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Shpakov AO. Allosteric Regulation of G-Protein-Coupled Receptors: From Diversity of Molecular Mechanisms to Multiple Allosteric Sites and Their Ligands. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:6187. [PMID: 37047169 PMCID: PMC10094638 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Allosteric regulation is critical for the functioning of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and their signaling pathways. Endogenous allosteric regulators of GPCRs are simple ions, various biomolecules, and protein components of GPCR signaling (G proteins and β-arrestins). The stability and functional activity of GPCR complexes is also due to multicenter allosteric interactions between protomers. The complexity of allosteric effects caused by numerous regulators differing in structure, availability, and mechanisms of action predetermines the multiplicity and different topology of allosteric sites in GPCRs. These sites can be localized in extracellular loops; inside the transmembrane tunnel and in its upper and lower vestibules; in cytoplasmic loops; and on the outer, membrane-contacting surface of the transmembrane domain. They are involved in the regulation of basal and orthosteric agonist-stimulated receptor activity, biased agonism, GPCR-complex formation, and endocytosis. They are targets for a large number of synthetic allosteric regulators and modulators, including those constructed using molecular docking. The review is devoted to the principles and mechanisms of GPCRs allosteric regulation, the multiplicity of allosteric sites and their topology, and the endogenous and synthetic allosteric regulators, including autoantibodies and pepducins. The allosteric regulation of chemokine receptors, proteinase-activated receptors, thyroid-stimulating and luteinizing hormone receptors, and beta-adrenergic receptors are described in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander O Shpakov
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 194223 St. Petersburg, Russia
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Karin N. Chemokines in the Landscape of Cancer Immunotherapy: How They and Their Receptors Can Be Used to Turn Cold Tumors into Hot Ones? Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:6317. [PMID: 34944943 PMCID: PMC8699256 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, monoclonal antibodies to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), also known as immune checkpoint blockers (ICB), have been the most successful approach for cancer therapy. Starting with mAb to cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) inhibitors in metastatic melanoma and continuing with blockers of the interactions between program cell death 1 (PD-1) and its ligand program cell death ligand 1 (PDL-1) or program cell death ligand 2 (PDL-2), that have been approved for about 20 different indications. Yet for many cancers, ICI shows limited success. Several lines of evidence imply that the limited success in cancer immunotherapy is associated with attempts to treat patients with "cold tumors" that either lack effector T cells, or in which these cells are markedly suppressed by regulatory T cells (Tregs). Chemokines are a well-defined group of proteins that were so named due to their chemotactic properties. The current review focuses on key chemokines that not only attract leukocytes but also shape their biological properties. CXCR3 is a chemokine receptor with 3 ligands. We suggest using Ig-based fusion proteins of two of them: CXL9 and CXCL10, to enhance anti-tumor immunity and perhaps transform cold tumors into hot tumors. Potential differences between CXCL9 and CXCL10 regarding ICI are discussed. We also discuss the possibility of targeting the function or deleting a key subset of Tregs that are CCR8+ by monoclonal antibodies to CCR8. These cells are preferentially abundant in several tumors and are likely to be the key drivers in suppressing anti-cancer immune reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Karin
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Technion, P.O. Box 9697, Haifa 31096, Israel
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Eiger DS, Boldizsar N, Honeycutt CC, Gardner J, Rajagopal S. Biased agonism at chemokine receptors. Cell Signal 2020; 78:109862. [PMID: 33249087 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2020.109862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the human chemokine system, interactions between the approximately 50 known endogenous chemokine ligands and 20 known chemokine receptors (CKRs) regulate a wide range of cellular functions and biological processes including immune cell activation and homeostasis, development, angiogenesis, and neuromodulation. CKRs are a family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), which represent the most common and versatile class of receptors in the human genome and the targets of approximately one third of all Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs. Chemokines and CKRs bind with significant promiscuity, as most CKRs can be activated by multiple chemokines and most chemokines can activate multiple CKRs. While these ligand-receptor interactions were previously regarded as redundant, it is now appreciated that many chemokine:CKR interactions display biased agonism, the phenomenon in which different ligands binding to the same receptor signal through different pathways with different efficacies, leading to distinct biological effects. Notably, these biased responses can be modulated through changes in ligand, receptor, and or the specific cellular context (system). In this review, we explore the biochemical mechanisms, functional consequences, and therapeutic potential of biased agonism in the chemokine system. An enhanced understanding of biased agonism in the chemokine system may prove transformative in the understanding of the mechanisms and consequences of biased signaling across all GPCR subtypes and aid in the development of biased pharmaceuticals with increased therapeutic efficacy and safer side effect profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Noelia Boldizsar
- Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
| | | | - Julia Gardner
- Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
| | - Sudarshan Rajagopal
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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Batchelor LK, De Falco L, Erlach T, Sharma D, Adhireksan Z, Roethlisberger U, Davey CA, Dyson PJ. Crosslinking Allosteric Sites on the Nucleosome. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201906423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Louis De Falco
