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van Zadelhoff G, van der Stelt M. Oxygenation of Anandamide by Lipoxygenases. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2576:307-316. [PMID: 36152198 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2728-0_26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are not only metabolized by serine hydrolases, such as fatty acid amide hydrolase, monoacylglycerol lipase, and α,β-hydrolases 6 and 12, but they also serve as substrates for cyclooxygenases, cytochrome P450s, and lipoxygenases. These enzymes oxygenate the 1Z,4Z-pentadiene system of the arachidonic acid backbone of endocannabinoids, thereby giving rise to an entirely new array of bioactive lipids. Hereby, a protocol is provided for the enzymatic synthesis, purification, and characterization of various oxygenated metabolites of anandamide generated by lipoxygenases, which enables the biological study and detection of these metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guus van Zadelhoff
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mario van der Stelt
- Department Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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2
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Mock ED, Gagestein B, van der Stelt M. Anandamide and other N-acylethanolamines: A class of signaling lipids with therapeutic opportunities. Prog Lipid Res 2023; 89:101194. [PMID: 36150527 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2022.101194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
N-acylethanolamines (NAEs), including N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA), N-oleoylethanolamine (OEA), N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA, anandamide), N-docosahexaenoylethanolamine (DHEA, synaptamide) and their oxygenated metabolites are a lipid messenger family with numerous functions in health and disease, including inflammation, anxiety and energy metabolism. The NAEs exert their signaling role through activation of various G protein-coupled receptors (cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, GPR55, GPR110, GPR119), ion channels (TRPV1) and nuclear receptors (PPAR-α and PPAR-γ) in the brain and periphery. The biological role of the oxygenated NAEs, such as prostamides, hydroxylated anandamide and DHEA derivatives, are less studied. Evidence is accumulating that NAEs and their oxidative metabolites may be aberrantly regulated or are associated with disease severity in obesity, metabolic syndrome, cancer, neuroinflammation and liver cirrhosis. Here, we comprehensively review NAE biosynthesis and degradation, their metabolism by lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases and cytochrome P450s and the biological functions of these signaling lipids. We discuss the latest findings and therapeutic potential of modulating endogenous NAE levels by inhibition of their degradation, which is currently under clinical evaluation for neuropsychiatric disorders. We also highlight NAE biosynthesis inhibition as an emerging topic with therapeutic opportunities in endocannabinoid and NAE signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot D Mock
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University and Oncode Institute, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden 2333 CC, The Netherlands
| | - Berend Gagestein
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University and Oncode Institute, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden 2333 CC, The Netherlands
| | - Mario van der Stelt
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University and Oncode Institute, Einsteinweg 55, Leiden 2333 CC, The Netherlands.
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3
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Simard M, Archambault AS, Lavoie JPC, Dumais É, Di Marzo V, Flamand N. Biosynthesis and metabolism of endocannabinoids and their congeners from the monoacylglycerol andN-acyl-ethanolamine families. Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 205:115261. [PMID: 36152677 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (AEA) are eicosanoids implicated in numerous physiological processes like appetite, adipogenesis, inflammatory pain and inflammation. They mediate most of their physiological effect by activating the cannabinoid (CB) receptors 1 and 2. Other than directly binding to the CB receptors, 2-AG and AEA are also metabolized by most eicosanoid biosynthetic enzymes, yielding many metabolites that are part of the oxyendocannabinoidome. Some of these metabolites have been found in vivo, have the ability to modulate specific receptors and thus potentially influence physiological processes. In this review, we discuss the biosynthesis and metabolism of 2-AG and AEA, as well as their congeners from the monoacyl-glycerol and N-acyl-ethanolamine families, with a special focus on the metabolism by oxygenases involved in arachidonic acid metabolism. We highlight the knowledge gaps in our understanding of the regulation and roles the oxyendocannabinoidome mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélissa Simard
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Anne-Sophie Archambault
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; Present address: Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia / BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe C Lavoie
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Élizabeth Dumais
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de Nutrition, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; Joint International Unit between the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (Italy) and Université Laval (Canada) on Chemical and Biomolecular Research on the Microbiome and Its Impact on Metabolic Health and Nutrition (UMI-MicroMeNu)
| | - Nicolas Flamand
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département of médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
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4
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Archambault AS, Tinto F, Dumais É, Rakotoarivelo V, Kostrzewa M, Plante PL, Martin C, Simard M, Silvestri C, Pouliot R, Laviolette M, Boulet LP, Vitale RM, Ligresti A, Di Marzo V, Flamand N. Biosynthesis of the Novel Endogenous 15-Lipoxygenase Metabolites N-13-Hydroxy-octodecadienoyl-ethanolamine and 13-Hydroxy-octodecadienoyl-glycerol by Human Neutrophils and Eosinophils. Cells 2021; 10:2322. [PMID: 34571971 PMCID: PMC8470279 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol and N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine are lipids regulating many physiological processes, notably inflammation. Endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitors are now being investigated as potential anti-inflammatory agents. In addition to 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol and N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine, the endocannabinoidome also includes other monoacylglycerols and N-acyl-ethanolamines such as 1-linoleoyl-glycerol (1-LG) and N-linoleoyl-ethanolamine (LEA). By increasing monoacylglycerols and/or N-acyl-ethanolamine levels, endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitors will likely increase the levels of their metabolites. Herein, we investigated whether 1-LG and LEA were substrates for the 15-lipoxygenase pathway, given that both possess a 1Z,4Z-pentadiene motif, near their omega end. We thus assessed how human eosinophils and neutrophils biosynthesized the 15-lipoxygenase metabolites of 1-LG and LEA. Linoleic acid (LA), a well-documented substrate of 15-lipoxygenases, was used as positive control. N-13-hydroxy-octodecadienoyl-ethanolamine (13-HODE-EA) and 13-hydroxy-octodecadienoyl-glycerol (13-HODE-G), the 15-lipoxygenase metabolites of LEA and 1-LG, were synthesized using Novozym 435 and soybean lipoxygenase. Eosinophils, which express the 15-lipoxygenase-1, metabolized LA, 1-LG, and LEA into their 13-hydroxy derivatives. This was almost complete after five minutes. Substrate preference of eosinophils was LA > LEA > 1-LG in presence of 13-HODE-G hydrolysis inhibition with methyl-arachidonoyl-fluorophosphonate. Human neutrophils also metabolized LA, 1-LG, and LEA into their 13-hydroxy derivatives. This was maximal after 15-30 s. Substrate preference was LA ≫ 1-LG > LEA. Importantly, 13-HODE-G was found in humans and mouse tissue samples. In conclusion, our data show that human eosinophils and neutrophils metabolize 1-LG and LEA into the novel endogenous 15-lipoxygenase metabolites 13-HODE-G and 13-HODE-EA. The full biological importance of 13-HODE-G and 13-HODE-EA remains to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Sophie Archambault
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Francesco Tinto
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Élizabeth Dumais
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Volatiana Rakotoarivelo
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Magdalena Kostrzewa
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.K.); (R.M.V.); (A.L.)
| | - Pier-Luc Plante
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de Nutrition, Faculté des Sciences de L’agriculture et de L’alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
| | - Cyril Martin
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Mélissa Simard
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Faculté de Pharmacie de l’Université Laval and Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l’Université Laval/LOEX, Axe Médecine Régénératrice, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
| | - Cristoforo Silvestri
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Roxane Pouliot
- Faculté de Pharmacie de l’Université Laval and Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l’Université Laval/LOEX, Axe Médecine Régénératrice, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
| | - Michel Laviolette
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
| | - Louis-Philippe Boulet
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
| | - Rosa Maria Vitale
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.K.); (R.M.V.); (A.L.)
| | - Alessia Ligresti
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.K.); (R.M.V.); (A.L.)
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy; (M.K.); (R.M.V.); (A.L.)
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de Nutrition, Faculté des Sciences de L’agriculture et de L’alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
- Joint International Unit between the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy
- Canada on Chemical and Biomolecular Research on the Microbiome and Its Impact on Metabolic Health and Nutrition (UMI-MicroMeNu), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Nicolas Flamand
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; (A.-S.A.); (F.T.); (É.D.); (V.R.); (C.M.); (M.S.); (C.S.); (M.L.); (L.-P.B.); (V.D.)
- Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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Biringer RG. Endocannabinoid signaling pathways: beyond CB1R and CB2R. J Cell Commun Signal 2021; 15:335-360. [PMID: 33978927 PMCID: PMC8222499 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-021-00622-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for cannabinoid receptors other than CB1R and CB2R has been ongoing for over a decade. A number of orphan receptors have been proposed as potential cannabinoid receptors primarily based on phylogenic arguments and reactivity towards known endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids. Seven putative cannabinoid receptors are described and discussed, and evidence for and against their inclusion in this category are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Gregory Biringer
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Bradenton, FL, 34211, USA.
