Analysis of Spatial Assembly of GPCRs Using Photoactivatable Dyes and Localization Microscopy

Super-resolution imaging has provided unprecedented insight in the molecular complexities of fundamental cell biological questions. For G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), its application to the study of receptor homomers and heteromers have unveiled the diversity of complexes these GPCRs can form at the plasma membrane at a structural and functional level. Here, we describe our methodological approach of photoactivated localization microscopy with photoactivatable dyes (PD-PALM) to visualize and quantify the spatial assembly of GPCR heteromers at the plasma membrane.

Receptor-Receptor Interactions as a Widespread Phenomenon: Novel Targets for Drug Development?

The discovery of receptor-receptor interactions (RRI) has expanded our understanding of the role that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play in intercellular communication. The finding that GPCRs can operate as receptor complexes, and not only as monomers, suggests that several different incoming signals could already be integrated at the plasma membrane level via direct allosteric interactions between the protomers that form the complex. Most research in this field has focused on neuronal populations and has led to the identification of a large number of RRI. However, RRI have been seen to occur not only in neurons but also in astrocytes and, outside the central nervous system, in cells of the cardiovascular and endocrine systems and in cancer cells. Furthermore, RRI involving the formation of macromolecular complexes are not limited to GPCRs, being also observed in other families of receptors. Thus, RRI appear as a widespread phenomenon and oligomerization as a common mechanism for receptor function and regulation. The discovery of these macromolecular assemblies may well have a major impact on pharmacology. Indeed, the formation of receptor complexes significantly broadens the spectrum of mechanisms available to receptors for recognition and signaling, which may be implemented through modulation of the binding sites of the adjacent protomers and of their signal transduction features. In this context, the possible appearance of novel allosteric sites in the receptor complex structure may be of particular relevance. Thus, the existence of RRI offers the possibility of new therapeutic approaches, and novel pharmacological strategies for disease treatment have already been proposed. Several challenges, however, remain. These include the accurate characterization of the role that the receptor complexes identified so far play in pathological conditions and the development of ligands specific to given receptor complexes, in order to efficiently exploit the pharmacological properties of these complexes.

Measuring Recruitment of β-Arrestin to G Protein-Coupled Heterodimers Using Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer

Initially identified as monomers, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can also form functional dimers that act as distinct signalling hubs for the integration of cellular signalling. We previously found that the angiotensin II (Ang II) type 1 receptor (AT1R) and the prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) receptor (FP), both important in the control of smooth muscle contractility, form such a functional heterodimeric complex in HEK 293 and vascular smooth muscle cells (Goupil et al., J Biol Chem 290:3137-3148, 2015; Sleno et al., J Biol Chem 292:12139-12152, 2017). In addition to canonical G protein coupling, GPCRs recruit and engage β-arrestin-dependent pathways. Using BRET-based biosensors, we demonstrate how to assess recruitment of β-arrestin-1 and -2 to AT1R and the AT1R/FP dimer in response to Ang II. Surprisingly, β-arrestin-1 and -2 were recruited to the dimer, in response to PGF2α as well, even though FP alone cannot recruit either β-arrestin-1 and -2.

Understanding GPCR dimerization

Initially G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs, were thought to act as monomers, but recently strong evidence has been gathered indicating that they are capable of forming homo- and heterodimers or higher order oligomeric complexes, and that the dimerization phenomenon can modulate the pharmacological response and function of these receptors. In this chapter we point to the great potential of alternative therapeutic approach targeted at GPCR dimers, which is especially important in the field of neuropsychopharmacology. We also included a brief description of methods used for studying the phenomenon of GPCR oligomerization, with particular attention paid to the proximity ligation assay, PLA, the procedure which allows the study of interactions between receptors not only in vitro but also in vivo, with good anatomical resolution, what is especially important in the studies of various GPCRs involved in central neurotransmission.