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Thibaud Erlach
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Deepti Sharma
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Zenita Adhireksan
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | | | - Curt A. Davey
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Paul J. Dyson
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Lausanne Switzerland
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Kundu N, Ma X, Brox R, Fan X, Kochel T, Reader J, Tschammer N, Fulton A. The Chemokine Receptor CXCR3 Isoform B Drives Breast Cancer Stem Cells. BREAST CANCER-BASIC AND CLINICAL RESEARCH 2019; 13:1178223419873628. [PMID: 31619923 PMCID: PMC6777055 DOI: 10.1177/1178223419873628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
We are seeking to identify molecular targets that are relevant to breast cancer
cells with stem-like properties. There is growing evidence that cancer stem
cells (CSCs) are supported by inflammatory mediators expressed in the tumor
microenvironment. The chemokine receptor CXCR3 binds the interferon-γ-inducible,
ELR-negative CXC chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 and malignant cells have
co-opted this receptor to promote tumor cell migration and invasion. There are 2
major isoforms of CXCR3: CXCR3A and CXCR3B. The latter is generated from
alternative splicing and results in a protein with a longer N-terminal domain.
CXCR3 isoform A is generally considered to play a major role in tumor
metastasis. When the entire tumor cell population is examined, CXCR3 isoform B
is usually detected at much lower levels than CXCR3A and for this, and other
reasons, was not considered to drive tumor progression. We have shown that
CXCR3B is significantly upregulated in the subpopulation of breast CSCs in
comparison with the bulk tumor cell population in 3 independent breast cancer
cell lines (MDA-MB-231, SUM159, and T47D). Modulation of CXCR3B levels by knock
in strategies increases CSC populations identified by aldehyde dehydrogenase
activity or CD44+CD24− phenotype as well as
tumorsphere-forming capacity. The reverse is seen when CXCR3B is gene-silenced.
CXCL11 and CXCL10 directly induce CSC. We also report that novel CXCR3
allosteric modulators BD064 and BD103 prevent the induction of CSCs. BD103
inhibited experimental metastasis. This protective effect is associated with the
reversal of CXCR3 ligand-mediated activation of STAT3, ERK1/2, CREB, and NOTCH1
pathways. We propose that CXCR3B, expressed on CSC, should be explored further
as a novel therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namita Kundu
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Xinrong Ma
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Regine Brox
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nurnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Xiaoxuan Fan
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Tyler Kochel
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jocelyn Reader
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nuska Tschammer
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nurnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Amy Fulton
- University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Batchelor LK, De Falco L, Erlach T, Sharma D, Adhireksan Z, Roethlisberger U, Davey CA, Dyson PJ. Crosslinking Allosteric Sites on the Nucleosome. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:15660-15664. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201906423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Louis De Falco
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Thibaud Erlach
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Deepti Sharma
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Zenita Adhireksan
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | | | - Curt A. Davey
- School of Biological Sciences & NTU Institute of Structural Biology Nanyang Technological University (NTU) Singapore Singapore
| | - Paul J. Dyson
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Lausanne Switzerland
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Wold EA, Chen J, Cunningham KA, Zhou J. Allosteric Modulation of Class A GPCRs: Targets, Agents, and Emerging Concepts. J Med Chem 2019; 62:88-127. [PMID: 30106578 PMCID: PMC6556150 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been tractable drug targets for decades with over one-third of currently marketed drugs targeting GPCRs. Of these, the class A GPCR superfamily is highly represented, and continued drug discovery for this family of receptors may provide novel therapeutics for a vast range of diseases. GPCR allosteric modulation is an innovative targeting approach that broadens the available small molecule toolbox and is proving to be a viable drug discovery strategy, as evidenced by recent FDA approvals and clinical trials. Numerous class A GPCR allosteric modulators have been discovered recently, and emerging trends such as the availability of GPCR crystal structures, diverse functional assays, and structure-based computational approaches are improving optimization and development. This Perspective provides an update on allosterically targeted class A GPCRs and their disease indications and the medicinal chemistry approaches toward novel allosteric modulators and highlights emerging trends and opportunities in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric A. Wold
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chemical Biology Program, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Addiction Research, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Jianping Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chemical Biology Program, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Addiction Research, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Kathryn A. Cunningham
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chemical Biology Program, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Addiction Research, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Jia Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chemical Biology Program, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Addiction Research, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
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