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Tinto F, Archambault AS, Dumais É, Rakotoarivelo V, Kostrzewa M, Martin C, Plante PL, Desjardins Y, Simard M, Pouliot R, De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Di Marzo V, Flamand N. Synthesis and molecular targets of N-13-hydroxy-octadienoyl-ethanolamine, a novel endogenous bioactive 15-lipoxygenase-derived metabolite of N-linoleoyl-ethanolamine found in the skin and saliva. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2021; 1866:158954. [PMID: 33915294 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2021.158954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
N-Arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (AEA) is an endocannabinoid (eCB) and endogenous lipid mimicking many of the effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, notably on brain functions, appetite, pain and inflammation. The eCBs and eCB-like compounds contain fatty acids, the main classes being the monoacylglycerols and the N-acyl-ethanolamines (NAEs). Thus, each long chain fatty acid likely exists under the form of a monoacylglycerol and NAE, as it is the case for arachidonic acid (AA) and linoleic acid (LA). Following their biosynthesis, AA and AEA can be further metabolized into additional eicosanoids, notably by the 15-lipoxygenase pathway. Thus, we postulated that NAEs possessing a 1Z,4Z-pentadiene motif, near their omega end, would be transformed into their 15-lipoxygenase metabolites. As a proof of concept, we investigated N-linoleoyl-ethanolamine (LAE). We successfully synthesized LEA and LEA-d4 as well as their 15-lipoxygenase-derived derivatives, namely 13-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoyl-N-ethanolamine (13-HODE-EA) and 13-HODE-EA-d4, using Novozyme 435 immobilized on acrylic resin and soybean lipoxygenase respectively. We also show that both human 15-lipoxygenase-1 and -2 can biosynthesize 13-HODE-EA. Co-incubation of LEA and LA with either human 15-lipoxygenase led to the biosynthesis of 13-HODE-EA and 13-HODE in a ratio equal to or greater than 3:1, indicating that LEA is preferred to LA by these enzymes. Finally, we show that 13-HODE-EA is found in human saliva and skin and is a weak although selective TRPV1 agonist. The full biological importance of 13-HODE-EA remains to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Tinto
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Anne-Sophie Archambault
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Élizabeth Dumais
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Volatiana Rakotoarivelo
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Magdalena Kostrzewa
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Cyril Martin
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Pier-Luc Plante
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de nutrition, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Yves Desjardins
- Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de nutrition, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Mélissa Simard
- Faculté de pharmacie de l'Université Laval, Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Axe médecine régénératrice, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Roxane Pouliot
- Faculté de pharmacie de l'Université Laval, Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l'Université Laval/LOEX, Axe médecine régénératrice, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Luciano De Petrocellis
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Alessia Ligresti
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy; Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Centre NUTRISS, École de nutrition, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada; Joint International Unit between the CNR of Italy and Université Laval on Chemical and Biomolecular Research on the Microbiome and its Impact on Metabolic Health and Nutrition (UMI-MicroMeNu), Italy; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Nicolas Flamand
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 4G5, Canada; Canada Excellence Research Chair on the Microbiome-Endocannabinoidome Axis in Metabolic Health (CERC-MEND), Université Laval, Québec City, Canada.
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7
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The rise and fall of anandamide: processes that control synthesis, degradation, and storage. Mol Cell Biochem 2021; 476:2753-2775. [PMID: 33713246 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04121-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Anandamide is an endocannabinoid derived from arachidonic acid-containing membrane lipids and has numerous biological functions. Its effects are primarily mediated by the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, and the vanilloid TRPV1 receptor. Anandamide is known to be involved in sleeping and eating patterns as well as pleasure enhancement and pain relief. This manuscript provides a review of anandamide synthesis, degradation, and storage and hence the homeostasis of the anandamide signaling system.
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8
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van Egmond N, Straub VM, van der Stelt M. Targeting Endocannabinoid Signaling: FAAH and MAG Lipase Inhibitors. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2020; 61:441-463. [PMID: 32867595 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-030220-112741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Inspired by the medicinal properties of the plant Cannabis sativa and its principal component (-)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), researchers have developed a variety of compounds to modulate the endocannabinoid system in the human brain. Inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), which are the enzymes responsible for the inactivation of the endogenous cannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, respectively, may exert therapeutic effects without inducing the adverse side effects associated with direct cannabinoid CB1 receptor stimulation by THC. Here we review the FAAH and MAGL inhibitors that have reached clinical trials, discuss potential caveats, and provide an outlook on where the field is headed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noëlle van Egmond
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Verena M Straub
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Mario van der Stelt
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands;
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9
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Marbach-Breitrück E, Kutzner L, Rothe M, Gurke R, Schreiber Y, Reddanna P, Schebb NH, Stehling S, Wieler LH, Heydeck D, Kuhn H. Functional Characterization of Knock-In Mice Expressing a 12/15-Lipoxygenating Alox5 Mutant Instead of the 5-Lipoxygenating Wild-Type Enzyme. Antioxid Redox Signal 2020; 32:1-17. [PMID: 31642348 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.7751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Aims: Most mammalian genomes involve several genes encoding for functionally distinct arachidonate lipoxygenase (ALOX isoforms). Proinflammatory leukotrienes are formed via the ALOX5 pathway, but 12/15-lipoxygenating ALOX isoforms have been implicated in the biosynthesis of pro-resolving mediators. In vitro mutagenesis of the triad determinants abolished the leukotriene synthesizing activity of ALOX5, but the biological consequences of these alterations have not been studied. To fill this gap, we created Alox5 knock-in mice, which express the 12/15-lipoxygenating Phe359Trp + Ala424Ile + Asn425Met Alox5 triple mutant and characterized its phenotypic alterations. Results: The mouse Alox5 triple mutant functions as arachidonic acid 15-lipoxygenating enzyme, which also forms 12S-hydroxy and 8S-hydroxy arachidonic acid. In contrast to the wild-type enzyme, the triple mutant effectively oxygenates linoleic acid to 13S-hydroxy linoleic acid (13S-HODE), which functions as activating ligand of the type-2 nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). Knock-in mice expressing the mutant enzyme are viable, fertile, and develop normally. The mice cannot synthesize proinflammatory leukotrienes but show significantly attenuated plasma levels of lipolytic endocannabinoids. When aging, the animals gained significantly more body weight, which may be related to the fivefold higher levels of 13-HODE in the adipose tissue. Innovation: These data indicate for the first time that in vivo mutagenesis of the triad determinants of mouse Alox5 abolished the biosynthetic capacity of the enzyme for proinflammatory leukotrienes and altered the catalytic properties of the protein favoring the formation of 13-HODE. Conclusion:In vivo triple mutation of the mouse Alox5 gene impacts the body weight homeostasis of aging mice via augmented formation of the activating PPARγ ligand 13-HODE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Marbach-Breitrück
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Corporate Member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Kutzner
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
| | | | - Robert Gurke
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt (ZAFES), Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Branch for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (TMP), Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Yannick Schreiber
- Branch for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (TMP), Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Pallu Reddanna
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad India
| | - Nils-Helge Schebb
- Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Sabine Stehling
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Corporate Member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lothar H Wieler
- Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Center of Infection Medicine, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dagmar Heydeck