Ghrelin Through GHSR1a and OX1R Heterodimers Reveals a Gαs-cAMP-cAMP Response Element Binding Protein Signaling Pathway in Vitro

Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1α (GHSR1a) and Orexin 1 receptor (OX1R) are involved in various important physiological processes, and have many similar characteristics in function and distribution in peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. We explored the possibility of heterodimerization between GHSR1a and OX1R and revealed a signal transduction pathway mechanism. In this study, bioluminescence and fluorescence resonance energy transfer and co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) analyses were performed to demonstrate the formation of functional GHSR1a/OX1R heterodimers. This showed that a peptide corresponding to the 5-transmembrane domain of OX1R impaired heterodimer construction. We found that ghrelin stimulated GHSR1a/OX1R heterodimer cells to increase the activation of Gαs protein, compared to the cells that express GHSR1a. Stimulation of GHSR1a/OX1R heterodimers with orexin-A did not alter GPCR interactions with Gα protein subunits. GHSR1a/OX1R heterodimers induced Gαs and downstream signaling pathway activity, including increase of cAMP-response element luciferase reporter activity and cAMP levels. In addition, ghrelin induced a higher proliferation rate in SH-SY5Y cells than in controls. This suggests that ghrelin GHSR1a/OX1R heterodimers promotes an upregulation of a Gαs-cAMP-cAMP-responsive element signaling pathway in vitro and an increase in neuroblastoma cell proliferation.

Oligomerization of a G protein-coupled receptor in neurons controlled by its structural dynamics

G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) play essential roles in intercellular communication. Although reported two decades ago, the assembly of GPCRs into dimer and larger oligomers in their native environment is still a matter of intense debate. Here, using number and brightness analysis of fluorescently labeled receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons, we confirm that the metabotropic glutamate receptor type 2 (mGlu₂) is a homodimer at expression levels in the physiological range, while heterodimeric GABA_B receptors form larger complexes. Surprisingly, we observed the formation of larger mGlu₂ oligomers upon both activation and inhibition of the receptor. Stabilizing the receptor in its inactive conformation using biochemical constraints also led to the observation of oligomers. Following our recent observation that mGlu receptors are in constant and rapid equilibrium between several states under basal conditions, we propose that this structural heterogeneity limits receptor oligomerization. Such assemblies are expected to stabilize either the active or the inactive state of the receptor.

GPCRs and Signal Transducers: Interaction Stoichiometry

Until the late 1990s, class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) were believed to function as monomers. Indirect evidence that they might internalize or even signal as dimers has emerged, along with proof that class C GPCRs are obligatory dimers. Crystal structures of GPCRs and their much larger binding partners were consistent with the idea that two receptors might engage a single G protein, GRK, or arrestin. However, recent biophysical, biochemical, and structural evidence invariably suggests that a single GPCR binds G proteins, GRKs, and arrestins. Here we review existing evidence of the stoichiometry of GPCR interactions with signal transducers and discuss potential biological roles of class A GPCR oligomers, including proposed homo- and heterodimers.

Receptor-Receptor Interactions of G Protein-Coupled Receptors in the Carotid Body: A Working Hypothesis

In the carotid body (CB), a wide series of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have been identified. They are mainly produced and released by type I cells and act on many different ionotropic and metabotropic receptors located in afferent nerve fibers, type I and II cells. Most metabotropic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In other transfected or native cells, GPCRs have been demonstrated to establish physical receptor–receptor interactions (RRIs) with formation of homo/hetero-complexes (dimers or receptor mosaics) in a dynamic monomer/oligomer equilibrium. RRIs modulate ligand binding, signaling, and internalization of GPCR protomers and they are considered of relevance for physiology, pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous system. We hypothesize that RRI may also occur in the different structural elements of the CB (type I cells, type II cells, and afferent fibers), with potential implications in chemoreception, neuromodulation, and tissue plasticity. This ‘working hypothesis’ is supported by literature data reporting the contemporary expression, in type I cells, type II cells, or afferent terminals, of GPCRs which are able to physically interact with each other to form homo/hetero-complexes. Functional data about cross-talks in the CB between different neurotransmitters/neuromodulators also support the hypothesis. On the basis of the above findings, the most significant homo/hetero-complexes which could be postulated in the CB include receptors for dopamine, adenosine, ATP, opioids, histamine, serotonin, endothelin, galanin, GABA, cannabinoids, angiotensin, neurotensin, and melatonin. From a methodological point of view, future studies should demonstrate the colocalization in close proximity (less than 10 nm) of the above receptors, through biophysical (i.e., bioluminescence/fluorescence resonance energy transfer, protein-fragment complementation assay, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and photoactivated localization microscopy, X-ray crystallography) or biochemical (co-immunoprecipitation, in situ proximity ligation assay) methods. Moreover, functional approaches will be able to show if ligand binding to one receptor produces changes in the biochemical characteristics (ligand recognition, decoding, and trafficking processes) of the other(s). Plasticity aspects would be also of interest, as development and environmental stimuli (chronic continuous or intermittent hypoxia) produce changes in the expression of certain receptors which could potentially invest the dynamic monomer/oligomer equilibrium of homo/hetero-complexes and the correlated functional implications.

Dynamic tuneable G protein-coupled receptor monomer-dimer populations

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest class of membrane receptors, playing a key role in the regulation of processes as varied as neurotransmission and immune response. Evidence for GPCR oligomerisation has been accumulating that challenges the idea that GPCRs function solely as monomeric receptors; however, GPCR oligomerisation remains controversial primarily due to the difficulties in comparing evidence from very different types of structural and dynamic data. Using a combination of single-molecule and ensemble FRET, double electron–electron resonance spectroscopy, and simulations, we show that dimerisation of the GPCR neurotensin receptor 1 is regulated by receptor density and is dynamically tuneable over the physiological range. We propose a “rolling dimer” interface model in which multiple dimer conformations co-exist and interconvert. These findings unite previous seemingly conflicting observations, provide a compelling mechanism for regulating receptor signalling, and act as a guide for future physiological studies.

Evidence suggests oligomerisation of G protein-coupled receptors in membranes, but this is controversial. Here, authors use single-molecule and ensemble FRET, and spectroscopy to show that the neurotensin receptor 1 forms multiple dimer conformations that interconvert - “rolling” interfaces.

G protein-coupled receptor-receptor interactions give integrative dynamics to intercellular communication

The proposal of receptor-receptor interactions (RRIs) in the early 1980s broadened the view on the role of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) in the dynamics of the intercellular communication. RRIs, indeed, allow GPCR to operate not only as monomers but also as receptor complexes, in which the integration of the incoming signals depends on the number, spatial arrangement, and order of activation of the protomers forming the complex. The main biochemical mechanisms controlling the functional interplay of GPCR in the receptor complexes are direct allosteric interactions between protomer domains. The formation of these macromolecular assemblies has several physiologic implications in terms of the modulation of the signaling pathways and interaction with other membrane proteins. It also impacts on the emerging field of connectomics, as it contributes to set and tune the synaptic strength. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that the transfer of GPCR and GPCR complexes between cells via the exosome pathway could enable the target cells to recognize/decode transmitters and/or modulators for which they did not express the pertinent receptors. Thus, this process may also open the possibility of a new type of redeployment of neural circuits. The fundamental aspects of GPCR complex formation and function are the focus of the present review article.

Repeated Clozapine Increases the Level of Serotonin 5-HT1AR Heterodimerization with 5-HT2A or Dopamine D2 Receptors in the Mouse Cortex