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Corporate Member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Corporate Member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Archambault AS, Turcotte C, Martin C, Provost V, Larose MC, Laprise C, Chakir J, Bissonnette É, Laviolette M, Bossé Y, Flamand N. Comparison of eight 15-lipoxygenase (LO) inhibitors on the biosynthesis of 15-LO metabolites by human neutrophils and eosinophils. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0202424. [PMID: 30118527 PMCID: PMC6097673 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils and eosinophils are important sources of bioactive lipids from the 5- and the 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. Herein, we compared the effectiveness of humans eosinophils and eosinophil-depleted neutrophils to synthesize 15-LO metabolites using a cocktail of different 15-LO substrates as well as their sensitivities to eight documented 15-lipoxygenase inhibitors. The treatment of neutrophils and eosinophils with linoleic acid, dihomo-γ-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonyl-ethanolamide, led to the synthesis of 13-HODE, 15-HETrE, 15-HETE, 15-HEPE, 14-HDHA/17-HDHA, and 15-hydroxy-AEA. Neutrophils and eosinophils also metabolized the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol into 15-HETE-glycerol, although this required 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol hydrolysis inhibition. Neutrophils and eosinophils differed in regard to dihomo-γ-linolenic acid and linoleic acid utilization with 15-HETrE/13-HODE ratios of 0.014 ± 0.0008 and 0.474 ± 0.114 for neutrophils and eosinophils respectively. 15-LO metabolite synthesis by neutrophils and eosinophils also differed in regard to their relative production of 17-HDHA and 14-HDHA.The synthesis of 15-LO metabolites by neutrophils was concentration-dependent and rapid, reaching a plateau after one minute. While investigating the biosynthetic routes involved, we found that eosinophil-depleted neutrophils express the 15-lipoxygenase-2 but not the 15-LO-1, in contrast to eosinophils which express the 15-LO-1 but not the 15-LO-2. Moreover, 15-LO metabolite synthesis by neutrophils was not inhibited by the 15-LO-1 inhibitors BLX769, BLX3887, and ML351. However, 15-LO product synthesis was partially inhibited by 100 μM NDGA. Altogether, our data indicate that the best 15-LO-1 inhibitors in eosinophils are BLX3887, BLX769, NDGA and ML351 and that the synthesis of 15-LO metabolites by neutrophils does not involve the 15-LO-1 nor the phosphorylation of 5-LO on Ser-663 but is rather the consequence of 15-LO-2 or another unidentified 15-LO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Sophie Archambault
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Caroline Turcotte
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Cyril Martin
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Véronique Provost
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Chantal Larose
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Catherine Laprise
- Centre intégré universitaire de santé et services sociaux du Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, Département de sciences fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC, Canada
| | - Jamila Chakir
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Élyse Bissonnette
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Michel Laviolette
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Ynuk Bossé
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Nicolas Flamand
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Département de médecine, Faculté de médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- * E-mail:
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11
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Sierra S, Luquin N, Navarro-Otano J. The endocannabinoid system in cardiovascular function: novel insights and clinical implications. Clin Auton Res 2017; 28:35-52. [PMID: 29222605 DOI: 10.1007/s10286-017-0488-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cardiovascular disease is now recognized as the number one cause of death in the world, and the size of the population at risk continues to increase rapidly. The dysregulation of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system plays a central role in a wide variety of conditions including cardiovascular disorders. Cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands, as well as enzymes conferring their synthesis and degradation, exhibit overlapping distributions in the cardiovascular system. Furthermore, the pharmacological manipulation of the eCB system has effects on blood pressure, cardiac contractility, and endothelial vasomotor control. Growing evidence from animal studies supports the significance of the eCB system in cardiovascular disorders. OBJECTIVE To summarize the literature surrounding the eCB system in cardiovascular function and disease and the new compounds that may potentially extend the range of available interventions. RESULTS Drugs targeting CB1R, CB2R, TRPV1 and PPARs are proven effective in animal models mimicking cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. Despite the setback of two clinical trials that exhibited unexpected harmful side-effects, preclinical studies are accelerating the development of more selective drugs with promising results devoid of adverse effects. CONCLUSION Over the last years, increasing evidence from basic and clinical research supports the role of the eCB system in cardiovascular function. Whereas new discoveries are paving the way for the identification of novel drugs and therapeutic targets, the close cooperation of researchers, clinicians and pharmaceutical companies is needed to achieve successful outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Sierra
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Molecular Medicine Research Building, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1220 East Broad Street, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA.
| | - Natasha Luquin
- Department of Medical Genomics, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Judith Navarro-Otano
- Neurology Service, Electromyography, Motor Control and Neuropathic Pain Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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12
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Maccarrone M. Metabolism of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide: Open Questions after 25 Years. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:166. [PMID: 28611591 PMCID: PMC5447297 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis extracts have been used for centuries, but its main active principle ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was identified about 50 years ago. Yet, it is only 25 years ago that the first endogenous ligand of the same receptors engaged by the cannabis agents was discovered. This “endocannabinoid (eCB)” was identified as N-arachidonoylethanolamine (or anandamide (AEA)), and was shown to have several receptors, metabolic enzymes and transporters that altogether drive its biological activity. Here I report on the latest advances about AEA metabolism, with the aim of focusing open questions still awaiting an answer for a deeper understanding of AEA activity, and for translating AEA-based drugs into novel therapeutics for human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of RomeRome, Italy.,European Center for Brain Research, IRCCS Santa Lucia FoundationRome, Italy
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13
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Fowler CJ, Doherty P, Alexander SPH. Endocannabinoid Turnover. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2017; 80:31-66. [PMID: 28826539 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we consider the biosynthetic, hydrolytic, and oxidative metabolism of the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol. We describe the enzymes associated with these events and their characterization. We identify the inhibitor profile for these enzymes and the status of therapeutic exploitation, which to date has been limited to clinical trials for fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitors. To bring the review to a close, we consider whether point block of a single enzyme is likely to be the most successful approach for therapeutic exploitation of the endocannabinoid system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Doherty
- Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Disease, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
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14
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Abstract
The endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are not only metabolized by serine hydrolases, such as fatty acid amide hydrolase, monoacylglycerol lipase, and α,β-hydrolases 6 and 12, but they also serve as substrates for cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. These enzymes oxygenate the 1Z,4Z-pentadiene system of the arachidonic acid backbone of endocannabinoids, thereby giving rise to an entirely new array of bioactive lipids. Hereby, a protocol is provided for the enzymatic synthesis, purification, and characterization of various oxygenated metabolites of anandamide generated by lipoxygenases, which enables the biological study and detection of these metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guus van Zadelhoff
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mario van der Stelt
- Department Molecular Physiology, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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15
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Lipidomic Analysis of Endocannabinoid Signaling: Targeted Metabolite Identification and Quantification. Neural Plast 2015; 2016:2426398. [PMID: 26839710 PMCID: PMC4709765 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2426398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoids N-arachidonoylethanolamide (or anandamide, AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) belong to the larger groups of N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and monoacylglycerol (MAG) lipid classes, respectively. They are biologically active lipid molecules that activate G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors found in various organisms. After AEA and 2-AG were discovered in the 1990s, they have been extensively documented to have a broad range of physiological functions. Along with AEA, several NAEs, for example, N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA), N-stearoylethanolamine (SEA), and N-oleoylethanolamine (OEA) are also present in tissues, usually at much larger concentrations than AEA. Any perturbation that involves the endocannabinoid pathway may subsequently alter basal level or metabolism of these lipid mediators. Further, the altered levels of these molecules often reflect pathological conditions associated with tissue damage. Robust and sensitive methodologies to analyze these lipid mediators are essential to understanding how they act as endocannabinoids. The recent advances in mass spectrometry allow researchers to develop lipidomics approaches and several methodologies have been proposed to quantify endocannabinoids in various biological systems.