G-protein–coupled receptor (GPCR) heterodimers are new targets for the treatment of schizophrenia. Dopamine D₂ receptors and serotonin 5-HT_1A and 5-HT_2A receptors play an important role in neurotransmission and have been implicated in many human psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether antipsychotic drugs (clozapine (CLZ) and haloperidol (HAL)) affected the formation of heterodimers of D₂–5-HT_1A receptors as well as 5-HT_1A–5-HT_2A receptors. Proximity ligation assay (PLA) was used to accurately visualize, for the first time, GPCR heterodimers both at in vitro and ex vivo levels. In line with our previous behavioral studies, we used ketamine to induce cognitive deficits in mice. Our study confirmed the co-localization of D₂/5-HT_1A and 5-HT_1A/5-HT_2A receptors in the mouse cortex. Low-dose CLZ (0.3 mg/kg) administered repeatedly, but not CLZ at 1 mg/kg, increased the level of D₂–5-HT_1A and 5-HT_1A–5-HT_2A heterodimers in the mouse prefrontal and frontal cortex. On the other hand, HAL decreased the level of GPCR heterodimers. Ketamine affected the formation of 5-HT_1A–5-HT_2A, but not D₂–5-HT_1A, heterodimers.

Single-Molecule Analysis of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Stoichiometry: Approaches and Limitations

How G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are organized at the cell surface remains highly contentious. Single-molecule (SM) imaging is starting to inform this debate as receptor behavior can now be visualized directly, without the need for interpreting ensemble data. The limited number of SM studies of GPCRs undertaken to date have strongly suggested that dimerization is at most transient, and that most receptors are monomeric at any given time. However, even SM data has its caveats and needs to be interpreted carefully. Here, we discuss the types of SM imaging strategies used to examine GPCR stoichiometry and consider some of these caveats. We also emphasize that attempts to resolve the debate ought to rely on orthogonal approaches to measuring receptor stoichiometry.

Receptor Quaternary Organization Explains G Protein-Coupled Receptor Family Structure

The organization of Rhodopsin-family G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) at the cell surface is controversial. Support both for and against the existence of dimers has been obtained in studies of mostly individual receptors. Here, we use a large-scale comparative study to examine the stoichiometric signatures of 60 receptors expressed by a single human cell line. Using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer- and single-molecule microscopy-based assays, we found that a relatively small fraction of Rhodopsin-family GPCRs behaved as dimers and that these receptors otherwise appear to be monomeric. Overall, the analysis predicted that fewer than 20% of ∼700 Rhodopsin-family receptors form dimers. The clustered distribution of the dimers in our sample and a striking correlation between receptor organization and GPCR family size that we also uncover each suggest that receptor stoichiometry might have profoundly influenced GPCR expansion and diversification.

Allosteric control of an asymmetric transduction in a G protein-coupled receptor heterodimer

GPCRs play critical roles in cell communication. Although GPCRs can form heteromers, their role in signaling remains elusive. Here we used rat metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors as prototypical dimers to study the functional interaction between each subunit. mGluRs can form both constitutive homo- and heterodimers. Whereas both mGlu2 and mGlu4 couple to G proteins, G protein activation is mediated by mGlu4 heptahelical domain (HD) exclusively in mGlu2-4 heterodimers. Such asymmetric transduction results from the action of both the dimeric extracellular domain, and an allosteric activation by the partially-activated non-functional mGlu2 HD. G proteins activation by mGlu2 HD occurs if either the mGlu2 HD is occupied by a positive allosteric modulator or if mGlu4 HD is inhibited by a negative modulator. These data revealed an oriented asymmetry in mGlu heterodimers that can be controlled with allosteric modulators. They provide new insight on the allosteric interaction between subunits in a GPCR dimer.

Agonist-induced dimer dissociation as a macromolecular step in G protein-coupled receptor signaling

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of cell surface receptors. They can exist and act as dimers, but the requirement of dimers for agonist-induced signal initiation and structural dynamics remains largely unknown. Frizzled 6 (FZD₆) is a member of Class F GPCRs, which bind WNT proteins to initiate signaling. Here, we show that FZD₆ dimerizes and that the dimer interface of FZD₆ is formed by the transmembrane α-helices four and five. Most importantly, we present the agonist-induced dissociation/re-association of a GPCR dimer through the use of live cell imaging techniques. Further analysis of a dimerization-impaired FZD₆ mutant indicates that dimer dissociation is an integral part of FZD₆ signaling to extracellular signal-regulated kinases1/2. The discovery of agonist-dependent dynamics of dimers as an intrinsic process of receptor activation extends our understanding of Class F and other dimerizing GPCRs, offering novel targets for dimer-interfering small molecules.