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16
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Gasperi V, Evangelista D, Savini I, Del Principe D, Avigliano L, Maccarrone M, Catani MV. Downstream effects of endocannabinoid on blood cells: implications for health and disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:3235-52. [PMID: 25957591 PMCID: PMC11113859 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1924-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids (eCBs), among which N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are the most biologically active members, are polyunsaturated lipids able to bind cannabinoid, vanilloid and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Depending on the target engaged, these bioactive mediators can regulate different signalling pathways, at both central and peripheral levels. The biological action of eCBs is tightly controlled by a plethora of metabolic enzymes which, together with the molecular targets of these substances, form the so-called "endocannabinoid system". The ability of eCBs to control manifold peripheral functions has received a great deal of attention, especially in the light of their widespread distribution in the body. In particular, eCBs are important regulators in blood, where they modulate haematopoiesis, platelet aggregation and apoptosis, as well as chemokine release and migration of immunocompetent cells. Here, we shall review the current knowledge on the pathophysiological roles of eCBs in blood. We shall also discuss the involvement of eCBs in those disorders affecting the haematological system, including cancer and inflammation. Knowledge gained to date underlines a fundamental role of the eCB system in blood, thus suggesting that it may represent a therapeutic promise for a broad range of diseases involving impaired hematopoietic cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Gasperi
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Evangelista
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Isabella Savini
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Luciana Avigliano
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- Center of Integrated Research, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Valeria Catani
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
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17
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Turcotte C, Chouinard F, Lefebvre JS, Flamand N. Regulation of inflammation by cannabinoids, the endocannabinoids 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol and arachidonoyl-ethanolamide, and their metabolites. J Leukoc Biol 2015; 97:1049-70. [PMID: 25877930 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3ru0115-021r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
2-Arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and arachidonyl-ethanolamide (AEA) are endocannabinoids that have been implicated in many physiologic disorders, including obesity, metabolic syndromes, hepatic diseases, pain, neurologic disorders, and inflammation. Their immunomodulatory effects are numerous and are not always mediated by cannabinoid receptors, reflecting the presence of an arachidonic acid (AA) molecule in their structure, the latter being the precursor of numerous bioactive lipids that are pro- or anti-inflammatory. 2-AG and AEA can thus serve as a source of AA but can also be metabolized by most eicosanoid biosynthetic enzymes, yielding additional lipids. In this regard, enhancing endocannabinoid levels by using endocannabinoid hydrolysis inhibitors is likely to augment the levels of these lipids that could regulate inflammatory cell functions. This review summarizes the metabolic pathways involved in the biosynthesis and metabolism of AEA and 2-AG, as well as the biologic effects of the 2-AG and AEA lipidomes in the regulation of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Turcotte
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - François Chouinard
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Julie S Lefebvre
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Nicolas Flamand
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec (IUCPQ), Département de Médecine, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
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18
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Soliman E, Henderson KL, Danell AS, Van Dross R. Arachidonoyl-ethanolamide activates endoplasmic reticulum stress-apoptosis in tumorigenic keratinocytes: Role of cyclooxygenase-2 and novel J-series prostamides. Mol Carcinog 2015; 55:117-30. [PMID: 25557612 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancer and other epithelial tumors overexpress cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), differentiating them from normal cells. COX-2 metabolizes arachidonic acid to prostaglandins including, the J-series prostaglandins, which induce apoptosis by mechanisms including endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Arachidonoyl-ethanolamide (AEA) is a cannabinoid that causes apoptosis in diverse tumor types. Previous studies from our group demonstrated that AEA was metabolized by COX-2 to J-series prostaglandins. Thus, the current study examines the role of COX-2, J-series prostaglandins, and ER stress in AEA-induced apoptosis. In tumorigenic keratinocytes that overexpress COX-2, AEA activated the PKR-like ER kinase (PERK), inositol requiring kinase-1 (IRE1), and activating transcription factor-6 (ATF6) ER stress pathways and the ER stress apoptosis-associated proteins, C/EBP homologous protein-10 (CHOP10), caspase-12, and caspase-3. Using an ER stress inhibitor, it was determined that ER stress was required for AEA-induced apoptosis. To evaluate the role of COX-2 in ER stress-apoptosis, HaCaT keratinocytes with low endogenous COX-2 expression were transfected with COX-2 cDNA or an empty vector and AEA-induced ER stress-apoptosis occurred only in the presence of COX-2. Moreover, LC-MS analysis showed that the novel prostaglandins, 15-deoxyΔ(12,14) PGJ2 -EA and Δ(12) PGJ2 /PGJ2-EA, were synthesized from AEA. These findings suggest that AEA will be selectively toxic in tumor cells that overexpress COX-2 due to the metabolism of AEA by COX-2 to J-series prostaglandin-ethanolamides (prostamides). Hence, AEA may be an ideal topical agent for the elimination of malignancies that overexpress COX-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman Soliman
- Brody School of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC
| | - Kate L Henderson
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC
| | - Allison S Danell
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC
| | - Rukiyah Van Dross
- Brody School of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC
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19
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Endocannabinoids and their oxygenation by cyclo-oxygenases, lipoxygenases and other oxygenases. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1851:366-76. [PMID: 25543004 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The naturally occurring mammalian endocannabinoids possess biological attributes that extend beyond interaction with cannabinoid receptors. These extended biological properties are the result of oxidative metabolism of the principal mammalian endocannabinoids arachidonoyl ethanolamide (anandamide; A-EA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Both endocannabinoids are oxidized by cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2), but not by COX-1, to a series of prostaglandin derivatives (PGs) with quite different biological properties from those of the parent substrates. PG ethanolamides (prostamides, PG-EAs) and PG glyceryl esters (PG-Gs) are not only pharmacologically distinct from their parent endocannabinoids, they are distinct from the corresponding acidic PGs, and are differentiated from each other. Ethanolamides and glyceryl esters of the major prostanoids PGD2, PGE2, PGF2α, and PGI2 are formed by the various PG synthases, and thromboxane ethanolamides and glyceryl esters are not similarly produced. COX-2 is also of interest by virtue of its corollary central role in modulating endocannabinoid tone, providing a new therapeutic approach for treating pain and anxiety. Other major oxidative conversion pathways are provided for both A-EA and 2-AG by several lipoxygenases (LOXs), resulting in the formation of numerous hydroxyl metabolites. These do not necessarily represent inactivation pathways for endocannabinoids but may mimic or modulate the endocannabinoids or even display alternative pharmacology. Similarly, A-EA and 2-AG may be oxidized by P450 enzymes. Again a very diverse number of metabolites are formed, with either cannabinoid-like biological properties or an introduction of disparate pharmacology. The biological activity of epoxy and hydroxyl derivatives of the endocannabinoids remains to be fully elucidated. This review attempts to consolidate and compare the findings obtained to date in an increasingly important research area. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Oxygenated metabolism of PUFA: analysis and biological relevance".
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Alhouayek M, Muccioli GG. COX-2-derived endocannabinoid metabolites as novel inflammatory mediators. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:284-92. [PMID: 24684963 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2014.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an enzyme that plays a key role in inflammatory processes. Classically, this enzyme is upregulated in inflammatory situations and is responsible for the generation of prostaglandins (PGs) from arachidonic acid (AA). One lesser-known property of COX-2 is its ability to metabolize the endocannabinoids, N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Endocannabinoid metabolism by COX-2 is not merely a means to terminate their actions. On the contrary, it generates PG analogs, namely PG-glycerol esters (PG-G) for 2-AG and PG-ethanolamides (PG-EA or prostamides) for AEA. Although the formation of these COX-2-derived metabolites of the endocannabinoids has been known for a while, their biological effects remain to be fully elucidated. Recently, several studies have focused on the role of these PG-G or PG-EA in vivo. In this review we take a closer look at the literature concerning these novel bioactive lipids and their role in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireille Alhouayek
- Bioanalysis and Pharmacology of Bioactive Lipids Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Emmanuel Mounier 72 (B1.72.01), 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Giulio G Muccioli
- Bioanalysis and Pharmacology of Bioactive Lipids Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Emmanuel Mounier 72 (B1.72.01), 1200 Bruxelles, Belgium.
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21
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Keereetaweep J, Blancaflor EB, Hornung E, Feussner I, Chapman KD. Ethanolamide oxylipins of linolenic acid can negatively regulate Arabidopsis seedling development. THE PLANT CELL 2013; 25:3824-40. [PMID: 24151297 PMCID: PMC3877782 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.119024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 09/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs) are fatty-acid derivatives with potent biological activities in a wide range of eukaryotic organisms. Polyunsaturated NAEs are among the most abundant NAE types in seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana, and they can be metabolized by either fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) or by lipoxygenase (LOX) to low levels during seedling establishment. Here, we identify and quantify endogenous oxylipin metabolites of N-linolenoylethanolamine (NAE 18:3) in Arabidopsis seedlings and show that their levels were higher in faah knockout seedlings. Quantification of oxylipin metabolites in lox mutants demonstrated altered partitioning of NAE 18:3 into 9- or 13-LOX pathways, and this was especially exaggerated when exogenous NAE was added to seedlings. When maintained at micromolar concentrations, NAE 18:3 specifically induced cotyledon bleaching of light-grown seedlings within a restricted stage of development. Comprehensive oxylipin profiling together with genetic and pharmacological interference with LOX activity suggested that both 9-hydroxy and 13-hydroxy linolenoylethanolamides, but not corresponding free fatty-acid metabolites, contributed to the reversible disruption of thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts of seedling cotyledons. We suggest that NAE oxylipins of linolenic acid represent a newly identified, endogenous set of bioactive compounds that may act in opposition to progression of normal seedling development and must be depleted for successful establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jantana Keereetaweep
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Center for Plant Lipid Research, Denton, Texas 76203
| | - Elison B. Blancaflor
- Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Plant Biology Division, Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401
| | - Ellen Hornung
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Georg-August-University, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, D-37077 Gottingen, Germany
| | - Ivo Feussner
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Georg-August-University, Albrecht-von-Haller-Institute for Plant Sciences, D-37077 Gottingen, Germany
| | - Kent D. Chapman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Center for Plant Lipid Research, Denton, Texas 76203
- Address correspondence to
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Chan HW, McKirdy NC, Peiris HN, Rice GE, Mitchell MD. The role of endocannabinoids in pregnancy. Reproduction 2013; 146:R101-9. [PMID: 23744614 DOI: 10.1530/rep-12-0508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids are a family of lipid signalling molecules. As with prostaglandins (PGs), endocannabinoids are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids and affect cell function via receptor-mediated mechanisms. They also bind to PG receptors, although at a lower affinity. The endocannabinoid network is regulated in pregnancy from embryo development to labour onset. Even small changes in endocannabinoid exposure can retard embryo development and affect implantation success. There is now compelling evidence that aberrant expression of factors involved in the endocannabinoid pathway in the placenta and circulating lymphocytes results in spontaneous miscarriage and poor pregnancy outcomes. It is likely that competition between endocannabinoids, PGs and other similar lipids ultimately determines how phospholipid/fatty acid substrates are metabolised and, thus, the balance between the uterotonic and tocolytic activities. We, therefore, hypothesise that endocannabinoid profiles may be used as a biomarker to predict and/or identify spontaneous labour onset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiu-Wen Chan
- Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Campus, University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Building 71/918, Herston, Queensland 4029, Australia
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Starowicz K, Makuch W, Korostynski M, Malek N, Slezak M, Zychowska M, Petrosino S, De Petrocellis L, Cristino L, Przewlocka B, Di Marzo V. Full inhibition of spinal FAAH leads to TRPV1-mediated analgesic effects in neuropathic rats and possible lipoxygenase-mediated remodeling of anandamide metabolism. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60040. [PMID: 23573230 PMCID: PMC3616060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain elevates spinal anandamide (AEA) levels in a way further increased when URB597, an inhibitor of AEA hydrolysis by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), is injected intrathecally. Spinal AEA reduces neuropathic pain by acting at both cannabinoid CB1 receptors and transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) channels. Yet, intrathecal URB597 is only partially effective at counteracting neuropathic pain. We investigated the effect of high doses of intrathecal URB597 on allodynia and hyperalgesia in rats with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Among those tested, the 200 µg/rat dose of URB597 was the only one that elevated the levels of the FAAH non-endocannabinoid and anti-inflammatory substrates, oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), and of the endocannabinoid FAAH substrate, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, and fully inhibited thermal and tactile nociception, although in a manner blocked almost uniquely by TRPV1 antagonism. Surprisingly, this dose of URB597 decreased spinal AEA levels. RT-qPCR and western blot analyses demonstrated altered spinal expression of lipoxygenases (LOX), and baicalein, an inhibitor of 12/15-LOX, significantly reduced URB597 analgesic effects, suggesting the occurrence of alternative pathways of AEA metabolism. Using immunofluorescence techniques, FAAH, 15-LOX and TRPV1 were found to co-localize in dorsal spinal horn neurons of CCI rats. Finally, 15-hydroxy-AEA, a 15-LOX derivative of AEA, potently and efficaciously activated the rat recombinant TRPV1 channel. We suggest that intrathecally injected URB597 at full analgesic efficacy unmasks a secondary route of AEA metabolism via 15-LOX with possible formation of 15-hydroxy-AEA, which, together with OEA and PEA, may contribute at producing TRPV1-mediated analgesia in CCI rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Starowicz
- Dept. of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Dept. of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Michal Korostynski
- Dept. of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Natalia Malek
- Dept. of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Michal Slezak
- Dept. of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Zychowska
- Dept. of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Stefania Petrosino
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, CNR, Pozzuoli (Naples), Italy
| | | | - Luigia Cristino
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Cibernetica, CNR, Pozzuoli (Naples), Italy
| | - Barbara Przewlocka
- Dept. of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smetna, Krakow, Poland
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, CNR, Pozzuoli (Naples), Italy
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Ayakannu T, Taylor AH, Marczylo TH, Willets JM, Konje JC. The endocannabinoid system and sex steroid hormone-dependent cancers. Int J Endocrinol 2013; 2013:259676. [PMID: 24369462 PMCID: PMC3863507 DOI: 10.1155/2013/259676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The "endocannabinoid system (ECS)" comprises the endocannabinoids, the enzymes that regulate their synthesis and degradation, the prototypical cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), some noncannabinoid receptors, and an, as yet, uncharacterised transport system. Recent evidence suggests that both cannabinoid receptors are present in sex steroid hormone-dependent cancer tissues and potentially play an important role in those malignancies. Sex steroid hormones regulate the endocannabinoid system and the endocannabinoids prevent tumour development through putative protective mechanisms that prevent cell growth and migration, suggesting an important role for endocannabinoids in the regulation of sex hormone-dependent tumours and metastasis. Here, the role of the endocannabinoid system in sex steroid hormone-dependent cancers is described and the potential for novel therapies assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thangesweran Ayakannu
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, P.O. Box 65, Leicester, Leicestershire LE2 7LX, UK
| | - Anthony H. Taylor
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, P.O. Box 65, Leicester, Leicestershire LE2 7LX, UK
- *Anthony H. Taylor:
| | - Timothy H. Marczylo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, P.O. Box 65, Leicester, Leicestershire LE2 7LX, UK
| | - Jonathon M. Willets
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, P.O. Box 65, Leicester, Leicestershire LE2 7LX, UK
| | - Justin C. Konje
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Reproductive Sciences Section, Department of Cancer Studies and Molecular Medicine, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, P.O. Box 65, Leicester, Leicestershire LE2 7LX, UK
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Anti-inflammatory lipoxin A4 is an endogenous allosteric enhancer of CB1 cannabinoid receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:21134-9. [PMID: 23150578 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1202906109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Allosteric modulation of G-protein-coupled receptors represents a key goal of current pharmacology. In particular, endogenous allosteric modulators might represent important targets of interventions aimed at maximizing therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects of drugs. Here we show that the anti-inflammatory lipid lipoxin A(4) is an endogenous allosteric enhancer of the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor. Lipoxin A(4) was detected in brain tissues, did not compete for the orthosteric binding site of the CB(1) receptor (vs. (3)H-SR141716A), and did not alter endocannabinoid metabolism (as opposed to URB597 and MAFP), but it enhanced affinity of anandamide at the CB1 receptor, thereby potentiating the effects of this endocannabinoid both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, lipoxin A(4) displayed a CB(1) receptor-dependent protective effect against β-amyloid (1-40)-induced spatial memory impairment in mice. The discovery of lipoxins as a class of endogenous allosteric modulators of CB(1) receptors may foster the therapeutic exploitation of the endocannabinoid system, in particular for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Metabolism of anandamide into eoxamides by 15-lipoxygenase-1 and glutathione transferases. Lipids 2012; 47:781-91. [PMID: 22684912 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-012-3684-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Human 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LO-1) can metabolize arachidonic acid (ARA) into pro-inflammatory mediators such as the eoxins, 15-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HPETE), and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine. We have in this study investigated the formation of various lipid hydroperoxide by either purified 15-LO-1 or in the Hodgkin lymphoma cell line L1236, which contain abundant amount of 15-LO-1. Both purified 15-LO-1 and L1236 cells produced lipid hydroperoxides more efficiently when anandamide (AEA) or 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol ester was used as substrate than with ARA. Furthermore, L1236 cells converted AEA to a novel class of cysteinyl-containing metabolites. Based on RP-HPLC, mass spectrometry and comparison to synthetic products, these metabolites were identified as the ethanolamide of the eoxin (EX) C(4) and EXD(4). By using the epoxide EXA(4)-ethanol amide, it was also found that platelets have the capacity to produce the ethanolamide of EXC(4) and EXD(4). We suggest that the ethanolamides of the eoxins should be referred to as eoxamides, in analogy to the ethanolamides of prostaglandins which are named prostamides. The metabolism of AEA into eoxamides might engender molecules with novel biological effects. Alternatively, it might represent a new mechanism for the termination of AEA signalling.