Frizzled 6 (FZD₆) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) involved in several cellular processes. Here, the authors use live cell imaging and spectroscopy to show that FZD₆ forms dimers, whose association is regulated by WNT proteins and that dimer dissociation is crucial for FZD₆ signaling.

Bidirectional allosteric interactions between cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and dopamine receptor 2 long (D2L) heterotetramers

Type 1 cannabinoid (CB₁) and dopamine 2 long form (D_2L) receptors can physically interact to form heteromers that display unique pharmacology in vitro compared to homomeric complexes. Co-expression of CB₁ and D_2L and co-application of CB₁ and D₂ agonists increases cAMP levels while administration of either agonist alone decreases cAMP levels. To understand the observed co-agonist response, our first goal of the current study was to define the stoichiometry of CB₁/D_2L/Gα protein complexes. Using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer 2 (BRET²), we confirmed that, CB₁ homodimers, D_2L homodimers, and CB₁/D_2L heteromers are formed. By using sequential resonance energy transfer 2 (SRET²) combined with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC), we were able to demonstrate that CB₁/D_2L form heterotetramers consisting of CB₁ and D_2L homodimers. We demonstrated that CB₁/D_2L heterotetramers are coupled to at least two Gα proteins. The second aim of the study was to investigate allosteric effects of a D_2L agonist (quinpirole) on CB₁ receptor function and to investigate the effects of a CB₁ agonist [arachidonyl-2-chloroethylamide (ACEA)] on D_2L receptor function within CB₁/D_2L heterotetramers. Treating cells co-expressing CB₁ and D_2L with both ACEA and quinpirole switched CB₁ and D_2L receptor coupling and signaling from Gα_i to Gα_s proteins, enhanced β-arrestin1 recruitment and receptor co-internalization. The concept of bidirectional allosteric interaction within CB₁/D₂ heterotetramers has important implications for understanding the activity of receptor complexes in native tissues and under pathological conditions.

Pharmacological evidence for a metabotropic glutamate receptor heterodimer in neuronal cells

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are mandatory dimers playing important roles in regulating CNS function. Although assumed to form exclusive homodimers, 16 possible heterodimeric mGluRs have been proposed but their existence in native cells remains elusive. Here, we set up two assays to specifically identify the pharmacological properties of rat mGlu heterodimers composed of mGlu2 and 4 subunits. We used either a heterodimer-specific conformational LRET-based biosensor or a system that guarantees the cell surface targeting of the heterodimer only. We identified mGlu2-4 specific pharmacological fingerprints that were also observed in a neuronal cell line and in lateral perforant path terminals naturally expressing mGlu2 and mGlu4. These results bring strong evidence for the existence of mGlu2-4 heterodimers in native cells. In addition to reporting a general approach to characterize heterodimeric mGluRs, our study opens new avenues to understanding the pathophysiological roles of mGlu heterodimers.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25233.001

Conformational biosensors reveal allosteric interactions between heterodimeric AT1 angiotensin and prostaglandin F2α receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are conformationally dynamic proteins transmitting ligand-encoded signals in multiple ways. This transmission is highly complex and achieved through induction of distinct GPCR conformations, which preferentially drive specific receptor-mediated signaling events. This conformational capacity can be further enlarged via allosteric effects between dimers, warranting further study of these effects. Using GPCR conformation-sensitive biosensors, we investigated allosterically induced conformational changes in the recently reported F prostanoid (FP)/angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) heterodimer. Ligand occupancy of the AT1R induced distinct conformational changes in FP compared with those driven by PGF2α in bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET)-based FP biosensors engineered with Renilla luciferase (RLuc) as an energy donor in the C-tail and fluorescein arsenical hairpin binder (FlAsH)-labeled acceptors at different positions in the intracellular loops. We also found that this allosteric communication is mediated through Gα_q and may also involve proximal (phospholipase C) but not distal (protein kinase C) signaling partners. Interestingly, β-arrestin-biased AT1R agonists could also transmit a Gα_q-dependent signal to FP without activation of downstream Gα_q signaling. This transmission of information was specific to the AT1R/FP complex, as activation of Gα_q by the oxytocin receptor did not recapitulate the same phenomenon. Finally, information flow was asymmetric in the sense that FP activation had negligible effects on AT1R-based conformational biosensors. The identification of partner-induced GPCR conformations may help identify novel allosteric effects when investigating multiprotein receptor signaling complexes.