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Piscitelli F, Di Marzo V. "Redundancy" of endocannabinoid inactivation: new challenges and opportunities for pain control. ACS Chem Neurosci 2012; 3:356-63. [PMID: 22860203 DOI: 10.1021/cn300015x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Redundancy of metabolic pathways and molecular targets is a typical feature of all lipid mediators, and endocannabinoids, which were originally defined as endogenous agonists at cannabinoid CB(1) and CB(2) receptors, are no exception. In particular, the two most studied endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, are inactivated through alternative biochemical routes, including hydrolysis and oxidation, and more than one enzyme might be used even for the same type of inactivating reaction. These enzymes also recognize as substrates other concurrent lipid mediators, whereas, in turn, endocannabinoids might interact with noncannabinoid receptors with subcellular distribution and ultimate biological actions either similar to or completely different from those of cannabinoid receptors. Even splicing variants of endocannabinoid hydrolyzing enzymes, such as FAAH-1, might play distinct roles in endocannabinoid inactivation. Finally, the products of endocannabinoid catabolism may have their own targets, with biological roles different from those of cannabinoid receptors. These peculiarities of endocannabinoid signaling have complicated the use of inhibitors of its inactivation mechanisms as a safer and more efficacious alternative to the direct targeting of cannabinoid receptors for the treatment of several pathological conditions, including pain. However, new strategies, including the rediscovery of "dirty drugs", and the use of certain natural products (including non-THC cannabis constituents), are emerging that might allow us to make a virtue of necessity and exploit endocannabinoid redundancy to develop new analgesics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Piscitelli
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
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28
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Dainese E, Sabatucci A, Angelucci CB, Barsacchi D, Chiarini M, Maccarrone M. Impact of embedded endocannabinoids and their oxygenation by lipoxygenase on membrane properties. ACS Chem Neurosci 2012; 3:386-92. [PMID: 22860207 PMCID: PMC3386857 DOI: 10.1021/cn300016c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are the best characterized endocannabinoids. Their biological activity is subjected to metabolic control whereby a dynamic equilibrium among biosynthetic, catabolic, and oxidative pathways drives their intracellular concentrations. In particular, lipoxygenases can generate hydroperoxy derivatives of endocannabinoids, endowed with distinct activities within cells. The in vivo interaction between lipoxygenases and endocannabinoids is likely to occur within cell membranes; thus, we sought to ascertain whether a prototypical enzyme like soybean (Glycine max) 15-lipoxygenase-1 is able to oxygenate endocannabinoids embedded in synthetic vesicles and how these substances could affect the binding ability of the enzyme to different lipid bilayers. We show that (i) embedded endocannabinoids increase membrane fluidity; (ii) 15-lipoxygenase-1 preferentially binds to endocannabinoid-containing bilayers; and that (iii) 15-lipoxygenase-1 oxidizes embedded endocannabinoids and thus reduces fluidity and local hydration of membrane lipids. Together, the present findings reveal further complexity in the regulation of endocannabinoid signaling within the central nervous system, disclosing novel control by oxidative pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Dainese
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
- European Center
for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome,
Italy
| | | | | | - Daniela Barsacchi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Marco Chiarini
- Department of Food
Science, University of Teramo, Teramo,
Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
- European Center
for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome,
Italy
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Abstract
The study of endocannabinoid pharmacology has proceeded from the discovery of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive compound in Cannabis sativa, to the identification of an endogenous endocannabinoid system that is essential for physiological modulation of neuronal functions. We have not yet achieved a complete understanding of the various roles of the endocannabinoids, but this is one of the fastest-growing fields in psychopharmacology. This review starts with a brief historical description of the discovery of the endocannabinoids and then focuses on recent pharmacological advances and recently discovered endocannabinoid mechanisms of action (e.g. functional selectivity, allosterism, and receptor trafficking). Finally, we will discuss the contention that the existence of evidence-based therapeutic applications for cannabinoids and the wide range of physiological functions affected by endocannabinoids suggests that the careful study of the endocannabinoid system may lead to the development of novel therapeutic drugs with higher societal acceptability and lower side effects profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- F A Pamplona
- Laboratory of Psychopharmacology, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Florianópolis, Brazil.
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Rouzer CA, Marnett LJ. Endocannabinoid oxygenation by cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and cytochromes P450: cross-talk between the eicosanoid and endocannabinoid signaling pathways. Chem Rev 2011; 111:5899-921. [PMID: 21923193 PMCID: PMC3191732 DOI: 10.1021/cr2002799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Rouzer
- A.B. Hancock Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt Ingram Comprehensive Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, USA
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Chouinard F, Lefebvre JS, Navarro P, Bouchard L, Ferland C, Lalancette-Hébert M, Marsolais D, Laviolette M, Flamand N. The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol activates human neutrophils: critical role of its hydrolysis and de novo leukotriene B4 biosynthesis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:3188-96. [PMID: 21278347 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Although endocannabinoids are important players in nociception and obesity, their roles as immunomodulators remain elusive. The main endocannabinoids described to date, namely 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and arachidonyl-ethanolamide (AEA), induce an intriguing profile of pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. This could relate to cell-specific cannabinoid receptor expression and/or the action of endocannabinoid-derived metabolites. Importantly, 2-AG and AEA comprise a molecule of arachidonic acid (AA) in their structure and are hydrolyzed rapidly. We postulated the following: 1) the released AA from endocannabinoid hydrolysis would be metabolized into eicosanoids; and 2) these eicosanoids would mediate some of the effects of endocannabinoids. To confirm these hypotheses, experiments were performed in which freshly isolated human neutrophils were treated with endocannabinoids. Unlike AEA, 2-AG stimulated myeloperoxidase release, kinase activation, and calcium mobilization by neutrophils. Although 2-AG did not induce the migration of neutrophils, it induced the release of a migrating activity for neutrophils. 2-AG also rapidly (1 min) induced a robust biosynthesis of leukotrienes, similar to that observed with AA. The effects of 2-AG were not mimicked nor prevented by cannabinoid receptor agonists or antagonists, respectively. Finally, the blockade of either 2-AG hydrolysis, leukotriene (LT) B(4) biosynthesis, or LTB(4) receptor 1 activation prevented all the effects of 2-AG on neutrophil functions. In conclusion, we demonstrated that 2-AG potently activates human neutrophils. This is the consequence of 2-AG hydrolysis, de novo LTB(4) biosynthesis, and an autocrine activation loop involving LTB(4) receptor 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Chouinard
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec G1V 4G5, Canada
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32
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Staniaszek LE, Norris LM, Kendall DA, Barrett DA, Chapman V. Effects of COX-2 inhibition on spinal nociception: the role of endocannabinoids. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:669-76. [PMID: 20590570 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00703.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Recent studies suggest that the effects of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition are mediated by cannabinoid receptor activation. However, some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase, which regulates levels of some endocannabinoids. Whether COX-2 directly regulates levels of endocannabinoids in vivo is unclear. Here, the effect of the COX-2 inhibitor nimesulide, which does not inhibit fatty acid amide hydrolase, on spinal nociceptive processing was determined. Effects of nimesulide on tissue levels of endocannabinoids and related compounds were measured and the role of cannabinoid 1 (CB(1)) receptors was determined. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Effects of spinal and peripheral administration of nimesulide (1-100 microg per 50 microL) on mechanically evoked responses of rat dorsal horn neurones were measured, and the contribution of the CB(1) receptor was determined with the antagonist AM251 (N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(-4-iodophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide), in anaesthetized rats. Effects of nimesulide on spinal levels of endocannabinoids and related compounds were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. KEY RESULTS Spinal, but not peripheral, injection of nimesulide (1-100 microg per 50 microL) significantly reduced mechanically evoked responses of dorsal horn neurones. Inhibitory effects of spinal nimesulide were blocked by the CB(1) receptor antagonist AM251 (1 microg per 50 microL), but spinal levels of endocannabinoids were not elevated. Indeed, both anandamide and N-oleoylethanolamide (OEA) were significantly decreased by nimesulide. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Although the inhibitory effects of COX-2 blockade on spinal neuronal responses by nimesulide were dependent on CB(1) receptors, we did not detect a concomitant elevation in anandamide or 2-AG. Further understanding of the complexities of endocannabinoid catabolism by multiple enzymes is essential to understand their contribution to COX-2-mediated analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Staniaszek
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK.
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Vaughn LK, Denning G, Stuhr KL, de Wit H, Hill MN, Hillard CJ. Endocannabinoid signalling: has it got rhythm? Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:530-43. [PMID: 20590563 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00790.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous cannabinoid signalling is widespread throughout the body, and considerable evidence supports its modulatory role in many fundamental physiological processes. The daily and seasonal cycles of the relationship of the earth and sun profoundly affect the terrestrial environment. Terrestrial species have adapted to these cycles in many ways, most well studied are circadian rhythms and hibernation. The purpose of this review was to examine literature support for three hypotheses: (i) endocannabinoid signalling exhibits brain region-specific circadian rhythms; (ii) endocannabinoid signalling modulates the rhythm of circadian processes in mammals; and (iii) changes in endocannabinoid signalling contribute to the state of hibernation. The results of two novel studies are presented. First, we report the results of a study of healthy humans demonstrating that plasma concentrations of the endocannabinoid, N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide), exhibit a circadian rhythm. Concentrations of anandamide are threefold higher at wakening than immediately before sleep, a relationship that is dysregulated by sleep deprivation. Second, we investigated differences in endocannabinoids and congeners in plasma from Marmota monax obtained in the summer and during the torpor state of hibernation. We report that 2-arachidonoylglycerol is below detection in M. monax plasma and that concentrations of anandamide are not different. However, plasma concentrations of the anorexigenic lipid oleoylethanolamide were significantly lower in hibernation, while the concentrations of palmitoylethanolamide and 2-oleoylglycerol were significantly greater in hibernation. We conclude that available data support a bidirectional relationship between endocannabinoid signalling and circadian processes, and investigation of the contribution of endocannabinoid signalling to the dramatic physiological changes that occur during hibernation is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda K Vaughn
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, USA
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Dahlström M, Forsström D, Johannesson M, Huque-Andersson Y, Björk M, Silfverplatz E, Sanin A, Schaal W, Pelcman B, Forsell PKA. Development of a fluorescent intensity assay amenable for high-throughput screening for determining 15-lipoxygenase activity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 15:671-9. [PMID: 20581078 DOI: 10.1177/1087057110373383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
15-Lipoxygenase-1 catalyzes the introduction of molecular oxygen into polyunsaturated fatty acids to form a lipid hydroperoxide. The authors have developed an assay for the detection of lipid hydroperoxides formed by human 15-lipoxygenase (15-LO) in enzyme or cellular assays using either a 96-well or a 384-well format. The assays described take advantage of the ability of lipid hydroperoxides to oxidize nonfluorescent diphenyl-1-pyrenylphosphine (DPPP) to a fluorescent phosphine oxide. Oxidation of DPPP yields a fluorescent compound, which is not sensitive to temperature and is stable for more than 2 h. The assay is sensitive toward inhibition and robust with a Z' value of 0.79 and 0.4 in a 96- and 384-well format, respectively, and thus amenable for high-throughput screening. The utility of DPPP as a marker for 15-lipoxygenase activity was demonstrated with both enzyme- and cell-based assays for the identification of hits and to determine potency by IC(50) determinations.