Hallucinogens and Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptor-Mediated Signaling Pathways

The neuropsychological effects of naturally occurring psychoactive chemicals have been recognized for millennia. Hallucinogens, which include naturally occurring chemicals such as mescaline and psilocybin, as well as synthetic compounds, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), induce profound alterations of human consciousness, emotion, and cognition. The discovery of the hallucinogenic effects of LSD and the observations that LSD and the endogenous ligand serotonin share chemical and pharmacological profiles led to the suggestion that biogenic amines like serotonin were involved in the psychosis of mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Although they bind other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) subtypes, studies indicate that several effects of hallucinogens involve agonist activity at the serotonin 5-HT_2A receptor. In this chapter, we review recent advances in understanding hallucinogen drug action through characterization of structure, neuroanatomical location, and function of the 5-HT_2A receptor.

Contribution of heteromerization to G protein-coupled receptor function

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a remarkably multifaceted family of transmembrane proteins that exert a variety of physiological effects. Although family A GPCRs are able to operate as monomers, there is increasing evidence that heteromerization represents a fundamental aspect of receptor function, trafficking and pharmacology. Most recently, it has been suggested that GPCR heteromers may play a crucial role as new molecular targets of heteromer-selective and bivalent ligands. The current review summarizes key recent developments in these topics.

Mechanism of Assembly and Cooperativity of Homomeric and Heteromeric Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate cellular responses to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. GPCR dimerization may expand signaling diversity and tune functionality, but little is known about the mechanisms of subunit assembly and interaction or the signaling properties of heteromers. Using single-molecule subunit counting on class C metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), we map dimerization determinants and define a heterodimerization profile. Intersubunit fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements reveal that interactions between ligand-binding domains control the conformational rearrangements underlying receptor activation. Selective liganding with photoswitchable tethered agonists conjugated to one or both subunits of covalently linked mGluR2 homodimers reveals that receptor activation is highly cooperative. Strikingly, this cooperativity is asymmetric in mGluR2/mGluR3 heterodimers. Our results lead to a model of cooperative activation of mGluRs that provides a framework for understanding how class C GPCRs couple extracellular binding to dimer reorganization and G protein activation.

Quaternary structures of opsin in live cells revealed by FRET spectrometry

Rhodopsin is a prototypical G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that initiates phototransduction in the retina. The receptor consists of the apoprotein opsin covalently linked to the inverse agonist 11-cis retinal. Rhodopsin and opsin have been shown to form oligomers within the outer segment disc membranes of rod photoreceptor cells. However, the physiological relevance of the observed oligomers has been questioned since observations were made on samples prepared from the retina at low temperatures. To investigate the oligomeric status of opsin in live cells at body temperatures, we utilized a novel approach called Förster resonance energy transfer spectrometry, which previously has allowed the determination of the stoichiometry and geometry (i.e. quaternary structure) of various GPCRs. In the current study, we have extended the method to additionally determine whether or not a mixture of oligomeric forms of opsin exists and in what proportion. The application of this improved method revealed that opsin expressed in live Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells at 37°C exists as oligomers of various sizes. At lower concentrations, opsin existed in an equilibrium of dimers and tetramers. The tetramers were in the shape of a near-rhombus. At higher concentrations of the receptor, higher-order oligomers began to form. Thus, a mixture of different oligomeric forms of opsin is present in the membrane of live CHO cells and oligomerization occurs in a concentration-dependent manner. The general principles underlying the concentration-dependent oligomerization of opsin may be universal and apply to other GPCRs as well.

Protease-activated receptors in hemostasis

Protease signaling in cells elicits multiple physiologically important responses via protease-activated receptors (PARs). There are 4 members of this family of G-protein-coupled receptors (PAR1-4). PARs are activated by proteolysis of the N terminus to reveal a tethered ligand. The rate-limiting step of PAR signaling is determined by the efficiency of proteolysis of the N terminus, which is regulated by allosteric binding sites, cofactors, membrane localization, and receptor dimerization. This ultimately controls the initiation of PAR signaling. In addition, these factors also control the cellular response by directing signaling toward G-protein or β-arrestin pathways. PAR1 signaling on endothelial cells is controlled by the activating protease and heterodimerization with PAR2 or PAR3. As a consequence, the genetic and epigenetic control of PARs and their cofactors in physiologic and pathophysiologic conditions have the potential to influence cellular behavior. Recent studies have uncovered polymorphisms that result in PAR4 sequence variants with altered reactivity that interact to influence platelet response. This further demonstrates how interactions within the plasma membrane can control the physiological output. Understanding the structural rearrangement following PAR activation and how PARs are allosterically controlled within the plasma membrane will determine how best to target this family of receptors therapeutically. The purpose of this article is to review how signaling from PARs is influenced by alternative cleavage sites and the physical interactions within the membrane. Going forward, it will be important to relate the altered signaling to the molecular arrangement of PARs in the cell membrane and to determine how these may be influenced genetically.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Responses Require Actions of the Melanocortin-2 Receptor Accessory Protein on the Extracellular Surface of the Plasma Membrane

The melanocortin-2 (MC2) receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor that mediates responses to ACTH. The MC2 receptor acts in concert with the MC2 receptor accessory protein (MRAP) that is absolutely required for ACTH binding and signaling. MRAP has a single transmembrane domain and forms a highly unusual antiparallel homodimer that is stably associated with MC2 receptors at the plasma membrane. Despite the physiological importance of the interaction between the MC2 receptor and MRAP, there is little understanding of how the accessory protein works. The dual topology of MRAP has made it impossible to determine whether highly conserved and necessary regions of MRAP are required on the intracellular or extracellular face of the plasma membrane. The strategy used here was to fix the orientation of two antiparallel MRAP molecules and then introduce inactivating mutations on one side of the membrane or the other. This was achieved by engineering proteins containing tandem copies of MRAP fused to the amino terminus of the MC2 receptor. The data firmly establish that only the extracellular amino terminus (Nout) copy of MRAP, oriented with critical segments on the extracellular side of the membrane, is essential. The transmembrane domain of MRAP is also required in only the Nout orientation. Finally, activity of MRAP-MRAP-MC2-receptor fusion proteins with inactivating mutations in either MRAP or the receptor was rescued by co-expression of free wild-type MRAP or free wild-type receptor. These results show that the basic MRAP-MRAP-receptor signaling unit forms higher order complexes and that these multimers signal.

Opioid receptors: Structural and mechanistic insights into pharmacology and signaling

Opioid receptors are important drug targets for pain management, addiction, and mood disorders. Although substantial research on these important subtypes of G protein-coupled receptors has been conducted over the past two decades to discover ligands with higher specificity and diminished side effects, currently used opioid therapeutics remain suboptimal. Luckily, recent advances in structural biology of opioid receptors provide unprecedented insights into opioid receptor pharmacology and signaling. We review here a few recent studies that have used the crystal structures of opioid receptors as a basis for revealing mechanistic details of signal transduction mediated by these receptors, and for the purpose of drug discovery.