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Methylation and acetylation of 15-hydroxyanandamide modulate its interaction with the endocannabinoid system. Biochimie 2010; 92:378-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Yates ML, Barker EL. Inactivation and Biotransformation of the Endogenous Cannabinoids Anandamide and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol. Mol Pharmacol 2009; 76:11-7. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.109.055251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Abstract
Endocannabinoids, such as anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, are synthesized from membrane phospholipids in the heart and other cardiovascular tissues. They activate cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, transient receptor potential V1 (TRPV1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, and perhaps a novel vascular G-protein-coupled receptor. Inactivation is by cellular uptake and fatty acid amide hydrolase. Endocannabinoids relax coronary and other arteries and decrease cardiac work but seem not to be involved in tonic regulation of cardiovascular function. They act as a stress response system, which is activated, for example, in myocardial infarction and circulatory shock. Endocannabinoids are largely protective; they decrease tissue damage and arrhythmia in myocardial infarction and may reduce progression of atherosclerosis (CB2 receptor stimulation inhibits lesion progression), and fatty acid amide hydrolase knockout mice (which have enhanced endocannabinoid levels) show decreased cardiac dysfunction with age compared with wild types. However, endocannabinoids may mediate doxorubicin-induced cardiac dysfunction. Their signaling pathways are not fully elucidated but they can lead to changed expression of a variety of genes, including those involved in inflammatory responses. There is potential for therapeutic targeting of endocannabinoids and their receptors, but their apparent involvement in both protective and deleterious actions on the heart means that careful risk assessment is needed before any treatment can be introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Robin Hiley
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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De Petrocellis L, Di Marzo V. An introduction to the endocannabinoid system: from the early to the latest concepts. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 23:1-15. [PMID: 19285257 DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2008.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A rather complex and pleiotropic endogenous signalling system was discovered in the late 1990s, starting from studies on the mechanism of action of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, the major psychoactive principle of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. This system includes: (1) at least two G-protein-coupled receptors, known as the cannabinoid CB(1) and CB(2) receptors; (2) the endogenous agonists at these receptors, known as endocannabinoids, of which anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol are the best known; and (3) proteins and enzymes for the regulation of endocannabinoid levels and action at receptors. The number of the members of this endocannabinoid signalling system seems to be ever increasing as new non-CB(1) non-CB(2) receptors for endocannabinoids, endocannabinoid-related molecules with little activity at CB(1) and CB(2) receptors, and new enzymes for endocannabinoid biosynthesis and degradation are being identified every year. The complexity of the endocannabinoid system and of its physiological and pathological function is outlined in this introductory chapter, for a better understanding of the subsequent chapters in this special issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano De Petrocellis
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry and Institute of Cybernetics, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Campi Flegrei 34, Comprensorio Olivetti, 80078 Pozzuoli, Naples, Italy
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Alexander SPH, Kendall DA. The life cycle of the endocannabinoids: formation and inactivation. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2009; 1:3-35. [PMID: 21104378 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-88955-7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we summarise the current thinking about the nature of endocannabinoids. In describing the life cycle of these agents, we highlight the synthetic and catabolic enzymes suggested to be involved. For each of these, we provide a systematic analysis of information on sequence, subcellular and cellular distribution, as well as physiological and pharmacological substrates, enhancers and inhibitors, together with brief descriptions of the impact of manipulating enzyme levels through genetic mechanisms (dealt with in more detail in the chapter "Genetic Models of the Endocannabinoid System" by Monory and Lutz, this volume). In addition, we describe experiments investigating the stimulation of endocannabinoid synthesis and release in intact cell systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P H Alexander
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK.
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41
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Aneetha H, O'Dell DK, Tan B, Walker JM, Hurley TD. Alcohol dehydrogenase-catalyzed in vitro oxidation of anandamide to N-arachidonoyl glycine, a lipid mediator: synthesis of N-acyl glycinals. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2008; 19:237-41. [PMID: 19013794 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.10.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2008] [Revised: 10/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/20/2008] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
N-Arachidonoyl ethanolamide or anandamide is an endocannabinoid found in most tissues where it acts as an important signaling mediator in a number of physiological and pathophysiological processes. Consequently, intense effort has been focused on understanding all its biosynthetic and metabolic pathways. Herein we report human alcohol dehydrogenase-catalyzed sequential oxidation of anandamide to N-arachidonoyl glycine, a prototypical member of the class of long chain fatty acyl glycines, a new group of lipid mediators with a wide array of physiological effects. We also present a straightforward synthesis for a series of N-acyl glycinals including N-arachidonoyl glycinal, an intermediate in the alcohol dehydrogenase-catalyzed oxidation of anandamide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halikhedkar Aneetha
- The Gill Center for Biomolecular Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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42
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Cannabinoid receptor-independent cytotoxic effects of cannabinoids in human colorectal carcinoma cells: synergism with 5-fluorouracil. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2008; 63:691-701. [PMID: 18629502 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-008-0788-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 06/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids (CBs) have been found to exert antiproliferative effects upon a variety of cancer cells, including colorectal carcinoma cells. However, little is known about the signalling mechanisms behind the antitumoural effect in these cells, whether the effects are shared by endogenous lipids related to endocannabinoids, or whether such effects are synergistic with treatment paradigms currently used in the clinic. The aim of this preclinical study was to investigate the effect of synthetic and endogenous CBs and their related fatty acids on the viability of human colorectal carcinoma Caco-2 cells, and to determine whether CB effects are synergistic with those seen with the pyrimidine antagonist 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The synthetic CB HU 210, the endogenous CB anandamide, the endogenous structural analogue of anandamide, N-arachidonoyl glycine (NAGly), as well as the related polyunsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid showed antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects in the Caco-2 cells, as measured by using [(3)H]-thymidine incorporation assay, the CyQUANT proliferation assay and calcein-AM fluorescence. HU 210 was the most potent compound examined, followed by anandamide, whereas NAGly showed equal potency and efficacy as the polyunsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, HU 210 and 5-FU produced synergistic effects in the Caco-2 cells, but not in the human colorectal carcinoma cell lines HCT116 or HT29. The compounds examined produced cytotoxic, rather than antiproliferative effects, by a mechanism not involving CB receptors, since the CB receptor antagonists AM251 and AM630 did not attenuate the effects, nor did pertussis toxin. However, alpha-tocopherol and the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME attenuated the CB toxicity, suggesting involvement of oxidative stress. It is concluded that the CB system may provide new targets for the development of drugs to treat colorectal cancer.
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43
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Turman MV, Kingsley PJ, Rouzer CA, Cravatt BF, Marnett LJ. Oxidative metabolism of a fatty acid amide hydrolase-regulated lipid, arachidonoyltaurine. Biochemistry 2008; 47:3917-25. [PMID: 18311922 DOI: 10.1021/bi702530z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A novel class of lipids, N-acyltaurines, was recently discovered in fatty acid amide hydrolase knockout mice. In some peripheral tissues, such as liver and kidney, N-acyltaurines with long, polyunsaturated acyl chains are most prevalent. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are converted to a variety of signaling molecules by cyclooxygenases (COXs) and lipoxygenases (LOXs). The ability of COXs and LOXs to oxygenate arachidonoyltaurine was evaluated to gain insight into the potential metabolic fate of N-acyltaurines. Although arachidonoyltaurine was a poor substrate for COXs, mammalian 12 S- and 15 S-LOXs oxygenated arachidonoyltaurine with similar or better efficiency than arachidonic acid. Products of arachidonoyltaurine oxygenation were characterized by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The positional specificity of single oxygenation was retained for 15 S-LOXs. However, platelet-type 12 S-LOX produced 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoyltaurines (HETE-Ts). Furthermore, LOXs generated dihydroxyeicosatetraenoyltaurines (diHETE-Ts). Metabolism of arachidonoyltaurine by murine resident peritoneal macrophages (RPMs) was also profiled. Arachidonoyltaurine was rapidly taken up and converted primarily to 12-HETE-T. Over prolonged incubations, RPMs also generated small amounts of diHETE-T. Oxidative metabolism of polyunsaturated N-acyltaurines may represent a pathway for the generation or termination of novel signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa V Turman
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, USA
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44
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Alexander SPH, Kendall DA. The complications of promiscuity: endocannabinoid action and metabolism. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 152:602-23. [PMID: 17876303 PMCID: PMC2190010 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 08/16/2007] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In this review, we present our understanding of the action and metabolism of endocannabinoids and related endogenous molecules. It is clear that the interactions between the multiple endocannabinoid-like molecules (ECLs) are highly complex, both at the level of signal transduction and metabolism. Thus, ECLs are a group of ligands active at 7-transmembrane and nuclear receptors, as well as transmitter-gated and ion channels. ECLs and their metabolites can converge on common endpoints (either metabolic or signalling) through contradictory or reinforcing pathways. We highlight the complexity of the endocannabinoid system, based on the promiscuous nature of ECLs and their metabolites, as well as the synthetic modulators of the endocannabinoid system.