Single-molecule analyses of fully functional fluorescent protein-tagged follitropin receptor reveal homodimerization and specific heterodimerization with lutropin receptor

We have previously shown that the carboxyl terminus (cT) of human follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH, follitropin) receptor (FSHR) is clipped before insertion into the plasma membrane. Surprisingly, several different constructs of FSHR fluorescent fusion proteins (FSHR-FPs) failed to traffic to the plasma membrane. Subsequently, we discovered that substituting the extreme cT of luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor (LHR) to create an FSHR-LHRcT chimera has no effect on FSHR functionality. Therefore, we used this approach to create an FSHR-LHRcT-FP fusion. We found this chimeric FSHR-LHRcT-FP was expressed in HEK293 cells at levels similar to reported values for FSHR in human granulosa cells, bound FSH with high affinity, and transduced FSH binding to produce cAMP. Quantitative fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) analysis of FSHR-LHRcT-YFP/FSHR-LHRcT-mCherry pairs revealed an average FRET efficiency of 12.9 ± 5.7. Advanced methods in single-molecule analyses were applied in order to ascertain the oligomerization state of the FSHR-LHRcT. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy coupled with photon-counting histogram analyses demonstrated that the FSHR-LHRcT-FP fusion protein exists as a freely diffusing homodimer in the plasma membrane. A central question is whether LHR could oligomerize with FSHR, because both receptors are coexpressed in differentiated granulosa cells. Indeed, FRET analysis revealed an average FRET efficiency of 14.4 ± 7.5 when the FSHR-LHR cT-mCherry was coexpressed with LHR-YFP. In contrast, coexpression of a 5-HT2cVSV-YFP with FSHR-LHR cT-mCherry showed only 5.6 ± 3.2 average FRET efficiency, a value indistinguishable from the detection limit using intensity-based FRET methods. These data demonstrate that coexpression of FSHR and LHR can lead to heterodimerization, and we hypothesize that it is possible for this to occur during granulosa cell differentiation.

Angiotensin II type I and prostaglandin F2α receptors cooperatively modulate signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells

The angiotensin II type I (AT1R) and the prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) F prostanoid (FP) receptors are both potent regulators of blood pressure. Physiological interplay between AT1R and FP has been described. Abdominal aortic ring contraction experiments revealed that PGF2α-dependent activation of FP potentiated angiotensin II-induced contraction, whereas FP antagonists had the opposite effect. Similarly, PGF2α-mediated vasoconstriction was symmetrically regulated by co-treatment with AT1R agonist and antagonist. The underlying canonical Gαq signaling via production of inositol phosphates mediated by each receptor was also regulated by antagonists for the other receptor. However, binding to their respective agonists, regulation of receptor-mediated MAPK activation and vascular smooth muscle cell growth were differentially or asymmetrically regulated depending on how each of the two receptors were occupied by either agonist or antagonist. Physical interactions between these receptors have never been reported, and here we show that AT1R and FP form heterodimeric complexes in both HEK 293 and vascular smooth muscle cells. These findings imply that formation of the AT1R/FP dimer creates a novel allosteric signaling unit that shows symmetrical and asymmetrical signaling behavior, depending on the outcome measured. AT1R/FP dimers may thus be important in the regulation of blood pressure.

G-protein-coupled receptor type A heteromers as an emerging therapeutic target

INTRODUCTION

The discovery of receptor-receptor interactions (RRIs) in the early 1980s provided evidence that G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) operate not only as monomers but also as heteromers, in which integration of the incoming signals takes place already at the plasma membrane level through allosteric RRIs. These integrative mechanisms give sophisticated dynamics to the structure and function of these receptor assemblies in terms of modulation of recognition, G-protein signaling and selectivity and switching to β-arrestin signaling.

AREAS COVERED

The present review briefly describes the concept of direct RRI and the available data on the mechanisms of oligomer formation. Further, pharmacological data concerning the best characterized heteromers involving type A GPCRs will be analyzed to evaluate their profile as possible targets for the treatment of various diseases, in particular of impacting diseases of the CNS.

EXPERT OPINION

GPCR heteromers have the potential to open a completely new field for pharmacology with likely a major impact in molecular medicine. Novel pharmacological strategies for the treatment of several pathologies have already been proposed. However, several challenges still exist to accurately characterize the role of the identified heteroreceptor complexes in pathology and to develop heteromer-specific ligands capable of efficiently exploiting their pharmacological features.