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Affiliation(s)
- S P H Alexander
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Neuroscience, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham NG7 7LP, UK.
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45
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Fowler CJ. The contribution of cyclooxygenase-2 to endocannabinoid metabolism and action. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 152:594-601. [PMID: 17618306 PMCID: PMC2190012 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of sensitive analytical methods for measurement of endocannabinoids, their metabolites, and related lipids, has underlined the complexity of the endocannabinoid system. A case can be made for an 'endocannabinoid soup' (akin to the inflammatory soup) whereby the net effect of a pathological state and/or a pharmacological intervention on this system is the result not only of changes in endocannabinoid levels but also of their metabolites and related compounds that affect their function. With respect to the metabolism of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, the main hydrolytic enzymes involved are fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase. However, other pathways can come into play when these are blocked. Cyclooxygenase-2 derived metabolites of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol have a number of properties, including effects upon cell viability, contraction of the cat iris sphincter (an effect mediated by a novel receptor), mobilization of calcium and modulation of synaptic transmission. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, whose primary mode of action is the inhibition of cyclooxygenase, can also interact with the endocannabinoid system both in vitro and in vivo. Other enzymes, such as the lipoxygenase and cytochrome P450 oxidative enzymes, can also metabolize endocannabinoids and produce biologically active compounds. It is concluded that sensitive analytical methods, which allow for measurement of endocannabinoids and related lipids, should provide vital information as to the importance of these alternative metabolic pathways when the primary hydrolytic endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes are inhibited.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Fowler
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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Abstract
Endocannabinoids are blood borne and may also be secreted by the endothelium. Accordingly, there has been interest in the interactions between (endo)cannabinoids and blood cells. There is certainly evidence that (endo)cannabinoids may promote platelet activation, indicating that they may be thrombogenic. Platelets are involved both in the metabolism and release of endocannabinoids, and so it is possible that their circulating levels may be regulated by platelets. This process is altered in disease states such that platelet-derived endocannabinoids contribute towards hypotension in cardiovascular shock. Not only may endocannabinoids regulate platelet function and possibly lead to thrombogenesis, but they may also influence haematopoiesis. Given these emerging roles, the aim of this review is to examine the interactions between cannabinoids and blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Randall
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Nottingham, UK.
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Prusakiewicz JJ, Turman MV, Vila A, Ball HL, Al-Mestarihi AH, Di Marzo V, Marnett LJ. Oxidative metabolism of lipoamino acids and vanilloids by lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2007; 464:260-8. [PMID: 17493578 PMCID: PMC2774498 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2007.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2007] [Revised: 03/28/2007] [Accepted: 04/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The lipoamino acids and endovanilloids have multiple roles in nociception, pain, and inflammation, yet their biological reactivity has not been fully characterized. Cyclooxygenases (COXs) and lipoxygenases (LOs) oxygenate polyunsaturated fatty acids to generate signaling molecules. The ability of COXs and LOs to oxygenate arachidonyl-derived lipoamino acids and vanilloids was investigated. COX-1 and COX-2 were able to minimally metabolize many of these species. However, the lipoamino acids were efficiently oxygenated by 12S- and 15S-LOs. The kinetics and products of oxygenation by LOs were characterized. Whereas 15S-LOs retained positional specificity of oxygenation with these novel substrates, platelet-type 12S-LO acted as a 12/15-LO. Fatty acid oxygenases may play an important role in the metabolic inactivation of lipoamino acids or vanilloids or may convert them to bioactive derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery J. Prusakiewicz
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
| | - Melissa V. Turman
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
| | - Andrew Vila
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
| | - Heather L. Ball
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
| | - Ahmad H. Al-Mestarihi
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli (NA) Italy 80078
| | - Lawrence J. Marnett
- A. B. Hancock, Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, and Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232 USA
- Corresponding Author Lawrence J. Marnett, Ph.D. Department of Biochemistry Vanderbilt University School of Medicine Nashville, TN 37237-0146 Telephone (615)-343-7329 Fax (615)-343-7534
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Snider NT, Kornilov AM, Kent UM, Hollenberg PF. Anandamide Metabolism by Human Liver and Kidney Microsomal Cytochrome P450 Enzymes to Form Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic and Epoxyeicosatrienoic Acid Ethanolamides. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 321:590-7. [PMID: 17272674 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.107.119321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid anandamide is an arachidonic acid derivative that is found in most tissues where it acts as an important signaling mediator in neurological, immune, cardiovascular, and other functions. Cytochromes P450 (P450s) are known to oxidize arachidonic acid to the physiologically active molecules hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) and epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), which play important roles in blood pressure regulation and inflammation. To determine whether anandamide can also be oxidized by P450s, its metabolism by human liver and kidney microsomes was investigated. The kidney microsomes metabolized anandamide to a single mono-oxygenated product, which was identified as 20-HETE-ethanolamide (EA). Human liver microsomal incubations with anandamide also produced 20-HETE-EA in addition to 5,6-, 8,9-, 11-12, and 14,15-EET-EA. The EET-EAs produced by the liver microsomal P450s were converted to their corresponding dihydroxy derivatives by microsomal epoxide hydrolase. P450 4F2 was identified as the isoform that is most probably responsible for the formation of 20-HETE-EA in both human kidney and human liver, with an apparent Km of 0.7 microM. The apparent Km values of the human liver microsomes for the formation of the EET-EAs were between 4 and 5 microM, and P450 3A4 was identified as the primary P450 in the liver responsible for epoxidation of anandamide. The in vivo formation and biological relevance of the P450-derived HETE and EET ethanolamides remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha T Snider
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, 2301 MSRB III, 1150 West Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0632, USA
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Adam J, Cowley PM, Kiyoi T, Morrison AJ, Mort CJW. Recent progress in cannabinoid research. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2006; 44:207-329. [PMID: 16697899 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6468(05)44406-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Adam
- Organon Research, Newhouse, Lanarkshire, Scotland, UK
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Sun YX, Tsuboi K, Zhao LY, Okamoto Y, Lambert DM, Ueda N. Involvement of N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase in the degradation of anandamide and other N-acylethanolamines in macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2005; 1736:211-20. [PMID: 16154384 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2005.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2005] [Revised: 08/05/2005] [Accepted: 08/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive N-acylethanolamines including the endocannabinoid anandamide are known to be hydrolyzed to fatty acids and ethanolamine by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). In addition, we recently cloned an isozyme termed "N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA)", which is active only at acidic pH [Tsuboi, Sun, Okamoto, Araki, Tonai, Ueda, J. Biol. Chem. 285 (2005) 11082-11092]. However, physiological roles of NAAA remained unclear. Here, we examined a possible contribution of NAAA to the degradation of various N-acylethanolamines in macrophage cells. NAAA mRNA as well as FAAH mRNA was detected in several macrophage-like cells, including RAW264.7, and mouse peritoneal macrophages. The homogenates of RAW264.7 cells showed both the NAAA and FAAH activities which were confirmed with the aid of their respective specific inhibitors, N-cyclohexanecarbonylpentadecylamine (CCP) and URB597. As analyzed with intact cells, RAW264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages degraded anandamide, N-palmitoylethanolamine, N-oleoylethanolamine, and N-stearoylethanolamine. Pretreatment of the cells with CCP or URB597 partially inhibited the degradation, and a combination of the two compounds caused more profound inhibition. In contrast, the anandamide hydrolysis in mouse brain appeared to be principally attributable to FAAH despite the expression of NAAA in the brain. These results suggested that NAAA and FAAH cooperatively degraded various N-acylethanolamines in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Xin Sun
- Department of Biochemistry, Kagawa University School of Medicine, 1750-1 Ikenobe, Miki, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan
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